(Footnote: Most of the information given in this chapter is scattered in
different parts of the history; but it seems well to condense it into
one chapter for readier reference.)
ROMAN OFFICERS, ETC.
The magistrates of Rome were of two classes; the _Majores_, or higher,
and the _Minores_, or lower. The former, except the Censor, had the
_Imperium_; the latter did not. To the former class belonged the
Consuls, Praetors, and Censors, who were all elected in the Comitia
Centuriata. The magistrates were also divided into two other classes,
viz. Curule and Non-Curule. The Curule offices were those of Dictator,
Magister Equitum, Consul, Praetor, Censor, and Curule Aedile. These
officers had the right to sit in the _sella curulis_, chair of state.
This chair was displayed upon all public occasions, especially in
the circus and theatre; and it was the seat of the Praetor when he
administered justice. In shape it was plain, resembling a common folding
camp-stool, with crooked legs. It was ornamented with ivory, and later
overlaid with gold.
The descendants of any one who had held a curule office were nobles,
and had the right to place in their halls and to carry at funeral
processions a wax mask of this ancestor, as well as of any other
deceased members of the family of curule rank.
A person who first held a curule office, and whose ancestors had never
held one, was called a _novus homo_, i. e. a new man. The most famous
new men were Marius and Cicero.
The magistrates were chosen only from the patricians in the early
republic; but in course of time the plebeians shared these honors. The
plebeian magistrates, properly so called, were the plebeian Aediles and
the Tribuni Plebis.
All the magistrates, except the Censor, were elected for one year; and
all but the Tribunes and Quaestors began their term of office on January
1st. The Tribune's year began December 10th; that of the Quaestor,
December 5th.
The offices, except that of Tribune, formed a gradation, through which
one must pass if he desired the consulship. The earliest age for holding
each was, for the quaestorship, twenty-seven years; for the aedileship,
thirty-seven; for the praetorship, forty; and for the consulship,
forty-three. No magistrate received any salary, and only the wealthy
could afford to hold office.
THE CONSULS.
The two Consuls were the highest magistrates, except when a Dictator was
appointed, and were the chiefs of the administration. Their power was
equal, and they had the right before all others of summoning the Senate
and the Comitia Centuriata, in each of which they presided. "When both
Consuls were in the city, they usually took turns in performing the
official duties, each acting a month; and during this time the Consul
was always accompanied in public by twelve lictors, who preceded him in
single file, each carrying on his shoulders a bundle of rods (_fasces_),
to signify the power of the magistrate to scourge criminals. Outside the
city, these fasces showed an axe projecting from each bundle, signifying
the power of the magistrate to behead criminals."
At the expiration of his year of office, the Consul was sent to govern a
province for one year, and was then called the _Proconsul_. He was chief
in his province in all military, civil, and criminal cases.
PRAETORS.
There were eight Praetors, whose duties were to administer justice
(judges). After the expiration of their year of office, they went,
as _Propraetors_, to govern provinces. The most important Praetor was
called _Praetor Urbanus_. He had charge of all civil suits between Roman
citizens. In the absence of both Consuls from the city, he acted in
their place. Each Praetor was attended by two lictors in the city, and
by six outside. The _Praetor Peregrinus_ had charge of civil cases in
which one or both parties were aliens. The other six Praetors presided
over the permanent criminal courts.
AEDILES.
The Aediles were four officers who had the general superintendence of
the police of the city, and the care of the public games and buildings.
Two of the Aediles were taken from the plebeians, and two, called Curule
Aediles, ranked with the higher magistrates, and might be patricians.
They were elected in the Comitia Tributa. Their supervision of the
public games gave them great opportunities for gaining favor with the
populace, who then, as now, delighted in circuses and contests. A small
sum was appropriated from the public treasury for these games; but
an Aedile usually expended much from his own purse to make the show
magnificent, and thus to gain votes for the next office, that of
Praetor. Only the very wealthy could afford to hold this office.
QUAESTORS.
There were twenty Quaestors. Two were city treasurers at Rome, having
charge also of the archives. The others were assigned to the different
governors of the provinces, and acted as quartermasters. Through their
clerks, the two city Quaestors kept the accounts, received the taxes,
and paid out the city's money, as directed by the Senate. A Quaestor
always accompanied every Imperator (general) in the field as his
quartermaster. The elections for Quaestors were held in the Comitia
Tributa.
TRIBUNI PLEBIS.
There were ten Tribunes, elected in the Comitia Tributa. They were
always plebeians, and their chief power lay in their right to veto any
decree of the Senate, any law of the Comitia, and any public act of
a magistrate. Their persons were considered sacred, and no one could
hinder them in the discharge of their official duties under penalty
of death. They called together the Comitia Tributa, and they also had
authority to convene the Senate and to preside over it. Sulla succeeded
in restricting their power; but Pompey restored it. The Tribunes did not
possess the _imperium_.
CENSORS.
There were two Censors, chosen from Ex-Consuls, and they held office for
eighteen months. They were elected once every five years, this period
being called a _lustrum_. They ranked as higher magistrates without
possessing the _imperium_. Their duties were:
(1) To take the census, i.e. register the citizens and their amount of
property, and to fill all vacancies in the Senate. (2) To have a general
oversight of the finances, like our Secretary of the Treasury; to
contract for the erecting of public buildings, and for the making or
repairing of public roads, sewers, etc.; to let out the privilege of
collecting the taxes, for five years, to the highest bidder.(Footnote:
In the intervals of the censorship, the duties under (2) fell to the
Aediles. ) (3) To punish gross immorality by removal of the guilty
parties from the Senate, the Equites, or the tribe.
DICTATOR.
In cases of great danger the Senate called upon the Consuls to appoint
a Dictator, who should possess supreme power, but whose tenure of
office could never exceed six months. In later times Dictators were
not appointed, but Consuls were invested with the authority if it was
thought necessary. Sulla and Caesar, however, revived the office, but
changed its tenure, the latter holding it for life.
MAGISTER EQUITUM.
This was an officer appointed by the Dictator, to stand next in
authority to him, and act as a sort of Vice-Dictator.
PONTIFICES.
The priests formed a body (_collegium_) of fifteen members, at the head
of whom was the Pontifex Maximus (high priest). Their tenure of office
was for life, and they were responsible to no one in the discharge of
their duties. Their influence was necessarily very great.
IMPERIUM.
This was a power to command the armies, and to exercise judicial
functions conferred upon a magistrate (Dictator, Consul, or Praetor)
by a special law passed by the Comitia Curiata. The _Imperium_ could
be exercised only outside of the city walls (_pomoerium_), except
by special permission of the Senate for the purpose of celebrating a
triumph. The one receiving the _Imperium_ was called IMPERATOR.
POTESTAS.
This was the power, in general, which _all_ magistrates possessed.