[1] This article is based on information collected by Mr. Hira Lal
in Jubbulpore, and the author in Mandla.
[2] The word Dishai really means direction or cardinal point, but
as the goddess dwells in the sheep-pen it is probable that she was
originally the sheep itself.
[3] The following particulars are taken from the Central Provinces
Monograph on Woollen Industries, by Mr. J. T. Marten.
[4] A Naturalist on the Prowl, 3rd ed., p. 219. In the quotation
the Hindustani word kammal, commonly used in the Central Provinces,
is substituted for the Marathi word kambli.
[5] This article is compiled from an excellent monograph contributed
by Surgeon-Major Mitchell of Bastar State, with extracts from Colonel
Glasfurd's Report on Bastar (Selections from the Records of the
Government of India in the Foreign Department, No. 39 of 1863).
[6] India Census Report (1901), p. 283.
[7] Madras Census Report (1891), p. 253.
[8] Ethnographic Notes in Southern India, p. 22.
[9] Madras Census Report (1891), p. 253.
[10] Report on the Dependency of Bastar, p. 37.
[11] Report on the Dependency of Bastar, p. 37.
[12] Ethnographic Notes in Southern India, p. 270.
[13] Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Pan.
[14] The human sacrifices of the Khonds were suppressed about 1860. See
the article on that tribe.
[15] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. Jhanjhan Rai,
Tahsildar, Sarangarh, and Satyabadi Misra of the Sambalpur Census
office.
[16] Mund-jhulana, to swing the head.
[17] Based on notes taken by Mr. Hira Lal at Chanda and the notices
of the Garpagari in the District Gazetteers.
[18] Village watchman.
[19] Dr. Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, p. 171.
[20] The Golden Bough, 2nd ed. vol. i. p. 68, quoting from French
authorities.
[21] This article is based on papers by Mr. Jeorakhan Lal, Deputy
Inspector of Schools, Bilaspur, and Bhagwan Singh, Court of Wards
Clerk, Bilaspur.
[22] The Celestial Physician.
[23] This article is compiled partly from papers by Munshis Pyare
Lal Misra and Kanhya Lal of the Gazetteer Office.
[24] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Ghasi.
[25] Central Provinces Gazetteer (1871), p. 273.
[26] Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, p. 325.
[27] Ficus glomerata.
[28] Cynodon dactylon.
[29] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Ghasi.
[30] This article is based partly on a paper by Khan Bahadur Imdad Ali,
Pleader, Damoh.
[31] Punjab Census Report (1881), para. 272.
[32] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Ghosi.
[33] From a note by Mr. Hira Lal.
[34] This article is compiled from papers by Kanhya Lal of the
Gazetteer Office, and Madho Rao, Deputy Inspector of Schools, Balaghat.
[35] Balaghat District Gazetteer (C. E. Low), p. 80.
[36] Linguistic Survey of India, vol. iv. Dravidian Language, p. 386.
[37] The country of Gondwana properly included the Satpura plateau
and a section of the Nagpur plain and Nerbudda valley to the south
and west.
[38] Early History of India, 3rd ed. p. 337.
[39] Art. Gondwana.
[40] Linguistic Survey, Munda and Dravidian Languages, iv. p. 285.
[41] Notes, p. 15.
[42] Garha is six miles from Jubbulpore.
[43] See article on Kol.
[44] Mr. Standen's Betul Settlement Report.
[45] The argument in this section will be followed more easily if
read after the legend in the following paragraphs.
[46] Highlands of Central India (Chapman & Hall).
[47] Deo-khulla or threshing-floor of the gods. See section on
Religion.
[48] Passage from Mr. Hislop's version.
[49] Dhupgarh in Pachmarhi might be indicated, which has a steep
summit.
[50] Terminalia arjuna.
[51] This extract is reproduced by permission of the publishers,
Messrs. Chapman & Hall, London.
[52] Tekam the teak tree, Markam the mango tree, and Telengam the
Telugu. These are the names of well-known exogamous septs.
[53] See section on Religion.
[54] See also art. Kahar.
[55] The theory is stated and explained in vol. iv. of Exogamy and
Totemism.
[56] See para. 15.
[57] Boswellia serrata.
[58] Semecarpus anacardium.
[59] Anogeissus latifolia.
[60] Diosypyros tomentosa.
[61] One rupee = 1s. 4d.
[62] From Mr. Langhorne's monograph.
[63] The above rite has some resemblance to the test required of the
suitors of Penelope in the Odyssey of bending the bow of Odysseus
and shooting an arrow through the axes, which they could not perform.
[64] The information on child-birth is obtained from papers by
Mr. Durga Prasad Pande, Extra Assistant Commissioner, and the
Rev. Mr. Franzen of Chhindwara, and from notes taken in Mandla.
[65] See articles on Kunbi, Kurmi, and Mehtar.
