Pompey was elected sole Consul in February, 52. He at once threw off
all pretence of an alliance with Caesar, and devoted himself to the
interests of the Senate and aristocracy.
The brilliant successes of Caesar in Gaul had made a profound impression
upon the minds of the citizens, to whom the name of the northern
barbarians was still fraught with terror. Caesar had won for himself
distinction as a soldier greater than the Scipios, or Sulla, or Pompey.
"He was coming back to lay at his country's feet a province larger than
Spain, not only subdued, but reconciled to subjugation; a nation of
warriors, as much devoted to him as his own legions." The nobility had
watched his successes with bitter envy; but they were forced to vote a
thanksgiving of twenty days, which "the people made sixty."
Caesar now declared through his followers at Rome that he desired a
second consulship. But he wished first to celebrate his triumph, and on
this account would not disband his army; for, according to the custom,
he could not triumph without it. According to another custom, however,
he must disband it before he could offer himself as a candidate for the
consulship. But he asked permission to set aside this custom, and to
become a candidate while he was in the province in command of the army.
The law requiring a candidate to give up his command had been suspended
several times before this; so that Caesar's request was reasonable. His
enemies in the city were numerous and powerful, and he felt that, if he
returned as a private citizen, his personal safety would be in danger;
whereas, if he were a magistrate, his person would be considered sacred.
The Senate, on the other hand, felt that, if he carried his point, the
days of their influence were numbered. Their first step, therefore, was
to weaken Caesar, and to provide their champion, Pompey, with a force in
Italy, They voted that Caesar should return to Pompey a legion which had
been loaned him, and also should send another legion back to Italy. The
vote was taken on the ostensible plea that the troops were needed in
Asia Minor against the Parthians; but when they reached Italy they were
placed under Pompey's command in Campania. The Consuls chosen for the
year 49 were both bitter enemies of Caesar. He had taken up his winter
quarters at Ravenna, the last town in his province bordering on Italy.
From here he sent a messenger with letters to the Senate, stating
that he was ready to resign his command, if Pompey did the same. The
messenger arrived at Rome, January 1, 49, on the day in which the new
Consuls entered upon their duties.
The letters were read in the Senate, and there followed a spirited
discussion, resulting in a decree that Caesar should resign his command.
The Tribunes opposed; but, being threatened by the Consuls, they were
compelled to leave the city, and went directly to Ravenna.
When the action of the Senate was reported to Caesar, he called together
his soldiers, and addressed them thus: "For nine years I and my army
have served our country loyally and with some degree of success. We have
driven the Germans across the Rhine; we have made Gaul a province; and
the Senate, for answer, has broken the constitution in setting aside the
Tribunes who spoke in my defence. It has voted the state in danger, and
has called Italy to arms, when no single act of mine can justify it in
this course." The soldiers became enthusiastic, and were eager to follow
their leader without pay. Contributions were offered him by both men and
officers. LABIENUS, his trusted lieutenant, alone proved false. He stole
away, and joined Pompey. Caesar then sent for two legions from across
the Alps. With these legions he crossed the RUBICON into Italy, and
marched to Ariminum.
Meanwhile the report of his movements reached Rome. The aristocracy had
imagined that his courage would fail him, or that his army would desert.
Thoroughly frightened, Consuls, Praetors, Senators,-leaving wives,
children, and property to their fate,-fled from the city to seek safety
with Pompey in Capua. They did not stop even to take the money from the
treasury, but left it locked.
Caesar paused at Ariminum, and sent envoys to the Senate, stating that
he was still desirous of peace. If Pompey would depart to his province
in Spain, he would himself disband his own troops. He was even willing
to have a personal interview with Pompey. This message was received by
the Senate after its flight from Rome. The substance of its reply was,
that Pompey did not wish a personal interview, but would go to Spain,
and that Caesar must leave Ariminum, return to his province, and give
security that he would dismiss his army.
These terms seemed to Caesar unfair, and he would not accept them.
Accordingly he sent his lieutenant, Mark Antony, across the mountains
to Arretium, on the road to Rome. He himself pushed on to Ancona, before
Pompey could stop him. The towns that were on his march threw open
their gates, their garrisons joined his army, and their officers fled.
Steadily he advanced, with constantly increasing forces, until when he
reached Corfinium his army had swelled to thirty thousand troops.
This place had been occupied by Domitius with a party of aristocrats
and a few thousand men. Caesar surrounded the town, and when Domitius
endeavored to steal away, his own troops took him and delivered him over
to Caesar. The capture of Corfinium and the desertion of its garrison
filled Pompey and his followers with dismay. They hurried to Brundisium,
where ships were in readiness for them to depart.
