mammals of the world; a synopsis of families, p. 291-324. The
Ronald Press, N.Y.
RICE, D. W., and V. B. SCHEFFER.
1968. A list of the marine mammals of the world. U.S. Fish Wildl.
Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. 579, 16 p.
RIDGEWAY, S. H. (editor).
1972. Mammals of the sea; biology and medicine. Charles C. Thomas,
Springfield, Ill., xiii + 812 p.
SCHEVILL, W. E.
1974. The whale problem. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass., 297
p.
SERGEANT, D. E., and H. D. FISHER.
1957. The smaller Cetacea of eastern Canadian waters. J. Fish. Res.
Board Can. 14:83-115.
SERGEANT, D. E., A. W. MANSFIELD, and B. BECK.
1970. Inshore records of Cetacea of eastern Canada, 1949-68. J.
Fish. Res. Board Can. 27:1903-1915.
SLIJPER, E. J.
1962. Whales. Hutchinson and Co., Ltd., Lond., 475 p. [There is also
an American edition.]
TOMILIN, A. G.
1967. Cetacea. Mammals of the U.S.S.R. and adjacent countries. Isr.
Program Sci. Transl., Jerusalem, Vol. IX, 717 p. [A compilation of
worldwide data, originally published in Russian.]
TOWNSEND, C. H.
1935. The distribution of certain whales as shown by logbook records
of American whaleships. Zoologica (N.Y.) 19:1-50.
TRUE, F. W.
1889. Contributions to the natural history of the cetaceans, a
review of the family Delphinidae. Bull. U.S. Natl. Mus. 36:1-192.
WALKER, E. P.
1964. Mammals of the world. The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, p.
1083-1145. [Cetaceans. There is also a second, revised edition of
this work, and a third, revised edition is planned.]
APPENDIX A
TAGS ON WHALES, DOLPHINS, AND PORPOISES
Field studies of cetaceans are very difficult. First, it is extremely
hard to be positive that an individual or a group of animals is the same
from one encounter to the next. This means that it is nearly impossible
to determine, for example, whether herds of animals are resident in an
area or only seasonal visitors. Without information of this kind,
determinations vital to population management, such as sizes of
populations and natural ranges, are impossible to make.
Secondly, as we frequently point out in this guide, individual cetaceans
are usually visible to a surface observer only during the brief moments
when they break the air-water interface to breathe. The majority of
their vital activities (e.g., feeding, reproduction, communication,
establishing and maintaining position within the herd, and defending
against natural enemies) take place primarily below the surface, well
out of view to a surface observer.
In recent years, in an attempt to overcome some of these problems,
scientists have been placing markers on various species of cetaceans and
monitoring their movements. The following brief summary of major methods
of tagging cetaceans is provided to acquaint the reader with markers he
may expect to see in the western North Atlantic.
Static Tags
Since their development in the mid-1920's, numerous Discovery marks
(small stainless steel projectiles with identifying information stamped
on them) have been shot into commercially valuable species by means of a
shotgun. The recovery of these marks from whales subsequently killed in
the whaling industry has provided valuable information on the movement
patterns and on basic aspects of the growth and development of harvested
species of whales. Discovery marks are limited, however, because they
are not visible in a living animal. Reduction in whaling activities will
bring about a significant reduction in their use.
More recent tagging developments relate to marks which will be visible
on a free-swimming animal. Large whales, for instance, may be tagged
with color-coded streamers, such as that shown in Appendix Figure A2.
The tags, which are modified versions of the spaghetti tags first
constructed for use on fishes, consist of a small stainless steel head
for attachment to the blubber and a colorful streamer (sometimes stamped
with information on agencies to which tags should be returned) which is
visible above the surface of the animal. These tags may be applied by
using either a pole applicator or a crossbow and crossbow bolts. Both
applicators are equipped with a stop to limit the depth of penetration
into the animal's blubber. Extensive experimentation indicates that the
tags do not harm the animals and that their application is not
traumatic. With the continued reduction in whaling activity, it is hoped
that the use of such markers in the study of movements of big whales
will be increased.
Because they often ride the bow wave of a moving vessel, thereby making
themselves accessible for tagging and capture, small porpoises and
dolphins have been tagged with a greater variety of marks than large
whales. In recent years, at least three kinds of static tags, including
spaghetti streamers, have been placed on small and medium-sized
cetaceans.