[66] Boswellia serrata.
[67] The following examples of names were furnished by the
Rev. Mr. Franzen and Mr. D. P. Pande.
[68] See article on Kurmi.
[69] Boswellia serrata.
[70] Deputy-Commissioner, Chhindwara. The note was contributed to
the Central Provinces Census Report for 1881 (Mr. Drysdale).
[71] Ghora, a horse.
[72] Diospyros tomentosa.
[73] Cassia fistula.
[74] This is incorrect, at present at any rate, as the Karma is
danced during the harvest period. But it is probable that the ritual
observances for communal fishing and hunting have now fallen into
abeyance.
[75] C. P. Gazetteer (1871), Introduction, p. 130.
[76] This section contains some information furnished by R. B. Hira
Lal.
[77] Notes on the Gonds, pp. 15, 16.
[78] Indian Caste, i. p. 325.
[79] See article Birhor.
[80] See article Bhunjia.
[81] Notes, p. 1.
[82] Highlands of Central India, p. 156.
[83] Report on Bastar Dependency, p. 41.
[84] Assessment of revenue for land.
[85] Quoted in C.P. Gazetteer (1871), Introduction, p. 113.
[86] Chhindwara Settlement Report.
[87] Report on Bastar Dependency, p. 43.
[88] Ind. Ant. (1876), p. 359.
[89] See para. 65, Tattooing.
[90] See para. 41, Religion.
[91] Balaghat District Gazetteer, p. 87.
[92] Rawan was the demon king of Ceylon who fought against Rama,
and from whom the Gonds are supposed to be descended. Hence this song
may perhaps refer to a Gond revolt against the Hindus.
[93] The amaltas or Cassia fistula, which has flowers like a
laburnum. The idea is perhaps that its leaves are too small to make
a proper leaf-cup, and she will not take the trouble to get suitable
leaves.
[94] Hislop, Notes, p. 2.
[95] Chhindwara Settlement Report.
[96] This article is based on a paper by Pandit Pyare Lal Misra.
[97] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. Kesho Rao Joshi,
Headmaster, City School, Nagpur, and Pyare Lal Misra, Ethnographic
Clerk.
[98] Page 67.
[99] In the Maratha Districts the term Ganges sometimes signifies
the Wainganga.
[100] Dam apparently here means life or breath.
[101] Gunthorpe, p. 91.
[102] This article contains material from Mr. J. C. Oman's Mystics,
Ascetics and Saints of India, Sir E. Maclagan's Punjab Census Report,
1891, and Dr. J. N. Bhattacharya's Hindu Castes and Sects (Calcutta,
Messrs. Thacker, Spink and Co.).
[103] Elaeocarpus.
[104] Mr. Marten's C.P. Census Report (1911), p. 79.
[105] Orphéus, p. 137.
[106] Oman, Mystics, Ascetics and Saints, p. 269.
[107] Bhattacharya, Hindu Castes and Sects, p. 380.
[108] Bhattacharya, ibidem, and Oman, Mystics, Ascetics and Saints,
pp. 160, 161.
[109] Buchanan, Eastern India, i. pp. 197, 198.
[110] Nesfield, Brief View of the Caste System, p. 86.
[111] J. C. Oman, Cults, Customs and Superstitions of India (London,
T. Fisher Unwin), p. 11.
[112] Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India, pp. 156, 157.
[113] Sir E. Maclagan, Punjab Census Report (1891), p. 112.
[114] This article is based on notes by Mr. Percival, Assistant
Conservator of Forests, and Rai Bahadur Hira Lal.
[115] For further details see article on Gond Gowari.
[116] See article on Kunbi.
[117] Early History of India, 3rd ed. pp. 409, 411.
[118] Mr. Smith ascribes this discovery to Messrs. A. M. T. Jackson
(Bombay Gazetteer, vol. i. Part I., 1896, p. 467); D. R. Bhandarkar,
Gurjaras (J. Bo. R.A.S. vol. xx.); and Epigraphic Notes (ibidem,
vol. xxi.); and Professor Kielhorn's paper on the Gwalior Inscription
of Mihira Bhoja in a German journal.
[119] Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat, Appendix B, The Gujars.
[120] The Khazars were known to the Chinese as Yetas, the beginning
of Yeta-i-li-to, the name of their ruling family, and the nations of
the west altered this to Hyatilah and Ephthalite. Campbell, ibidem.
[121] See article on Panwar Rajput, para. 1.
[122] Campbell, loc. cit. p. 495.
[123] Tribes and Castes, article Gujar, para. 12. The description
is mainly taken from Elliott's History of India as told by its own
Historians.
[124] Description of the Kangra Gujars by Mr. Barnes. Quoted in
Ibbetson's Punjab Census Report (1881), para. 481.
[125] Census Report, para. 481.
