Caesar in his will had appointed GAIUS OCTAVIUS, the grandson of his
sister Julia, heir to three fourths of his property; and his other
relatives were to have the remaining fourth.
Young Octavius was in his nineteenth year when Caesar was murdered.
He went at once to Rome to claim his inheritance. Caesar's widow,
Calpurnia, had intrusted to Mark Antony all the money in the house,--a
large sum,--and had also delivered to his care all the Dictator's
writings and memoranda.
Octavius was cool and sagacious, without passion or affection, and
showed himself a match for all his opponents. His arrival at Rome
was disagreeable to Antony, who was unwilling to surrender Caesar's
property. He claimed that he had already expended it for public
purposes. Octavius at once paid the dead Dictator's legacies, mostly out
of his own fortune, thus making himself very popular among the people.
He then joined the party of the Senate, and during the autumn and winter
of 44 was its chief champion. He was helped by the eloquent Cicero, who
was delivering against Antony his famous fourteen PHILIPPICS,--so called
from their resemblance to the great orations of Demosthenes against
Philip.
During the spring of 43 Octavius advanced against Antony, who was at
Mutina (Modena), and defeated him in two battles. He was then appointed
Consul, and, finding it for his interest, he deserted the Senate, made
friends with Antony, and with him and Lepidus formed (27 November, 43)
the SECOND TRIUMVIRATE, assuming full authority to govern and reorganize
the state, and to hold office for five years.
The provinces were divided as follows: Lepidus was to have Spain and
Gallia Narbonensis; Antony, the rest of Gaul beyond the Alps and Gallia
Cisalpina; Octavius, Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. A bloody prescription
followed. Among its victims were CICERO, who was surrendered to please
Antony, 300 Senators, and 2,000 Equites.
PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM.
The Triumvirs could now concentrate their energies upon the East,
whither BRUTUS and CASSIUS, the murderers of Caesar, had fled. These two
had organized in the provinces of the East an army amounting to 80,000
infantry and 20,000 cavalry. They were employed in plundering various
towns of Asia Minor, and finally, in the spring of 42, assembled their
forces at Sardis preparatory to an invasion of Europe. After marching
through Thrace they entered Macedonia, and found Antony and Octavius
opposed to them at PHILIPPI, with an army of 120,000 troops. There were
two battles at Philippi in November, 42. In the first, Brutus defeated
Octavius; but Cassius was defeated by Antony, and, unaware of his
colleague's victory, committed suicide. In the second battle, three
weeks later, Brutus was defeated by the united armies of the Triumvirs,
and, following the example of Cassius, put an end to his life. With
Brutus fell the Republic. The absolute ascendency of individuals, which
is monarchy, was then established.
The immediate result of Philippi was a fresh arrangement of the Roman
world among the Triumvirs. Antony preferred the East, Octavius took
Italy and Spain, and Africa fell to Lepidus.
Octavius tried to establish order in Italy, but many obstacles were to
be overcome. Sextus Pompeius, who had escaped from Munda, was in
command of a strong naval force. He controlled a large part of the
Mediterranean, and, by waylaying the corn ships bound for Rome, exposed
the city to great danger from famine. Octavius was obliged to raise
a fleet and meet this danger. At first he was defeated by Pompey, but
later, in 36, in the great sea fight off NAULOCHUS in Sicily, the
rebel was overcome. He fled to Asia with a few followers, but was taken
prisoner at Miletus by one of the lieutenants of Antony, and put to
death.
Lepidus now claimed Sicily as a part of his province, and an equal share
in the government of the Roman world with the other Triumvirs. But his
soldiers were induced to desert him, and he was obliged to surrender
to Octavius. His life was spared, but he was deprived of his power and
provinces. He lived twenty years longer (until 13), but ceased to be a
factor in public affairs. Having rid themselves of all rivals, Octavius
and Antony redivided the Empire, the former taking the West, the latter
the East.
Antony now repaired to Alexandria, and surrendered himself to the
fascinations of the famous Cleopatra. He assumed the habits and dress of
an Eastern monarch, and by his senseless follies disgusted his friends
and supporters. He resigned himself to luxury and idleness, and finally
divorced himself from his wife Octavia, sister of Octavius, disregarding
his good name and the wishes of his friends. Thus gradually he became
more and more estranged from Octavius, until finally the rupture
resulted in open war.
The contest was decided by the naval battle off Cape Actium, in Greece,
September 2, 31. Antony had collected from all parts of the East a
large army, in addition to his fleet, which was supported by that
of Cleopatra. He wished to decide the contest on land; but Cleopatra
insisted that they should fight by sea. The fleet of Octavius was
commanded by Agrippa, who had been in command at the sea-fight off
Naulochus. The battle lasted a long time, and was still undecided, when
Cleopatra hoisted sail and with her sixty vessels hastened to leave the
line. Antony at once followed her. The battle, however, continued until
his remaining fleet was destroyed, and his army, after a few days'
hesitation, surrendered.
Octavius did not follow Antony for about a year. He passed the winter in
Samos, sending Agrippa to Italy with the veterans. His time was occupied
in restoring order in Greece and Asia, in raising money to satisfy the
demands of his troops, and in founding new colonies. At length he
turned his attention to Egypt. After capturing Pelusium, the key of
the country, he marched upon Alexandria. Antony, despairing of success,
committed suicide, expiring in the arms of Cleopatra. The queen,
disdaining to adorn the triumph of the conqueror, followed his example,
and was found dead on her couch, in royal attire, with her two faithful
attendants also dead at her feet.
Octavius was now sole ruler of Rome. Before returning to the capital
to celebrate his triumphs, he organized Egypt as a province, settled
disputes in Judaea, and arranged matters in Syria and Asia Minor. He
arrived at Rome (August 29), and enjoyed three magnificent triumphs. The
gates of the temple of JANUS--which were open in time of war, and had
been closed but twice before, once during Numa's reign, and once between
the First and Second Punic Wars--were closed, and Rome was at peace with
all the world.
MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO.
CICERO'S public life covered a period of nearly forty years, from the
dictatorship of Sulla to the fall of the Republic. Although endowed by
nature with great talents, he was always under the sway of the moment,
and therefore little qualified to be a statesman; yet he had not
sufficient self-knowledge to see it. Hence the attempts he made to play
a part in politics served only to lay bare his utter weakness. Thus it
happened that he was used and then pushed aside, attracted and repelled,
deceived by the weakness of his friends and the strength of his
adversaries; and at last threatened by both the parties between which he
tried to steer his course.