Hoping to intercept Pompey, Caesar hastened to this port. On his arrival
outside of the town, the Consuls, with half the army, had already
gone. Pompey, however, was still within the place, with twelve thousand
troops, waiting for transports to carry them away. He refused to see
Caesar; and, though the latter endeavored to blockade the port, he was
unsuccessful, owing to want of ships.
Thus Pompey escaped. With him were the Consuls, more than half the
Senate, and the aristocracy. Caesar would have followed them, but a
fleet must first be obtained, and matters nearer home demanded his
attention.
In sixty days Caesar had made himself master of Italy. On his way
to Rome he met Cicero, and invited him to attend the Senate, but
he preferred to stay away. Caesar entered the city unattended, and
assembled the Senate through the Tribunes, Mark Antony and Cassius
Longinus. The attendance was small, as most of the members were with
Pompey. In his address to the Senate Caesar spoke of his own forbearance
and concessions, of their unjust demands, and their violent suppression
of the authority of the Tribunes. He was still willing to send envoys to
treat with Pompey, but no one was found willing to go. After three days
spent in useless discussion, Caesar decided to act for himself. By
his own edict, he restored the children of the victims of Sulla's
proscription to their rights and property. The money in the treasury
was voted him by the Assembly of the people. He took as much of it as
he needed, and started at once for Gaul to join his troops on his way to
Spain.
He had much to accomplish. Spain was in the hands of Pompey's
lieutenants, Afranius, Petreius, and Varro, who had six legions and
allied troops. From Sicily and Sardinia came most of the grain supplies
of Rome, and it was important to hold these islands. To Sicily he sent
Curio and to Sardinia Valerius. Cato, who was in charge of Sicily,
immediately abandoned it and fled to Africa. Sardinia received Caesar's
troops with open arms.
Upon his arrival in Gaul, Caesar found that the inhabitants of Massilia
had risen against his authority, led by the same Domitius whom he had
sent away unharmed from Corfinium. Caesar blockaded the city, and,
leaving Decimus Brutus in charge of operations, continued his journey to
Spain. He found Afranius and Petreius strongly intrenched at ILERDA in
Catalonia (Northern Spain). Within forty days he brought them to terms,
and Varro, who was in Southern Spain, was eager to surrender. All Spain
was at his feet.
Before leaving Spain, Caesar summoned the leading Spaniards and Romans
to Cordova, for a conference. All promised obedience to his authority.
He then set sail from Gades to Tarragona, where he joined his legions
and marched back to Massilia, which he found hard pressed and ready to
surrender. The gates were opened. All were pardoned, and Domitius was
allowed to escape a second time.
Caesar left a portion of his forces in Gaul, and with the rest arrived
at Rome in the early winter of 49-48. Thus far he had been successful.
Gaul, Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, and Italy were his. He had not succeeded,
however, in getting together a naval force in the Adriatic, and he had
lost his promising lieutenant, Curio, who had been surprised and
killed in Africa, whither he had gone in pursuit of Cato and Pompey's
followers.
During Caesar's absence, affairs at Rome had resumed their usual course.
He had left the city under charge of his lieutenant, Aemilius Lepidus,
and Italy in command of Mark Antony. Caesar was still at Massilia,
when he learned that the people of Rome had proclaimed him Dictator.
Financial troubles in the city had made this step necessary. Public
credit was shaken. Debts had not been paid since the civil war began.
Caesar allowed himself only eleven days in Rome. In this time estimates
were drawn of all debts as they were one year before, the interest was
remitted and the principal declared still due. This measure relieved the
debtors somewhat.
It was now nearly a year since Caesar crossed the Rubicon. Pompey,
during the nine months that had elapsed since his escape from
Brundisium, had been collecting his forces in Epirus. Here had gathered
many princes from the East, a majority of the Senatorial families
of Rome, Cato and Cicero, the vanquished Afranius, and the renegade
Labienus. There were nine full legions, with cavalry and auxiliaries,
amounting in all to 100,000 men.
Caesar reached Brundisium at the end of the year 49. His forces were
fewer in number than those of his adversary, amounting to not more than
15,000 infantry and 600 cavalry. But his legionaries were all veterans,
inured to toil and hunger, to heat and cold, and every man was devoted
to his leader.
On the 4th of January he set sail from Brundisium, landing after
an uneventful voyage at Acroceraunia. He advanced at once towards
Dyrrachium where were Pompey's head-quarters, occupied Apollonia, and
intrenched himself on the left bank of the river Apsus. The country was
well disposed and furnished him with ample supplies.