Spaghetti tags, placed in the animal's blubber near the base of the
dorsal fin as it rides the bow wave, stream to conform to the contour of
the animal's body as it swims (App. Fig. A3). It is not possible to
identify the numbers on the spaghetti tag of a moving animal, although
color codes may be used to indicate different species, populations, or
tagging areas.
Button tags and freeze brands are placed on captured animals prior to
their release. The button tags (App. Figs. A4, A5) are placed in the
dorsal fin and should be visible as the animal surfaces to breathe or as
it rides the bow wave. At close range, the number, letter, or design may
also be visible. Freeze brands (App. Fig. A6) are placed on the back or
dorsal fin with a supercooled branding iron, apparently without pain or
discomfort to the animal, and provide a permanent mark which leaves the
tagged animal free of encumbrances. The use of freeze brands shows
promise and should come into more extensive use.
Other static tagging techniques currently under investigation include
the use of laser beams to apply small brands and the use of gas
branding devices. Neither technique, however, has yet reached the field
biologist.
The success of any tagging program using static tags depends on the
resighting of tagged animals and the recovery of tags. For that reason,
we appeal to readers to be on the lookout for tagged animals and to
report sightings to one of the authors.
[Illustration: Appendix Figure A1.--Some of the basic kinds of tags used
to mark porpoises, dolphins, and small whales. A, B, and C are nylon
button tags, which are placed in the dorsal fin of animals and may be
clearly visible as the animal surfaces to breathe. D is a vinyl
spaghetti tag. (_Photo by R. Krenic, courtesy of Naval Undersea
Center._)]
[Illustration: Appendix Figure A2.--A spaghetti tag in the back of a
blue whale off San Clemente Island, Calif. (_Photo by S. Leatherwood._)]
[Illustration: Appendix Figure A3.--A spaghetti tag in the flank of a
bottlenosed dolphin off Loreto, Baja California, Mexico. This particular
tag was placed unusually low. The streamer and spaghetti tags are
usually placed high on the back, just in front of the dorsal fin, and
are clearly visible as the animal surfaces to breathe. (_Photo by W. E.
Evans._)]
[Illustration: Appendix Figure A4.--A button tag placed on the dorsal
fin of a newly captured saddleback dolphin off Catalina Island, Calif.
(_Photo by W. E. Evans._)]
[Illustration: Appendix Figure A5.--This is the way the button tag
appears on an animal swimming free in the open sea off Palos Verdes,
Calif. (_Photo by B. Noble, courtesy of Marineland of the Pacific._)]
[Illustration: Appendix Figure A6.--Freeze-branding is an apparently
painless method of applying a permanent identifying mark to the body of
a porpoise or whale. (_Photo of a bottlenosed dolphin off Sarasota,
Fla., by A. B. Irvine._)]
Radio Transmitter Tags
In recent years, radio transmitter tags have been developed for use on
marine mammals. As they continue to become more reliable, these tags are
expected to come into more and more widespread use.
Early radio tags (Fig. A7) were simple locator beacons which permitted
the animal to be tracked by sending a signal to a tracking vessel or
aircraft every time the animal surfaced and the antenna tip was exposed.
Even these basic packages provide important information on movement,
activity patterns, and respiration rates.
Subsequent developments have involved the addition of sensors to monitor
the maximum depth of each dive and environmental parameters such as the
water temperature at that depth (Fig. A8).
Logical extensions of these developments include the addition of
numerous other sensors to permit simultaneous monitoring of multiple
aspects of the animal's environment and the transmission of these data
first to aircraft and subsequently to satellites for relay to
shore-based laboratories.
In addition to permitting scientists to define movement patterns and
daily diving patterns of cetaceans, the use of such devices offers an
exciting means of determining the environmental parameters that trigger
changes in their behavior.
Radio transmitter tags, in a variety of configurations, may be
constructed and attached for short-term studies or for long-term
monitoring of migrating animals. In either case, depending on their size
and methods of attachment, radio transmitter tags may be visible on a
free-swimming animal even at a considerable distance.
