THE PROHIBITION OF BOOKS IN THE MIDDLE AGES 830–1480
During the period known as the Middle Ages, a period which, for
the purposes of this study, can be considered as comprising the
centuries from the 9th to the 15th, a long series of condemnations
and prohibitions of books were ordered by various ecclesiastical
authorities. The brief list here given, as a link in the record of
Church censorship, presents certain types or examples of the attempts
made, in advance of any system of general Indexes, to supervise,
control, and restrict the production and distribution of literature.
_830–840._ During these years, measures were taken against Claudius,
Bishop of Turin, and Agobardus, Archbishop of Lyons, on the ground of
their heretical writings, but these last were not formally condemned.
_849._ Gottschalk, a German monk, was, at the instance of Hincmar,
Archbishop of Rheims, excommunicated and condemned to imprisonment for
life, on the ground of his treatise against certain doctrines of St.
Augustine. Gottschalk died in a dungeon about 869. The Index of 1559
places Claudius in the first class, in which he has the honour of being
the earliest author. This entry is continued in the Index of 1564 and
later. The name of Agobardus first finds place in the Index of 1605,
and there only in connection with the _editio princeps_ of his works
printed in 1605. The edition of 1666, and the later issues, failed
to receive formal condemnation. Gottschalk’s treatise escaped the
attention of the Index compilers.
_1050._ _The Synod of Vercelli_ condemns the treatise by Berengar of
Tours on the Lords Supper, and also the work by Ratramnus of Corbu
(written some two centuries earlier) entitled _De Corpore et Sanguine
Christi_.[22] The former book came under various later condemnations.
_1059._ _A Synod at Rome_ compels Berengar himself to burn the thesis
he had written in defence of his position.
_1120._ _A Synod at Soissons_ compels Abelard to burn his treatise,
_Introductio in Theologiam_.
_1140._ _Innocent III_ orders the burning of the writings of Abelard
and of Arnold of Brescia, and the confinement of the two authors in
monasteries.
_1148._ _A Synod at Rheims_ condemns four chapters of the Commentary
by Gilbert de la Porrée on the treatise by Boethius, _de Trinitate_.
Gilbert had proposed to make in the book such corrections as the pope
might order; but the pope had refused to assume the task. Hefele speaks
of this as the first known instance of an attempt to relieve a text
from condemnation by means of expurgation. Gilbert does not find place
in any of the official Indexes but is recorded by Lutzenburg.
_1209._ _A Synod at Paris_ condemns the _Physion_ of Amalric (Amaury)
of Chartres (who had died five years earlier), excommunicates the
writer, and orders his remains to be cast out of their resting place
in consecrated ground. Amaury had undertaken to identify the Divine
Nature with the primary matter of Aristotle. A number of the followers
of Amaury were, in December, 1210, burned under the commands of Philip
Augustus.
_1209._ _The Synod of Paris_ condemns the writings of David of Dinant.
It also forbids, under pain of excommunication, the reading of the _de
Metaphysica_ until it had been expurgated.
_1215._ _The Lateran Council_ condemns the same work.
_1215._ _The fourth Synod of the Lateran_ condemns the tractate written
by the Abbot Joachim against Peter Lombard. Joachim had died in 1202.
The decree reads: “Any one who shall attempt to defend the heretical
utterances of the said Joachim concerning the Trinity shall be thrust
out as a heretic.” It was ordered that the writings of Joachim were to
be submitted to the Curia for correction.
_1225._ _A Synod at Sens_ passes condemnation on the treatise by Scotus
Erigena (written about 860), _De Divisione Naturae_. Pope Honorius
confirmed this condemnation and ordered that all persons possessing
copies of the book must, under penalty of excommunication, deliver
the same, within fifteen days, to the ecclesiastical authorities for
burning.[23]
_1231._ _Pope Gregory IX_ writes to the University of Paris directing
the prohibition of the _Libri naturales_ of Aristotle, as condemned by
the Provincial Council, until they have been freed from heresies.
_1276._ _Bishop Stephen Tempier_, under instructions from the Pope
(John XXI), and in council with the prelates of his diocese, publishes
a condemnation of 219 propositions which had been under discussion in
the Schools. The judgment states, rather naïvely, that while they were
true philosophically, they were false when tested by the doctrine of
the Church. The bishops condemned at the same time a long series of
books on magic and necromancy and ordered all copies to be delivered
for destruction within seven days.