[126] Cf. Krishna's epithet of Murlidhar or the flute-player, and
the general association of the flute with herdsmen and shepherds in
Greek and Roman mythology.
[127] Ibidem.
[128] Hoshangabad Settlement Report, para. 16.
[129] Nimar Settlement Report (1868).
[130] This article is based partly on a paper by Mr. Abdus Subhan Khan,
Tahsildar, Hinganghat, and Mr. Aduram Chaudhri of the Gazetteer Office.
[131] The trifoliate leaf of Aegle Marmelos.
[132] Bombay Gazetteer, vol. xviii. p. 266.
[133] History of the Marathas, vol. i. p. 26, footnote.
[134] Bombay Gazetteer, vol. x. p. 119.
[135] Bombay Ethnographic Survey, Monograph on Gurao.
[136] Sesamum.
[137] Bombay Gazetteer, vol. xix. p. 101.
[138] This article is compiled principally from a monograph by Munshi
Kanhya Lal, Assistant Master, Raipur High School, and formerly of
the Gazetteer Office; and also from papers by Mr. Panda Baijnath,
Superintendent of Bastar State, and Mr. Gokul Prasad, Tahsildar of
Dhamtari. The descriptions of marriage, funeral and birth customs
are taken from Munshi Kanhya Lal's monograph.
[139] By the Rev. G. K. Gilder of the Methodist Episcopal Mission
of Raipur.
[140] Chalki is said to have been a Brahman who gave shelter to the
pregnant fugitive widow of a Raja; and her child was the ancestor of
the Bastar dynasty. But the name may also be taken from the Chalukya
Rajput clan.
[141] The Rawats or Ahirs are graziers, and the Bhatra, Parja and
Muria are primitive tribes allied to the Gonds.
[142] Linguistic Survey, vol. vii. p. 331, and a note kindly furnished
by Sir G. Grierson at the time of the census.
[143] Buchanania latifolia.
[144] Bassia latifolia. Both these trees are valued because the fruit
of the first and the flowers of the second afford food.
[145] A black pulse.
[146] The Hindus number the days of each lunar fortnight separately.
[147] It is simply water in which gold has been dipped.
[148] Crooke, ii. 481.
[149] Brief View, p. 31.
[150] Buchanania latifolia.
[151] Based principally on the account of the Hatkars on p. 200 of
Sir A. Lyall's Berar Gazetteer, with some notes taken by Mr. Hira
Lal in Buldana.
[152] Colonel Meadows Taylor, Tara, p. 404.
[153] Ain-i-Akbari, quoted in Berar Gazetteer, p. 200.
[154] Berar Gazetteer.
[155] Partly based on a paper by Munshi Kanhaya Lal of the Gazetteer
Office.
[156] Muhammadans of Gujarat, by Khan Bahadur Fazalullah Lutfullah
Faridi, pp. 21, 22.
[157] Rasmala, ii. p. 90.
[158] Faridi, ibidem.
[159] See article on Bhat.
[160] Acacia arabica.
[161] The late Mr. A. M. T. Jackson's notes, Ind. Ant., August 1912,
p. 56.
[162] Laws of Manu, xi. p. 175, quoted in The Origin and Development
of the Moral Ideas, ii. p. 476.
[163] Westermarck, The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas,
ii. p. 470.
[164] Ibidem, ii. p. 471.
[165] Ibidem, ii. pp. 481, 482.
[166] Ibidem, ii. pp. 487-489.
[167] This article is compiled from a paper by Mr. Babu Rao, Deputy
Inspector of Schools, Seoni District.
[168] In this year only 33 Holias were returned as against more than
4000 in 1891; but, on the other hand, in 1901 the number of Golars
was double that of the previous census.
[169] Mysore Census Report (1891), p. 254.
[170] Ethnographic Notes in Southern India, p. 258.
[171] This article is principally based on information collected by
Mr. Hira Lal in Bhandara.
[172] A corruption of Uika.
[173] See the articles Mahar and Kunbi.
[174] This article is partly based on a paper by Bihari Lal, Patwari,
of Hoshangabad.
[175] Semaria is a common name of villages, and is of course as such
derived from the semar tree, but the argument is that the Jadams took
the name from the village and not from the tree. Totem is perhaps
rather a strong word for the kind of veneration paid; the vernacular
term used in Bombay is devak.
[176] This article is based on an account of the Jaduas by
Mr. A. Knyvett, Superintendent of Police, Patna, and kindly
communicated by Mr. C. W. C. Plowden, Deputy Inspector-General of
Police, Bengal, through Mr. G. W. Gayer, in charge of the Central
Provinces Criminal Investigation Department.
[177] Sherring, Castes and Tribes, iii. p. 123.
[178] The nut of Eleocarpus lanceolatus.
[179] Aegle marmelos.
[180] Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies, 1897 ed. p. 118.