[Illustration: Appendix Figure A7.--A saddleback dolphin wearing a radio
tag transmitter surfaces to breathe off southern California. (_Photo
courtesy of W. E. Evans._)]
[Illustration: Appendix Figure A8.--A radio transmitter package attached
to the dorsal ridge of a California gray whale. This yearling animal,
captive for most of the first year of its life, was released into the
ocean off San Diego, Calif., in March 1972 and subsequently tracked from
shipboard and aircraft for over 30 days. The sensor transmitter package,
shown in detail in the inset, was designed to measure the maximum depth
of the animal's dive and the water temperature at that depth. (_Photo by
S. Leatherwood._)]
Natural Markings
In addition to these man-made and applied tags, variations in natural
markings and unusual appearances may be used to identify individuals and
herds on repeated encounters. Although many species of cetaceans are
characterized by changes in color pattern with age, individuals
occasionally differ radically in their coloration from their fellows
(App. Figs. A9, A10). In addition, individuals are sometimes seen with
unusually shaped dorsal fins or scarring patterns (App. Fig. A11). These
unusually marked animals should stand out in repeated encounters and can
be a help in identifying a herd from one encounter to another.
Obviously, this list of tags and anomalous markings is not exhaustive.
New marks may be developed at any time. The discussion is intended to
make the reader aware of the value of information on natural or man-made
marks in studies of cetacean natural history. Your cooperation will
perhaps help us to unravel some of the mystery surrounding the
distribution and movements of porpoises, dolphins, and whales.
[Illustration: Appendix Figure A9.--A piebald saddleback dolphin on the
bow of a research vessel off San Clemente Island, Calif. (_Photo by B.
C. Parks._)]
[Illustration: Appendix Figure A10.--A nearly all-white pilot whale seen
off Catalina Island, Calif., in April 1971. The observation of this same
animal at least once each quarter of the year is evidence that it is
resident in that area. (_Photo by S. Leatherwood._)]
[Illustration: Appendix Figure A11.--A herd of pilot whales off Catalina
Island, Calif., including an animal with a partially chopped-off dorsal
fin, which has made him recognizable in repeated encounters with pilot
whales around the various channel islands. (_Photo by G. E. Lingle._)]
APPENDIX B
RECORDING AND REPORTING OBSERVATIONS OF CETACEANS AT SEA
To increase reliability of identifications, observers should train
themselves to ask the following kinds of questions each time cetaceans
are encountered:
1. How large was the animal?
2. Did it have a dorsal fin? If so, what was its size, shape, and
position on the animal's back?
3. Was the animal's blow visible? If so, how tall did it appear? What
was its shape? How frequently did the animal blow?
4. What was the animal's color and color pattern?
5. Did it have any highly distinctive markings?
6. If it was a large or medium-sized animal, did it show its tail flukes
when it began its dive?
7. If it was a medium-sized or small animal, did it approach, avoid, or
ignore the vessel? Did it ride the bow wave?
8. What was its behavior? Did it jump from the water? If so, did it make
a smooth graceful arching jump, or did it spin, somersault, or reenter
with a splash?
One characteristic is rarely sufficient by itself, and the greater
amount of relevant evidence the observer can obtain, the greater the
likelihood he can make a reliable identification. But it is important to
remember that even the most experienced cetologists are often unable to
make an identification. Therefore, even if you cannot positively
identify an animal or even make a good guess as to its identity, do not
hesitate to fill out the rest of the sighting record form and submit it
to an appropriate office. Listing the characters you observe and filling
in as much of the form as possible may enable a cetologist to make an
identification based on those characters and his knowledge of the
distribution, movements, and behavior of cetaceans. In this regard, a
sketch made as soon as possible after the encounter and photographs
taken from as many angles as possible will aid in the identification.
Two sample sighting reports are provided to demonstrate a method of
recording observations. The first report, "Sighting Information," is
completed as an example and is footnoted for explanation. The second
report, "Cetacean Data Record." located at the end of the guide, is
blank and may be photocopied in bulk for use in the field. Copies of
this or similar forms are available from any of the authors or from
National Marine Fisheries Service, Tiburon, Calif. Even if no form is
available, however, observations should be recorded in rough form, in as
much detail as possible.
Reliable intermittent reports of cetaceans are of interest to
cetologists. Their locations indicate seasonality of distribution, and
their frequencies help indicate relative abundances of the various
species. Because scientists are attempting to determine areas in which
cetaceans are often, occasionally, seldom, or never found, and are
ultimately describing why animals are found in one area and not another,
persons who want to go a step further in their participation in observer
programs may want to keep and report records of their entire cruise
tracks and zones in which vigilance was maintained but no cetaceans were
observed. Data obtained in this manner may be used as the foundation of
estimates of cetacean populations, estimates which are extremely
difficult to obtain by any other method.