One of the teachers whose influence was most potent during the
middle of the 13th century against the heresies that were disturbing
university circles was the great schoolman Thomas Aquinas. A writer
in the Dublin _Review_ says that by his astounding powers of
reasoning, he turned the tide of scepticism in Paris, “whose vocation
it was to teach the world!”--Before the lectures of Aquinas began,
other measures had been used against the heretics: “Ten disciples of
the misbelieving David Dinanto were given over to the civil arm and
had perished in the flames.” Archbishop Vaughan says naïvely, “several
fanatics of low rank had to be burnt.”[24]
In 1300, Gherardo Segarelli, of Parma, the founder of the Apostolic
Brothers, was burned, together with such copies of his writings as had
been collected.
_1311._ The writings of Segarelli were formally condemned by the
_Council of Vienna_, a condemnation which was a year or two later
confirmed by John XXII. In 1471, that is, more than a century and a
half later, these same writings were formally approved by Sixtus IV,
the condemnation having been recalled.[25] This appears to be the first
instance on record in which a work condemned by one pope has later
received the approval of another.
_1316._ _The Inquisition in Tarragona_ condemns fourteen treatises of
the physician Arnold of Villanova (who had died in 1310), and orders
copies to be delivered under penalty of excommunication.
_1321._ _John XXII_ condemns twenty-eight propositions selected
from the writings of the Dominican Eckart. Seventeen are classed as
heretical and eleven as suspicious and dangerous.
_1325._ _John XXII_ issues a Bull against conjuring and exorcism, and
orders the delivery for destruction of all writings which contained any
teachings on these pernicious subjects.
_1327._ _John XXII_ issues a Bull condemning as heretics Marsilius
of Padua and John of Jaudun, and as heresy the book _Defensor Pacis_
of which they were joint authors and which he had had examined by
cardinals and canonists.
_1328._ _The Inquisition of Rome_ condemns as a heretic Cecco d’
Ascoli, who is burned together with his offending treatise, _de
Sphaera_.
_1328._ _John XXII_ condemns and orders destroyed the writings of the
Minorite Petrus Johannes Oliva, which had been examined and reported
upon by nine theologians. The bones of Oliva were disinterred and were
burned with copies of his books.[26] _In 1471_, _Sixtus IV_ (who was
himself a Minorite) orders the writings of Oliva to be again examined
and declares them to be sound in their doctrine.
_1328._ _John XXII_ condemns in like manner the Minorite General
Michael of Cesena, William of Occam, and Bonagratia of Bergamo, and all
their writings.
_1330._ _The Theological Faculty of Heidelberg_ condemns the teachings
of Eckart.
_1348._ _Pope Clement VI_ condemns a series of the theological
propositions of the Paris theologian, Nicholas de Ultricuria (de
Autrecourt). Nicholas was ordered to abjure these heresies and to burn
all copies of the writings.[27]
_1374._ _Pope Gregory XI_, as a result of an examination made by
certain cardinals and theologians, condemns as false, schismatic,
and heretical, and as _contra bonos mores_, fourteen articles of the
_Sachsenspiegel_. The Bull was directed to the Archbishops of Mayence,
Cologne, Bremen, Magdeburg, Prague, and Riga. The _Sachsenspiegel_ was,
however, never placed on the Index.
_1378._ _Gregory XI_, as a result of a denunciation by the Inquisitor,
Nicholas Eymeric, condemned two hundred propositions selected from
twenty treatises of Raymond Lully (who had died in 1315). In 1419, the
papal legate in Spain characterises this Bull as having been secured
under false representations, and as not to be regarded. After that
time, there were numerous bitter controversies over the precise status
of Lully’s writings, controversies in which the orthodoxy of Lully was
maintained by the Franciscans, while the soundness of the denunciation
of Eymeric was upheld by the Dominicans. Paul IV placed Lully in Class
II of his Index: but his name was omitted from the Index of Trent.
In 1580 and in 1620, question again arose as to placing Lully on the
Index, but the suggestion was withdrawn at the instance of the Spanish
court.
_1387._ _King Richard II_ prohibits, under penalty of imprisonment
and confiscation of property, the sale or purchase of the heretical
writings of Wyclif (who had died in 1384) and of Nicholas Hereford.
_1408._ _The Convocation of Canterbury_, under the direction of
Archbishop Arundel, prohibits the reading of any writings of Wyclif,
or of “any other writings of his time,” until the same had been passed
upon and expurgated by censors appointed by the Universities of Oxford
and Cambridge, and the expurgated texts had been approved by the
archbishop.[28]
_1415._ _The Council of Constance_ condemns as heretical the writings
of John Wyclif. It is forbidden, under pain of excommunication, to read
them or to make citations from them (except for the purpose of refuting
their errors); and the bishops are ordered to cause all copies to be
collected and burned.