[181] This article is partly based on information contributed by
Mr. Debendra Nath Dutt, Pleader, Narsinghpur; Mr. Ganga Singh, Extra
Assistant Commissioner, Hoshangabad; and Mr. Aduram Chaudhri of the
Gazetteer Office. The correct pronunciation of the caste name is Jat,
but in the Central Provinces it is always called Jat.
[182] Punjab Census Report (1881), para. 421.
[183] Early History of India.
[184] Mahabharata, viii. 2026, et seq., translated by Professor
H. H. Wilson, and quoted in vol. i. pp. 260, 262 of Dr. J. Wilson's
Indian Caste.
[185] Ibidem, paras. 422-424.
[186] Kashyap was a Rishi or saint, but he may probably have developed
into an eponymous hero from Kachhap, a tortoise.
[187] Hoshangabad Settlement Report, p. 62.
[188] Aegle marmelos.
[189] Hoshangabad Settlement Report, loc. cit.
[190] This article is entirely based on an account of the caste
furnished by Rai Bahadur Panda Baijnath, Superintendent, Bastar State.
[191] Bassia latifolia.
[192] Boswellia serrata.
[193] This has been fully demonstrated by Sir J. G. Frazer in The
Golden Bough.
[194] Colebrooke's Essays.
[195] Quoting from Dr. George Smith's Life of Dr. Wilson, p. 74.
[196] Ibidem, pp. 13-15.
[197] Weber's Indian Literature, p. 239.
[198] Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chap, lxiii.
[199] Republished in the Theosophist.
[200] Eastern India, ii. p. 756.
[201] Travels in the Mughal Empire, Constable's edition, p. 316.
[202] Rajasthan, ii. p. 19.
[203] Maclagan, l.c. p. 115.
[204] Ibidem, l.c.
[205] Maclagan, l.c.
[206] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Kanphata.
[207] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Jogi.
[208] Sleeman, Report on the Badhaks, pp. 332, 333.
[209] These proverbs are taken from Temple and Fallon's Hindustani
Proverbs.
[210] Bombay Gazetteer, vol. xxi. p. 184.
[211] Phaseolus radiatus.
[212] Newcomb's Astronomy for Everybody, p. 33.
[213] Owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the sidereal year is
not the same as the solar year, being about 20 minutes longer. That
is, the sun passes a particular star a second time in a period of 365
days 6 hours and 9 minutes, while it passes the equatorial point in
365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 49 seconds, this latter period being the
solar year. The difference is due to slight changes in the direction of
the earth's axis, which change the position of the celestial equator
and of the equinoctial point where the sun crosses it. It is not
clear how the Hindus get over this difficulty, but the point does
not affect the general account.
[214] The stars corresponding to the nakshatras and their symbols are
mainly taken from Mr. L. D. Barnett's Antiquities of India, pp. 190,
191, compared with the list in Mr. W. Brennand's Hindu Astronomy,
pp. 40, 42.
[215] Taken from Professor Newcomb's Astronomy for Everybody.
[216] The moon's orbit is really an ellipse like that of the earth
and all the planets.
[217] Barnett, op. cit. p. 190.
[218] The Indian Calendar, by Messrs. Sewell and Dikshit, pp. 11
and 25.
[219] Brennand's Hindu Astronomy, p. 100.
[220] The Indian Calendar, Sewell and Dikshit, p. 28 and Table I.
[221] This seems to have been done by some ancient Indian astronomers.
[222] The Indian Calendar, p. 29.
[223] Taken from Brennand's Hindu Astronomy, p. 39.
[224] Barnett, Antiquities of India, p. 193.
[225] The above particulars regarding the measurement of time by the
gharial are taken from 'An Account of the Hindustani Horometry' in
Asiatic Researches, vol. v. p. 81, by John Gilchrist, Esq. The account
appears to be to some extent controversial, and it is possible that
the arrangement of the gharis may have varied in different localities.
[226] The information contained in this paragraph is taken from Captain
Mackintosh's Report on the Ramosis, chap. iii. (India Office Library
Tracts), in which a large variety of rules are given.
[227] Some of these names and also some of the women's names have
been taken from Colonel Temple's Proper Names of the Punjabis.
[228] Punjab Ethnography, para. 612.
[229] This passage is taken from Sir G. Grierson's Peasant Life in
Bihar, p. 64.
[230] This article is based on a paper by Mr. Pancham Lal,
naib-tahsildar, Murwara, with extracts from the Central Provinces
Monograph on Pottery and Glassware, by Mr. Jowers, and some information
collected by Mr. Hira Lal.
[231] Dhal means a shield, and the ornament is of this shape.
[232] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, article Kachhi.
[233] Partly based on a paper by Munshi Kanhya Lal of the Gazetteer
office.
[234] Irvine, Army of the Mughals, pp. 158, 159.