To be of maximum use in such calculations, however, records of this kind
_must_ include the following minimum information: time and location of
beginning and ending of each continuous watch, weather conditions as
they affect visibility, sea state, ship's speed, height of the
observer(s) above the water, number of persons on watch, and details of
each sighting, particularly the estimated distance of the animal(s) from
the ship's track.
For a sample of a fictional continuous watch report might look like the
following. If sighting forms are available, these observations may be
recorded directly onto them. Additional information can be recorded on
the opposite side of the forms.
[Illustration: Appendix Figure B1.--A sample cruise track with cetacean
sightings. See text for detailed data recording.]
GENERAL INFORMATION
RV Melville (34-foot converted fishing boat)
U.S. Department of Commerce
NMFS
Hydrographic Cruise Miami, Florida to Flamingo, Florida
28-31 January 1973
2 observers (G.E. Lingle and G.M. Mohr)
EYE LEVEL OF OBSERVERS: 16 feet above water
AVERAGE SHIP SPEED: 8.0 knots during continuous watch
CONTINUOUS WATCH INFORMATION (REFER TO FIG. B1):
START END START END
LEG DATE TIME TIME POSITION POSITION WEATHER--VISIBILITY
1-2 2/28 1200 1730 U. Miami Dock 25-42N Beaufort II Visibility
Va. Key 80-02W 3 miles
3-4 2/29 0800 1500 24-26N 25-00N Beaufort I Visibility
80-04E 81-04W 3.5 miles
5-6 2/30 0700 1680 25-12N 25-12N 3.5 miles
80-46W 81-10W
7-8 2/31 0700 0900 25-00 Flamingo 3.5 miles
80-45W
CETACEAN OBSERVATIONS (REFER TO FIG. B1):
A-2/28 1048 16 bottlenosed dolphins, _Tursiops truncatus_. 6 miles
outside our course, headed west--rode bow briefly. Large
concentrations of sea birds in area. One porpoise freeze
branded N-1 on dorsal fin.
B-2/29 1100 2 right whales directly ahead of vessel headed
NE--40-foot female? with calf. 2 bottlenosed dolphins
accompanying the whales were riding pressure wave off
whale's head.
C-2/29 1400 25-30 spotted porpoises, _Stenella plagiodon_, 1.25 miles
outside our course, heading 240 deg. mag. Did not ride bow
wave.
D-2/30 1300 8 bottlenosed dolphins, _Tursiops truncatus_, 200-300
yards inshore of our course, milling in area of
concentrations of mullet and other small schooling fishes,
dolphins (porpoises) and birds feeding on fish.
SIGHTING INFORMATION
DATE AND LOCAL TIME [Handwriting: 27 January 1977 0845] LOCATION[13]
[Handwriting: Ca. 25 deg.00'N, 80 deg.30'W]
WEATHER CONDITIONS [Handwriting: Scattered rain squalls, visibility
1-1.5 mi, Temp 42 deg.F]
OCEANOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS[14] [Handwriting: Swells 1-2 feet, scattered
white caps Winds from S.E. @ 3-8 knots, gusting in squalls to 15 knots.]
SPECIES[15] [Handwriting: Right Whales, Eubalaena glacialis (45 ft/15
ft)] NUMBER OF ANIMAL(S) [Handwriting: 2]
HEADING OF ANIMAL(S) [Handwriting: 015 deg.] SPEED OF ANIMAL(S)
[Handwriting: 1-2] (MAGNETIC) (KNOTS)
ASSOCIATED ORGANISMS[16] [Handwriting: Bottlenosed dolphins, Tursiops
truncatus (3) and unidentified gulls (10-20)]
TAGS OR UNUSUAL MARKINGS [Handwriting: One whale had deep slash across
back about 3 ft. behind blowholes-area of slash was white.]
CHARACTERISTICS OBSERVED WHICH RESULTED IN SPECIES IDENTIFICATION
[Handwriting: 45 ft, No dorsal fin, smooth black back, high arching
jaws, yellowish-orange growths on head, coastal habitat]
BEHAVIOR OF ANIMAL(S) [Handwriting: Adult whale swam steadily north,
calf close beside, Bottlenosed dolphins riding in front of adults head.]
