Pompey, in his flight from Pharsalia, hastened by the shortest way
to the sea, and, seeing a vessel weighing anchor, embarked with a few
companions who had accompanied him in his flight. He went to Mitylene,
and from there to Egypt, hoping to obtain an asylum with the young
PTOLEMY; but he was seized upon his arrival, and beheaded, 28 September,
48.
Just before his death Pompey had completed his fifty-eighth year.
"Though he had some great and good qualities, he hardly deserved the
surname of GREAT. He was certainly a good soldier, and is said to
have excelled in all athletic sports, but he fell short of being
a first-class general. He won great successes in Spain, and more
especially in the East; but for these he was, no doubt, partly indebted
to what others had already done. Of the gifts which make a good
statesman, he had really none. He was too weak and irresolute to choose
a side and stand by it. Pitted against such a man as Caesar, he could
not but fail. But to his credit be it said, that in a corrupt time he
never used his opportunities for plunder and extortion."
Meanwhile Caesar, pursuing his victory with indefatigable activity, set
sail for Egypt. Upon his arrival the head of his enemy was brought to
him. He turned from the sight with tears in his eyes. The murderers now
saw what would be their fate. Ptolemy was at variance with his sister,
the famous CLEOPATRA, Caesar sided with her. The inhabitants of
Alexandria revolted, and besieged Caesar in the palace; but with a
handful of soldiers he bravely baffled their attacks. Setting fire
to the neighboring buildings, he escaped to his ships. Afterwards he
returned and wreaked vengeance upon the Alexandrians, establishing
CLEOPATRA upon the throne (47).
Satisfied with this vengeance, Caesar left Egypt, and went to Pontus,
where PHARNACES, son of Mithradates, was inciting a revolt against Rome.
Caesar attacked and defeated him at ZELA (47), with a rapidity rendered
proverbial by his words, _Veni, vidi, vici_, I CAME, I SAW, I CONQUERED.
He now passed quickly down the Hellespont, and had landed in Italy
before it was known that he had left Pontus. During his absence from
the capital there had been some minor disturbances; but the mass of the
citizens were firmly attached to him. Few could distrust the genius and
fortune of the irresistible conqueror. In October of 48 he had been made
Dictator a second time, and appointed Tribune for life.
Caesar's return in September, 47, was marked by no proscription. He
insisted that all debts should be paid, and the rights of property
respected. He restored quiet, and after a brief stay of three months
prepared to transport his army to Africa. The army was in Campania,
but discontented and mutinous because of not receiving the expected
privilege of pillage and plunder. They refused to move until certain
promised rewards were received. The Tenth Legion broke out into open
revolt, and marched from Campania to Rome to obtain their rights. Caesar
collected them in the Campus Martins, and asked them to state their
grievances. They demanded their discharge. "I grant it, citizens"
(_Quirites_), said the Imperator. Heretofore he had always addressed
them as "fellow soldiers," and the implied rebuke was so keen, that a
reaction at once began, and they all begged to be received again into
his service. He accepted them, telling them that lands had been allotted
to each soldier out of the _ager publicus_, or out of his own estates.
Africa must now be subdued. Since the defeat and death of Curio, King
JUBA had found no one to dispute his authority. Around him now rallied
all the followers of Pompey, Metellus Scipio, Cato, Labienus, Afranius,
Petreius, and the slain general's two sons, Sextus and Gnaeus Pompeius.
Utica was made their head-quarters. Here Cato collected thirteen legions
of troops of miscellaneous character. Raids were made upon Sicily,
Sardinia, and the coasts of Italy. Caesar's officers, if captured, were
put to death without mercy.
Cicero alone of the old Pompeian party protested against such cruelties.
He remained in Italy, was denounced by them as a traitor, and charged
with currying favor of the Dictator.
Caesar sailed from Lilybaeum (December 19), effected a landing near
Leptis, and maintained himself in a fortified position until he formed
useful alliances among the Mauretanians. Many Roman residents in the
province came to him, indignant at Metellus Scipio's promise to Juba to
give the province to him in case of success. Many deserters also came
in, enraged that precedence was given to Juba over Scipio in councils of
war. But the enemy's army was kept full of new recruits sent from Utica
by Cato.
For three months Caesar failed to bring on the desired engagement;
Scipio had learned caution from Pompey's experience at Pharsalia.
Finally, at THAPSUS, one hundred miles southeast of Carthage, April 4,
46, the armies met. Caesar's men were so enthusiastic that they rushed
to the charge with one impulse. There was no real battle, but rather a
slaughter. Officers and men fled for their lives. Scipio was intercepted
in his flight and slain. Juba and Petreius fled together, but, finding
their retreat cut off, engaged, it is said, in mortal combat; when
the first, Petreius, fell, the other threw himself on his own sword.