[235] Boswellia serrata.
[236] Sesamum indicum.
[237] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. Sarat Chandra Sanyal,
Sessions Judge, Nagpur, and Mr. Abdul Samad, Tahsildar, Sohagpur.
[238] Eastern India, ii. 426.
[239] Ibidem, iii. pp. 119, 120.
[240] Moor, Hindu Infanticide, p. 91.
[241] Yule and Burnell's Hobson-Jobson, Crooke's edition, s.v. Boy.
[242] Tribes and Castes of the N.W.P., art. Kahar.
[243] Private Life of an Eastern King, p. 207.
[244] Ibidem, pp. 200, 202.
[245] Stevens, In India, p. 313.
[246] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Kahar.
[247] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, ibidem.
[248] S.v. Boy.
[249] This article is partly compiled from papers by Mr. G. Falconer
Taylor, Forest Divisional Officer, and by Kanhya Lal, Clerk in the
Gazetteer office.
[250] Berar Census Report (1881), p. 141.
[251] Hislop papers. Vocabulary.
[252] North Arcot Manual, p. 247.
[253] 1881, p. 141.
[254] Ibidem.
[255] Bombay Gazetteer (Campbell), vol. xii. p. 120.
[256] Bombay Gazetteer (Campbell), vol. xxi. p. 172.
[257] Berar Census Report (1881), p. 141.
[258] Some information for this article has been supplied by Babu Lal,
Excise Sub-Inspector, Mr. Aduram Chaudhri, Tahsildar, and Sundar Lal
Richaria, Sub-Inspector of Police.
[259] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Kalar.
[260] Bassia latifolia, the tree from whose flowers fermented liquor
is made.
[261] The headquarters of the Sanjari tahsil in Drug District.
[262] Phulbaba, lit. 'flower-father.'
[263] This story is only transplanted, a similar one being related by
Colonel Tod in the Annals of the Bundi State (Rajasthan, ii. p. 441).
[264] Saccharum spontaneum.
[265] Settlement Report, p. 26.
[266] Mr. (Sir E.) Maclagan's Punjab Census Report (1891).
[267] Religions of India, p. 113.
[268] Apparently also called Sarcostemma viminalis.
[269] Bombay Gazetteer, Parsis of Guiarat, by Messrs. Nasarvanji
Girvai and Behramji Patel, p. 228, footnote.
[270] Ibidem.
[271] Hopkins, loc. cit. p. 213.
[272] Rajendra Lal Mitra, Indo-Aryans, ii. p. 419.
[273] Deussen, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, p. 12.
[274] Indo-Aryans, i. p. 393.
[275] Ibidem, p. 396.
[276] Ibidem, p. 402.
[277] Indo-Aryans, i. p. 411.
[278] Garrett's Classical Dictionary, s.v. Varuni and Vishnu.
[279] The Golden Bough, 2nd edition, i. pp. 359, 360.
[280] Indo-Aryans, pp. 408, 409.
[281] Ibidem, pp. 404, 405.
[282] Indo-Aryans, pp. 405, 406.
[283] Bombay Gazetteer, Poona, p. 549.
[284] Cannabis sativa.
[285] A liquor made from the flowers of the hemp plant, commonly
drunk in the hot weather.
[286] See Mr. E. Clodd's Myths and Dreams, under Dreams.
[287] A name of Siva or Mahadeo.
[288] 'Victory to Shankar.'
[289] A preparation of opium for smoking.
[290] T. H. Hendley, Account of the Bhils, J.A.S.B. xliv., 1875,
p. 360.
[291] M. Salomon Reinach in Orphéus, p. 120.
[292] Sir James Frazer in Attis, Adonis, Osiris, ii. p. 241.
[293] Book IV., chap. lxxv., quoted in Lane's Modern Egyptians, p. 347.
[294] Lane, Modern Egyptians, p. 348.
[295] Eastern India, iii. p. 163.
[296] Sir G. Watt's Commercial Products of India, s.v. Nicotiana.
[297] Ind. Ant., January 1911, p. 39.
[298] Tobacco is no doubt a derivative from some American word,
and Platts derives the Hindi tanbaku or tambaku from tobacco. The
fact that tanbaku is also Persian for tobacco militates against the
Sanskrit derivation suggested by Mr. Ganpat Rai and others, and tends
to demonstrate its American importation.
[299] This article is based on papers drawn up by Mr. Hira Lal,
Extra Assistant Commissioner, Pyare Lal Misra, Ethnographic Clerk,
and a very full account of the tribe by Mr. Ganpati Giri, Manager of
Bindranawagarh, which has furnished the greater part of the article,
especially the paragraphs on birth, religion and social customs.
[300] Jungle Life in India, p. 588.
[301] Criminal Tribes, p. 78.
[302] Criminal Classes.
[303] Berar Census Report (1881), p. 140.