The council takes similar action in regard to the writings of John
Huss, copies of which were publicly burned. In the year following, the
same fate came upon Huss himself, and also upon Jerome of Prague.
_1435._ _The Council of Basel_ condemns a work by Augustinus Favorini,
Prior General of the Augustinian Eremites. The book was characterised
by Cardinal Torquemada as unwholesome and heretical. The author
appealed to the Pope (Eugenius IV) who, against the protest of the
council, referred the book to a committee of investigation. The report
of the committee is not on record, but it was probably unfavourable, as
the book (which was never printed) stands, since 1559, on the Index.
_1459._ _Pope Pius II_, at the demand of the Inquisition, condemns the
writings of Pecock, Bishop of Chichester (charged with Wycliffian
heresies), and orders copies of the same to be delivered for burning.
_1460._ _Pius II_ condemns certain “Hussite” writings of Gregory of
Heimburg and, in _1461_, the condemnation is repeated in a _Bulla
Coenae_.
_1463._ _Pope Pius II_ (_Aeneas Sylvius_) issues a Bull entitled _In
Minoribus Agentes_, directed to the University of Cologne. In this
Bull, Pius takes the ground that the tractate on the Council of Basel,
written by him before his elevation to the Papacy, (which he points
out he had previously withdrawn) is to be considered as cancelled. He
disapproves of the opinions therein presented. He says further to the
university: “In case you may find among writings of mine (and I have
in my younger days been responsible for many) any that are unsound
or are likely to prove pernicious, these should be pointed out and
condemned.”[29]
In the Index of 1559 is placed not the work above referred to, but the
_Commentarium de Concilio Basileensi_, by Aeneas Sylvius. In the
Index of Trent is the entry:
“_In Actis Aeneae Sylvii prohibentur ea quae ipse in Bulla
retractationis damnavit, Ben. in: Piccolominens, Commentariorum de
concilio Basil. Corrigantur ea quae ipse in B. r. d._”
Reusch points out that, as no corrected edition was ever issued, these
two works of Pius II must be considered as still under condemnation.
His “Letters” and other writings (some of which he had also disavowed)
escaped formal condemnation.
_1468._ _Paul II_ excommunicates Gregory of Heimburg on the ground of
his treatise on the Papacy. Gregory’s name fails, however, to find a
place either in the catalogues of Lutzenburg, or in any of the Indexes,
although this treatise was reprinted in 1555.[30]
_1479._ _Sixtus IV_ gives authority to Carillo, Archbishop of Toledo,
to bring to trial Pedro Martinez de Osma, professor in Salamanca, by
reason of the heresies in his tract _De Confessione_. Pedro recants
his heresies, and the archbishop orders all copies of the book to be
burned. The university is enjoined to take measures to such end. Sixtus
confirms this proceeding in 1480, by a Bull. In the same year, Pedro
dies. His name is not included in any Index, either Spanish or general.
_1480._ _The Inquisition of Mayence_ brings to trial Johann Ruchrath of
Overwesel (de Wesalia) on the ground of certain _Paradoxa_ contained
in his sermons, and of his tractates on the authority of the Church,
absolution, etc. Ruchrath recanted and was, therefore, spared from
death but condemned to imprisonment for life. He died in 1481. The
books were burned. The name of Wesalia appears, since 1559, in the
first class of the papal Indexes.
* * * * *
=Prohibitions of Hebrew Writings.= In the centuries preceding the
institution of the Indexes, the _Talmud_ and the other doctrinal
writings of the Hebrews came repeatedly under the prohibitions of the
Church.
_1239._ _Pope Gregory IX_ orders the burning of all copies of the
_Talmud_. Graetz states that the antagonism of the authorities was at
the outset directed against the Babylonian _Gemara_, and against the
_Mischna_ only when this was associated with the _Gemara_.[31] As a
result of a denunciation by the converted Jew, Nicholas de Rupella,
Gregory sent, in 1239, letters to the kings and archbishops of France,
England, Spain, and Portugal, ordering that, on a specified day, all
copies of these books were to be delivered to the Dominicans and
the Minorites, and that if they were found to contain the heresies
described by Nicholas, they were to be burned. Reusch says that this
order was carried out only in France.
_1244._ _Innocent IV_ orders Louis IX to burn all copies of the
Talmudic writings to be found in his kingdom. Later, on the protest
of the Jews of France, the Pope directed Cardinal Odo to make a fresh
examination of the texts, and in so far as it could be done without
injury to the Christian faith, to permit copies to be retained by
the Jews themselves. In 1248, after a further investigation by Odo
and forty scholars (including Albertus Magnus), Odo again orders the
destruction of the books.