Labienus and the two sons of Pompey managed to escape to Spain. Afranius
was captured and executed.
Cato, when he heard of the defeat, retired to his chamber in Utica, and
committed suicide.
Thus ended the African campaign.
On his return from Africa, Caesar celebrated four triumphs, on four
successive days; one over the Gauls, one over Ptolemy of Egypt, one
over Pharnaces, and one over Juba. He gratified his armed followers with
liberal gifts, and pleased the people by his great munificence. They
were feasted at a splendid banquet, at which were twenty-two thousand
tables, each table having three couches, and each couch three persons.
Then followed shows in the circus and theatre, combats of wild beasts
and gladiators, in which the public especially delighted.
Honors were now heaped upon Caesar without stint. A thanksgiving of
forty days was decreed. His statue was placed in the Capitol. Another
was inscribed to Caesar the Demigod. A golden chair was allotted to him
in the Senate-House. The name of the fifth month (_Quintilis_) of the
Roman calendar was changed to JULIUS (July). He was appointed Dictator
for two years, and later for life. He received for three years the
office of Censor, which enabled him to appoint Senators, and to be
guardian of manners and morals. He had already been made Tribune
(48) for life, and Pontifex Maximus (63). In a word, he was king in
everything excepting name.
Caesar's most remarkable and durable reform at this period was the
REVISION OF THE CALENDAR. The Roman method of reckoning time had been
so inaccurate, that now their seasons were more than two months behind.
Caesar established a calendar, which, with slight changes, is still in
use. It went into operation January 1st, 45. He employed Sosigenes, an
Alexandrian astronomer, to superintend the reform.
While Sosigenes was at work on the calendar, Caesar purified the Senate.
Many who were guilty of extortion and corruption were expelled, and the
vacancies filled with persons of merit.
Meanwhile matters in Spain were not satisfactory. After the battle of
Pharsalia, Cassius Longinus, Trebonius, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus had
been sent to govern the province. They could not agree. The soldiers
became mutinous. To Spain flocked all who were dissatisfied with Roman
affairs. The remnant of Scipio's African army rested there in its
wanderings. Thus Labienus and Pompey's two sons managed to collect an
army as numerous as that which had been defeated at Thapsus. There were
thirteen legions in all.
Caesar saw that he must make one more struggle. He set out for the
province accompanied by his nephew OCTAVIUS (afterwards the Emperor
AUGUSTUS), and by his trusted friend and officer, DECIMUS BRUTUS. The
struggle in Spain was protracted for several months, but the decisive
battle was fought at MUNDA, 17 March, 45, on the Guadalquivir, near
Cordova. The forces were well matched. The advantage in position was on
the side of the enemy. The battle was stubbornly fought, most of it hand
to hand, with short swords. So equal was the struggle, so doubtful at
one time the issue, that Caesar himself sprang from his horse, seized a
standard, and rallied a wavering legion. Finally, Labienus was seen to
gallop across the field. It was thought he was fleeing. Panic seized his
troops, they broke and ran. Thirty thousand were slain, including three
thousand Roman Knights, and Labienus himself.
Gnaeus Pompey shortly after lost his life, but Sextus lived for a number
of years.
Caesar tarried in Spain, regulating affairs, until late in the autumn,
when he returned to Rome and enjoyed another triumph over the Iberians
(Spaniards). The triumph was followed, as usual, by games and festivals,
which kept the populace in a fever of delight and admiration.
CATO.-METELLUS SCIPIO.
MARCUS PORTIUS CATO UTICENSIS (Footnote: Cato the Younger, called
UTICENSIS on account of his death at Utica.) (95-46) was the
great-grandson of Cato the Censor. He was the last of the Romans of the
old school. Like his more famous ancestor, he was frugal and austere in
his habits, upright, unselfish, and incorruptible. But he was a fanatic,
who could not be persuaded to relinquish his views on any subject. As a
general, he was a failure, having neither taste nor genius for military
exploits. He held various offices at Rome, as Quaestor and Praetor; but
when candidate for the consulship he was defeated, because he declined
to win votes by bribery and other questionable methods then in vogue.
QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS PIUS belonged to the illustrious family of
the Scipios by birth, and to that of the Metelli by adoption. He was one
of the most unjust and dishonest of the Senators that opposed Caesar.
He was the father-in-law of Pompey, by whom he was made a pliant tool
against the great conqueror.