After enjoying his triple triumph, Octavius should, according to the
precedents of the Republic, have given up the title of IMPERATOR; but he
allowed the Senate, which was only too glad to flatter him, to give him
that name for ten years,--a period which was repeatedly renewed. In
this way he became permanent commander of the national forces. Next the
Imperator (Emperor) caused himself to be invested with the authority of
Censor. This enabled him to revise the list of Senators, and to restore
to this body something of its ancient respectability. By judicious
pruning he reduced the number to six hundred, and required a property
qualification for membership. He placed himself at its head as PRINCEPS
(prince), a title which implied that the Emperor was the _first_
citizen, without claiming any rights of royalty, thus lulling any
suspicions of the populace.
The Senate still decided the most important questions. It had
jurisdiction in criminal matters, and the right of ratifying new laws.
It was convened three times each month; viz. on the 1st, 5th (or 7th),
and 13th (or 15th). The Emperor voted with the other Senators.
The Senate next conferred upon Octavius the title of AUGUSTUS; then it
made him Proconsul (an officer with the right to govern provinces), and
Consul, with the privilege of having twelve lictors, and of sitting
in the curule chair between the two Consuls. The regular Consuls, of
course, were only too ready to follow his wishes. Finally, he was made
Pontifex Maximus, the head of the Roman religion.
Augustus was now supreme ruler in fact, if not in name. The Senate was
practically subject to his will. The Assemblies gradually lost all
voice in the government, and finally disappeared entirely. The Senate,
however, continued nominally to act until the time of Diocletian (284 A.
D.).
As Augustus had exclusive command of the armies, he chose to govern as
Proconsul those provinces which required military forces. He himself
resided at the capital, and sent deputies (_legati_) to oversee them.
The other provinces, called Senatorial, were governed by Proconsuls
appointed by the Senate. These were at this time Sicily, Africa,
Achaia (Greece), Macedonia, Asia (Minor), Hispania Ulterior, and Gallia
Narbonensis.
The city government now included all Italy. In this Augustus was
assisted by three _Praefects_; one in charge of the corn supplies, a
second in charge of the city proper, and a third in charge of his body
guard of nine thousand men, called the PRAETORIAN GUARD. These Praefects
soon overshadowed all the regular magistrates, and through them Augustus
reigned supreme.
The Roman Empire at this time included all the countries bordering on
the Mediterranean, extending east to the Parthian kingdom (the Upper
Euphrates) and the Arabian Desert, south to the Desert of Sahara, and
west to the Atlantic Ocean. On the north the boundary was unsettled,
and subject to inroads of barbarians. In the early part of his reign
Augustus joined to the Empire a new province, Moesia, comprising the
territory along the Lower Danube, and making nineteen in all.
Augustus next devoted himself to the task of conquering the territory
between the Lower Rhine and Moesia, which was occupied by hardy
mountaineers whose resistance was likely to be stubborn. His two
step-sons, Drusus and Tiberius, were in charge of this important work.
They were so successful as to acquire enough territory to form two new
provinces, Rhaetia and Noricum (15 B.C.).
Tiberius also conquered the valley of the Save, and made it the province
of Pannonia (Western Hungary), 10 B.C.
Drusus, while his brother Tiberius was engaged in Pannonia, made a
campaign against the Germans near the Rhine. He had nearly finished the
conquest of Germany from the Rhine to the Elbe, when he died (9, B.C.),
and was succeeded by his brother Tiberius, who completed his work.
Drusus received the cognomen of Germanicus for his conquests in Germany.
His wife was Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony, by whom he had two sons,
Germanicus and Claudius, the latter of whom was afterwards Emperor.
In 7 A.D. Lucius Varus was appointed governor of the newly acquired
territory in Germany. When he endeavored to subject these recently
conquered peoples to the forms of the Roman provincial government, they
rose in rebellion under the lead of Arminius (Herman), a powerful chief.
Varus was allured from his fortified camp (9 A.D.) into a pass in the
Teutoberger Forests, where he was suddenly attacked on all sides. After
three days' fighting, he succeeded with great loss in making his way
through the pass into the open plain, but was there met by the enemy
in full force, and his troops were annihilated. In despair Varus killed
himself. Germany was practically lost and the Rhine became again the
Roman frontier. This defeat caused a great stir at Rome, and the Emperor
is said to have exclaimed in his sorrow, "Varus, Varus, give me back my
legions!"
Five years later (14 A.D.) Augustus died. In his last moments he asked
his friends if he had not played well his part in the comedy of life.
Although married three times, the Emperor had but one child, JULIA (39
B.C.--14 A.D.), by his second wife, Scribonia. She was noted for her
beauty and talents, but infamous for her intrigues. She was married
three times; first, to Marcellus, her cousin; secondly, to Agrippa, by
whom she had five children; and thirdly, to the Emperor Tiberius. She
was banished on account of her conduct, and died in want.
OCTAVIA, the sister of Augustus, was noted for her beauty and
accomplishments, as well as for the nobility of her character. Her
son MARCELLUS was adopted by his uncle, but died young (23 B. C.).
The famous lines of Virgil upon this promising young man (Aeneid VI.
869-887) were read before the Emperor and his sister, moving them to
tears, and winning for the author a munificent reward.
After the death of her first husband, Octavia was married to Mark
Antony, by whom she had two daughters, through whom she was the
ancestress of three Emperors, CLAUDIUS, CALIGULA, and NERO.
AGRIPPA (63-12), an eminent general and statesman, was a warm friend and
counsellor of Augustus. At the battle of Actium he commanded the fleet
of Octavius. He married Julia, the only daughter of the Emperor, and had
three sons, two of whom were adopted by Augustus, but died before him;
the third was murdered by Tiberius.
Augustus died at the age of seventy-six. He was frugal and correct in
his personal habits, quick and shrewd in his dealings with men, bold and
ambitious in the affairs of state. His greatness consisted rather in
the ability to abstain from abusing the advantages presented by fortune,
than in the genius which moulds the current of affairs to the will.
His success depended on the temper of the people and the peculiar
circumstances of the time. His clearest title to greatness is found in
the fact that he compelled eighty millions of people to live in peace
for more than forty years, He made the world to centre on one will, and
the horrors which mark the reigns of his successors were the legitimate
result of the irresponsible sovereignty he established. He formed his
empire for the present, to the utter ignoring of the future. Thus it
would seem that the part he played was that of a shrewd politician,
rather than that of a wise statesman.