_1254._ _Louis IX_ issues renewed orders for the burning of copies of
the _Talmud_ and of other Hebrew books containing blasphemies.
_1267._ _Clement IV_ sends, by the hand of the Dominican Paulus
Christianus, a converted Jew, letters to the Archbishop of Tarragona,
ordering the destruction of the books of the Jews, and especially
_librum quem vocant Talmutz_.
_1415._ _Benedict XIII_ orders all copies of the Talmudic books to be
delivered to the bishop of the diocese and by him to be preserved,
subject to the instructions of the Curia. The Jews are forbidden to
possess copies of any works which contain assaults on the Christian
faith.[32] In the quarter-century between 1495 and 1520 (a term which
included the Papacy of Leo X), on the other hand, there was in Italy
a keen interest in Cabbalistic studies. Editions of the _Mischna_ and
of the Jerusalem _Talmud_ were printed in Venice and in Florence; the
Babylonian _Talmud_ was printed by Bomberg in Venice in 1520, 1522,
with a papal privilege, and the demand proved sufficient to call for a
reprinting in 1546.[33]
_1555._ _The Inquisition of Rome_ orders the confiscation of copies of
the Talmudic books from the houses of the Jews, and the investigation
of the texts by theologians. The rabbis were themselves interrogated
as to the purport of the books. As a result of this investigation, the
books were burned on the 9th of September (the Jewish New Year’s day).
_1555._ _Julius III_ publishes an edict directing all princes, bishops,
and inquisitors to confiscate and destroy by fire all copies of the
“Talmuds” of Jerusalem and of Babylon. Christians are forbidden, under
pain of excommunication, to possess or to read these books, or to aid
the Jews in producing copies by script or by printing.[34]
_1559._ _Paul IV._ The Roman Index of this year includes among books
prohibited the _Talmud_ of the Jews, with all commentaries, glosses,
and interpretations. In the same year, Ghislieri, Inquisitor-General,
orders the burning of all copies. Sixtus of Siena was sent to Cremona,
where there was a great Hebrew school and where was kept in store
a supply of copies of the Talmudic books. Sixtus reports that he
destroyed of these 12,000 volumes.[35]
_1564._ _Pius IV._ In the Index of Trent, the prohibition of Paul
IV is repeated, with the proviso that if the Talmudic scriptures
(referring probably to the _Talmud_ of Jerusalem rather than to that of
Babylon) are printed without the name of _Talmud_, and have eliminated
from them all assaults on the Christian faith, they may be permitted.
Graetz states that in October, 1563, the Jewish congregations had
sent two deputies to Trent to secure the omission from the Index
of the _Talmud_ and the other works of Hebrew doctrine; or if this
could not be accomplished, that the decision concerning the form of
prohibition or regulation should be reserved for the authority of the
Curia. The latter course was adopted by the council, and the Pope,
for a substantial consideration in money, issued a Bull (March 24,
1564) permitting the printing and the circulation of an expurgated
_Talmud_.[36]
_1565._ _The Inquisition of Rome_ (according to the tractate of Sixtus
printed in 1566) condemns and orders destroyed all books having to do
with the “Cabbala.”
_1592._ _Clement VIII_ issues a Bull forbidding both Christians and
Jews from owning, reading, buying, or circulating the Talmudic and
Cabbalistic books and other godless writings, whether written or
printed, in Hebrew or in other languages, which contained heresies or
assaults upon Christian doctrines or upon the practices of the Church.
The possessors of such books were not to be excused on the plea that
the texts had been expurgated or were to be expurgated. The authority
extended by Pius IV for such expurgation was recalled. The substance
of this Bull was printed in the Index of Clement issued in 1596. In
the same year, however, Clement issued a brief permitting the use
of certain specified rabbinical books, when they had been verified
as containing nothing directly antagonistic to the doctrines of the
Church. In the Index of 1596, and in the succeeding Roman Indexes,
stands a special provision concerning the book _Mazazor_ (_Machsor_)
which contains in part the offices and ceremonials of the synagogue.
This is forbidden in any editions printed in the vernacular, that is in
any language other than Hebrew.
_1775._ _Pope Clement XIV_ issues an edict in which are cited the Bulls
of Innocent IV, Julius III, and Clement VIII, and their prohibitions
are confirmed. Rabbis and Jews generally were forbidden to possess
copies of the Talmudic and Cabbalistic books and of any others which
contained heresies or utterances against the Christian faith. No Hebrew
books were to be bought or sold until they had been examined and
approved by the _Magister Palatii_ in Rome, or, outside of Rome, by the
bishop or inquisitor. The penalty was a fine of one hundred scudi and
seven years’ imprisonment.[37]