[304] Page 139.
[305] See art. Beria, para. 1.
[306] Ibbetson, Punjab Census Report (1881), para. 527.
[307] Ibidem.
[308] Art. Kanjar, para. 3.
[309] Ibbetson.
[310] Crooke, art. Dom, para. 21.
[311] Lectures, p. 59.
[312] Bombay Gazetteer, Muhammadans of Gujarat, p. 83.
[313] Kennedy, Criminal Tribes of Bombay, p. 257.
[314] Criminal Tribes, p. 46.
[315] Berar Census Report (1881), p. 140.
[316] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Dom.
[317] Nesfield, l.c. p. 393.
[318] Ind. Ant. xvi. p. 37.
[319] Ind. Ant. xv. p. 15.
[320] In Sir G. Grierson's account the Bhojpuri version is printed in
the Nagari character; but this cannot be reproduced. It is possible
that one or two mistakes have been made in transliteration.
[321] Quoted in Mr. Crooke's article on Dom.
[322] Gayer, Lectures, p. 59.
[323] Gunthorpe, p. 81. Mr. Kennedy says: "Sansia and Beria women have
a clove (lavang) in the left nostril; the Sansias, but not the Berias,
wear a bullaq or pendant in the fleshy part of the nose."
[324] Gayer, l.c. p. 61.
[325] Crooke, l.c. para. 3.
[326] In a footnote Mr. Nesfield states: "The Kanjar who communicated
these facts said that the child used to open out its neck to the
knife as if it desired to be sacrificed to the deity."
[327] Butea frondosa.
[328] It is not, I think, used for weaving now, but only for stuffing
quilts and cushions.
[329] But elsewhere Mr. Nesfield says that the brushes are made from
the khas-khas grass, and this is, I think, the case in the Central
Provinces.
[330] This article is compiled principally from a note by Mr. Paiku,
Inspector of Police, Chanda.
[331] This article is based principally on a paper by Nand Kishore,
Bohidar, Sambalpur.
[332] Hobson-Jobson, art. Cranny.
[333] Eragrostis cynosuroides.
[334] (London, A. & C. Black.)
[335] This definition of totemism is more or less in accord with that
held by the late Professor Robertson Smith, but is not generally
accepted. The exhaustive collection of totemic beliefs and customs
contained in Sir J. G. Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy affords, however,
substantial evidence in favour of it among tribes still in the hunting
stage in Australia, North America and Africa. The Indian form of
totemism is, in the writer's opinion, a later one, arising when the
totem animal has ceased to be the main source of life, and when the
clan come to think that they are descended from their totem animal and
that the spirits of their ancestors pass into the totem animal. When
this belief arises, they cease eating the totem as a mark of veneration
and respect, and abstain from killing or injuring it. Finally the totem
comes to be little more than a clan-name or family name, which serves
the purpose of preventing marriage between persons related through
males, who believe themselves to be descended from a common ancestor.
[336] Orphéus (Heinemann), p. 197.
[337] Lane, Modern Egyptians, p. 248.
[338] Orphéus, p. 47.
[339] Ibidem, p. 50.
[340] B. G. Parsis of Gujarat, pp. 232, 241.
[341] Orphéus, pp. 101, 102.
[342] Ibidem, p. 204.
[343] Ibidem, p. 144.
[344] Ibidem, p. 169.
[345] D. M. Flinders-Petrie, Egypt and Israel, p. 61.
[346] Gomme, Folk-lore as a Historical Science, p. 161.
[347] Haug's Essays on the Parsis, p. 286.
[348] Golden Bough, ii. pp. 299-301. See article on Kumhar.
[349] Orphéus, p. 139.
[350] Orphéus, pp. 119, 120.
[351] Ibidem, p. 144.
[352] Religions, Ancient and Modern, Ancient Rome, Cyril Bailey, p. 86.
[353] Religions, Ancient and Modern, Ancient Egypt, Professor
Flinders-Petrie, p. 22.
[354] Religions, Ancient and Modern, Ancient Egypt, Professor
Flinders-Petrie, pp. 24, 26.
[355] Vide article on Bania.
[356] Dowson's and Garrett's Classical Dictionaries, art. Kartikeya.
[357] Religion of the Semites, p. 265.
[358] Ibidem, pp. 269, 270.
[359] Religion of the Semites, pp. 270, 271.
[360] Ibidem, pp. 273, 274.
[361] Religion of the Semites, p. 289.
[362] Ibidem, p. 313.
[363] Religion of the Semites, p. 271.
[364] Religion of the Semites, p. 275.
[365] Golden Bough, ii. p. 321.
[366] Vide art. Kumhar.
[367] Religion of the Semites, p. 338.
[368] Ibidem, p. 281.
[369] Dr Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, p. 150.
[370] Religion of the Semites, p. 285.