Caesar sent back the vessels on which he crossed to transport his
remaining troops, but they were intercepted on their way across and
many of them destroyed. He was therefore compelled to confine himself to
trifling operations, until his lieutenant, Mark Antony, could fit out
a second fleet and bring over the remainder of his legions. When Antony
finally crossed, he landed one hundred miles up the coast. Pompey's
forces were between him and Caesar, and his position was full of danger;
but Caesar marched rapidly round Dyrrachium, and joined him before
Pompey knew of his movements.
The great general was now ready for action. He built a line of strongly
fortified forts around Pompey's camp, blockading him by land. He turned
the streams of water aside, causing as much inconvenience as possible to
the enemy. So the siege dragged on into June.
Two deserters informed Pompey of a weak spot in Caesar's line. At
this point Pompey made a sudden attack. For once Caesar's troops were
surprised and panic-stricken. Even his own presence did not cause them
to rally. Nearly one thousand of his men fell, thirty-two standards, and
a few hundred soldiers were captured.
This victory was the ruin of Pompey's cause. Its importance was
exaggerated. His followers were sure that the war was practically over;
and so certain were they of ultimate success that they neglected to
follow up the advantage gained, and gave Caesar opportunity to recover
from the blow.
The latter now retired from the sea-board into Thessaly. Pompey
followed, confident of victory. The nobles in his camp amused themselves
with quarrelling about the expected spoils of war. Cato and Cicero
remained behind in Epirus, the former disgusted at the actions of the
degenerate nobility, the latter pleading ill health.
The two armies encamped on a plain in Thessaly near the river Enipeus,
only four miles apart. Between them lay a low hill called PHARSALUS,
which gave name to the battle which followed.
"The battle of PHARSALIA (August 9, 48) has acquired a special place
in history, because it was fought by the Roman aristocracy in their
own persons in defence of their own supremacy. Senators and the sons
of Senators, the heirs of the names and fortunes of the ancient Roman
families, the leaders of society in Roman salons, and the chiefs of the
political party of the optimates (aristocracy) were here present on
the field. The other great actions were fought by the ignoble multitude
whose deaths were of less significance. The plains of Pharsalia were
watered by the precious blood of the elect of the earth."
For several days the armies watched each other without decisive action.
One morning towards the end of May (August 9, old style) Caesar noticed
a movement in Pompey's lines that told him the expected attack was
coming.
The position of the Senatorial army was well taken. Its right wing
rested on the Enipeus, its left was spread out on the plain. Pompey
himself commanded the left with the two legions the Senate had taken
from Caesar. Outside him on the plain were his allies covered by the
cavalry. Opposite Pompey was Caesar, with the famous Tenth Legion.
His left and centre were led by his faithful Tribunes, Mark Antony and
Cassius Longinus.
At the given signal Caesar's front ranks advanced on a run, threw
their darts, drew their swords, and closed in. At once Pompey's cavalry
charged, outflanking the enemy's right wing, and driving back the
opposing cavalry, who were inferior in numbers. But as they advanced
flushed with victory, Caesar's fourth line, which he had held in
reserve, and which was made up of the flower of his legions, appeared
in their way. So fierce was their attack that the Pompeians wavered,
turned, and fled. They never rallied. The fourth line threw themselves
upon Pompey's left wing, which was now unprotected. This wing, composed
of Caesar's old veterans, was probably in no mood to fight its former
comrades in arms. At any rate, it turned and fled. Pompey himself
mounted his horse and rode off in despair. Thus the battle ended in a
rout. But two hundred of Caesar's men fell, while fifteen thousand of
the enemy lay dead on the field.
The abandoned camp was a remarkable sight. The luxurious patricians
had built houses of turf with ivy trained over the entrances to protect
their delicate skins from the sun's rays; couches were stretched out
ready for them to take repose after their expected victory, and tables
were spread with dainty food and wines on which to feast. As he saw
these preparations Caesar exclaimed, "These are the men who accused my
suffering, patient army, which needed the common necessaries of life,
of dissoluteness and profligacy." But Caesar could not delay. Leaving a
portion of his forces in camp, by rapid marching he cut off the retreat
of the enemy. Twenty-four thousand surrendered, all of whom were
pardoned. Domitius, whom we saw at Corfinium and Massilia, was killed
trying to escape. Labienus, Afranius, and Petreius managed to steal away
by night. Thus ended the battle of Pharsalia.