SKETCHES [Hand-drawn illustration of whales, dolphins and distinguishing
features.]
PHOTOS AVAILABLE YES NO
[Handwriting: Photos (GEL, Roll 16, frames 8-30)]
ADDITIONAL REMARKS [Handwriting: Dolphins remained with whales entire
1/2 hour of observation, appently riding on pressure wave.]
NAME AND ADDRESS OF OBSERVER (SHIP OR A/C) [Handwriting: G. E. Lingle,
Naval Undersea Center, San Diego, California 92132 and G. A. Antonelis,
NMFS, Seattle, Washington 98105 aboard the RV Cape]
[Footnote 13: If latitude and longitude are not readily available,
record best available position, for example 5 hours at 10 knots, SE of
Miami.]
[Footnote 14: Any oceanographic or bathymetric information obtainable at
the time of sighting may be significant. Such measurements as water
depth, presence of large fish schools, or deep scattering
layer/organisms (DSL) characteristics of the bottom (e.g., flat sand
plain, sea mount, submarine cliff), surface temperature, depth of
thermocline, and salinity should be included if available. In the
Pacific, similar data have been used to demonstrate reliable
associations there between saddleback dolphins and significant features
of bottom relief and relationships between the onset of their nighttime
deep diving (feeding) patterns and the upward migration of the
scattering layers.]
[Footnote 15: Sometimes two or more species of cetacean are found
together. If more than one species is sighted, try to identify each.
Give both common and scientific names of each, and even if you cannot
identify the animal(s) describe, sketch, and, if possible, photograph
them and fill out the rest of the sighting report.]
[Footnote 16: Describe any tags seen (see Appendix A) and state their
size, shape, color, and position on the animal's body and any symbols or
numbers they contain.]
APPENDIX C
STRANDED WHALES, DOLPHINS, AND PORPOISES
With a Key to the Identification of Stranded Cetaceans of the Western
North Atlantic
Stranded Animals
As we discussed briefly in the introduction to this guide, whales,
dolphins, and porpoises sometimes "strand" or "beach" themselves,
individually or in entire herds, for a complex of still incompletely
understood reasons. Though the reasons suggested for these strandings
appear almost as numerous as the strandings themselves, two tenable
generalizations have recently been proposed.
Strandings of lone individuals usually involve an animal which is sick
or injured. Mass strandings, involving from several to several hundred
individuals, appear to be far more complex and may result from fear
reactions, from extremely bad weather conditions, from herd-wide disease
conditions, or from failure of the echolocation system due to
physiological problems or environmental conditions which combine to
reduce its effectiveness, to mention only a few.
Whatever their causes, however, cetacean strandings usually attract
crowds and elicit much public interest and sympathy. There are
frequently attempts to save the lives of the animals involved.
Individually stranded cetaceans rarely survive, even if they are found
soon after stranding and transported to adequate holding facilities.
This does not mean that every attempt should not be made to save them.
In mass strandings, some individuals may be entirely healthy, and if
they are found soon enough after stranding, properly protected and
transported, and correctly cared for in the initial few days after
collection, they may survive in captivity. Attempts to rescue all the
animals in a mass stranding by towing them out to sea have almost always
been frustrating because the animals usually swim repeatedly back onto
the beach.
If you discover a stranding and before you become involved in an attempt
to save a live stranded animal or to collect data from a dead one, you
should be aware of the following:
MARINE MAMMALS ARE CURRENTLY PROTECTED BY LAW. Under provisions of the
Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, it is unlawful for persons without
a permit to handle, harass, or possess any marine mammal. It is within
the authority of State officials and employees of the National Marine
Fisheries Service to arrange for the care of live animals through
certified institutions, such as many of those listed in Appendix E.
(Even if the animals were not protected by law, any impulse to take them
to backyard swimming pools, for instance, should be tempered by the
knowledge that their chances of survival are far greater in an
institution with the facilities and expertise to properly care for
them.) The best general rule is to notify the nearest State or National
Marine Fisheries Service office. If you prefer, however, you may
contact one of the institutions listed in the appendix and ask them to
handle the situation. Some will already have permits to investigate
strandings. Most will be anxious to help.