[371] Orphéus, pp. 123, 125.
[372] In following the explanation of the Passover given by Professor
Robertson Smith and M. Reinach, it is necessary with great diffidence
to dissent from the hypothesis of Sir J. G. Frazer that the lamb was
a substitute for the previous sacrifice by the Israelites of their
first-born sons.
[373] Orphéus, p. 272; Religion of the Semites, p. 311.
[374] Religion of the Semites, p. 304.
[375] Ibidem, pp. 305, 306.
[376] Religion of the Semites, pp. 296, 297.
[377] Golden Bough, ii. p. 313.
[378] When the blood of the animal was poured out before the god as
his share.
[379] Religion of the Semites, p. 246.
[380] Vide article on Dhanwar.
[381] Sir G. Robertson, Kafirs of the Hindu Kush, pp. 450, 451.
[382] Ibidem, p. 460.
[383] Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 176.
[384] Grant-Duff, History of the Marathas, vol. i. p. 27. Mr. Hira
Lal notes that owing to the predominance of Muhammadans in Berar
the practice of slaughtering all animals by the method of halal and
the regular employment of the Mullah to pronounce the sacred text
before slaughter may have grown up for their convenience. And, as in
other instances, the Hindus may have simply imitated the Muhammadans
in regarding this method of slaughter as necessary. This however
scarcely seems to impair the force of the argument if the Hindus
actually refused to eat animals not killed by halal; they must in
that case have attached some religious significance or virtue to the
rite, and the most probable significance is perhaps that stated in
the text. As Mr. Hira Lal points out, the Hindu sacred books provide
an elaborate ritual for the sacrifice of animals, but this may have
fallen into abeyance with the decline in the custom of eating meat.
[385] Vide article on Mochi.
[386] V. A. Smith, Asoka, p. 56.
[387] Ibidem, p. 58.
[388] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. Rajaram Gangadhar,
Tahsildar, Arvi; Mr. Sadasheo Jairam, Sanskrit Professor, Hislop
College; and Mr. Deodatta Namdar, Manager, Court of Wards, Chauri.
[389] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Thathera.
[390] Crooke's art. Thathera.
[391] A part of the information contained in this article is furnished
by Mr. Aduram Chaudhri of the Gazetteer Office.
[392] Madras Census Report (1901), p. 151, quoting from South Indian
Inscriptions, Buchanan's Mysore, Canara and Malabar, and Elliot's
History of India.
[393] Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii. pp. 444, 445.
[394] The Golden Bough, vol. ii. p. 205 et seq.
[395] Garrett's Classical Dictionary of the Hindus, p. 322.
[396] Westermarck, ibidem, quoting Ward's Hindus, p. 134.
[397] Wheeler's History of India, vol. iv. part ii. pp. 324, 325.
[398] Forbes, Rasmala, i. p. 247.
[399] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Tawaif.
[400] Extract from the Dasa Kumara Charita or Adventures of the Ten
Youths, in A Group of Hindu Stories, p. 72.
[401] S. M. Edwardes, By-ways of Bombay, p. 31.
[402] Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies, p. 93.
[403] Eastern India, i. p. 119.
[404] Ibidem, iii. p. 107.
[405] Ibidem, ii. p. 930.
[406] Persian Travels, book iii. chap. xvii.
[407] From a review of A German Staff Officer in India, written by
Sir Evelyn Wood in the Saturday Review, 5th February 1910.
[408] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Vaishnava. The notice, as
stated, refers only to the lowest section of Bairagis.
[409] Memoir of Central India.
[410] Tribes and Castes of the N.-W. P., art. Katwa.
[411] Temple and Fallon's Hindustani Proverbs.
[412] Perhaps a leather strap or belt.
[413] A revolution or circuit.
[414] A thousand.
[415] The third Baisakh (June).
[416] Butea frondosa.
[417] A description of the ceremony is given in the article on Kurmi.
[418] This article is based almost entirely on a monograph contributed
by Mr. Hira Lal.
[419] Ethnology, p. 158.
[420] Fruit of the egg-plant.
[421] Ethnology, pp. 136, 137.
[422] Jungle Life in India, pp. 315, 316.
[423] This article is based partly on papers by Munshi Kanhya Lal of
the Gazetteer office, Mr. Sundar Lal, Extra Assistant Commissioner,
Saugor, and Mr. J. N. Sil, Pleader, Seoni.
[424] Hindus of Gujarat, p. 59, quoting from Ind. Ant. vi. 192-193.
[425] Hindu Castes and Sects, p. 175.
[426] Eastern India, i. p. 162.
[427] Ibidem, ii. p. 466.
[428] Ibidem, ii. p. 736.
[429] Ibidem, ii. p. 122.
[430] Essays, vol. ii. p. 182.
[431] Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 312, 313.
[432] United Provinces Census Report (1901), pp. 222-223.
[433] Lala Jwala Prasad, Extra Assistant Commissioner, in Sir
E. A. Maclagan's Punjab Census Report for 1891.
[434] Memoir of Central India, vol. ii. pp. 165-166.
[435] The Kanungo maintains the statistical registers of land-revenue,
rent, cultivation, cropping, etc., for the District as a whole which
are compiled from those prepared by the patwaris for each village.
[436] Hindus of Gujarat, p. 60.
[437] Ibidem, p. 64.
[438] Ibidem, p. 61.
[439] Bhattacharya, Hindu Castes and Sects, p. 177. It is true
that Dr. Bhattacharya states that the Kayasths were also largely
employed under the Hindu kings of Bengal, but he gives no authority
for this. The Gaur Kayasths also claim that the Sena kings of Bengal
were of their caste, but considering that these kings were looked on
as spiritual heads of the country and one of them laid down rules for
the structure and intermarriage of the Brahman caste, it is practically
impossible that they could have been Kayasths. The Muhammadan conquest
of Bengal took place at an early period, and very little detail is
known about the preceding Hindu dynasties.
[440] Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Bihar Kayasth.
[441] Sherring, Tribes and Castes, vol. iii. pp. 253-254.
[442] Bhattacharya, Hindu Castes and Tribes, p. 177.
[443] Hindus of Gujarat, p. 81.
[444] Ibidem, p. 67.
[445] Ibidem, p. 68, and Mackintosh, Report in the Ramosis, India
Office Tracts, p. 77.
[446] Hobson-Jobson, s.v. Cranny.
[447] Hobson-Jobson, p. 167.
[448] Memoir of Central India, loc. cit.
[449] Hindus of Gujarat, p. 60.
[450] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Bengal Kayasth. The Kayasths
deny the story that the five Kayasths were servants of the five
Brahmans, and say that they were Kshatriyas sent on a mission from
the king of Kanauj to the king of Bengal. This, however, is improbable
in view of the evidence already given as to the historical status of
the Kayasths.
[451] Tribes and Castes, ibidem.
[452] Hindu Castes and Sects, p. 155.
[453] Ibidem, pp. 375, 380.
[454] See articles on Ghasia and Dhobi.
[455] Village Communities, p. 125.
[456] Hindu Castes and Sects, ibidem, p. 177.
[457] Tribes and Castes, art. Kayasth.
[458] Bhattacharya, loc. cit., p. 188.
[459] Hindus of Gujarat, p. 72.
[460] Dasrath and Kaushilya were the father and mother of Rama.
[461] These are the occupations of the Kayasths.
[462] Geography and Astronomy.
[463] Quoted from the Matsapuran in a criticism by Babu Krishna
Nag Verma.
[464] This article is based on papers by Mr. Mahfuz Ali, tahsildar,
Rajnand-gaon, Mr. Jowahir Singh, Settlement Superintendent, Sambalpur,
and Mr. Aduram Chaudhri of the Gazetteer Office.
[465] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Kaibartta.
[466] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Kewat.
[467] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, ibidem.
[468] A curved stick carried across the shoulders, from which are
suspended two panniers.
[469] This article is based on Mr. Crooke's and Colonel Dalton's
accounts, and some notes taken by Mr. Hira Lal at Raigarh.
[470] Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 128, 129.
[471] Ibidem, pp. 209, 210.
[472] Tribes and Castes, art. Kharwar.
[473] Tribes and Castes of Bengal.
[474] From bhuj, an arm, and jangh, a thigh. These are Hindi words,
and the whole story is obviously a Brahmanical legend. Balrai seems
a corruption of Balaram, the brother of Krishna.
[475] Estate held on feudal tenure.
[476] Religion and Folklore of Northern India, vol. ii. p. 170.
[477] Crooke, Tribes and Castes.
[478] Saccharum spontaneum.
[479] Tribes and Castes, art. Birhor.
[480] The above instances are reproduced from Sir J. G. Frazer's
Psyche's Task (London, 1909). These cases are all of homicide, but
it seems likely that the action of the Khairwars may be based on the
same motives, as the fear of ghosts is strong among these tribes.
[481] Risley, loc. cit.
[482] Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 128, 129.
[483] Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Khairwa. Quoting from Bombay
Gazetteer, x. 48 and iii. 310.
[484] Loc. cit.
[485] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Khandait. In 1911, after
the transfer of Sambalpur, only 18 Khandaits remained in the Central
Provinces.
[486] The following particulars are from a paper by Mr. Kashinath
Bohidar, Assistant Settlement Superintendent, Sonpur.
[487] Compiled principally from a paper by Kanhya Lal, clerk in the
Gazetteer Office.
[488] Carthamus tinctorius.
[489] In the Ethnographic Appendices to the India Census Report of
1901 a slightly different version of the story is given by Captain
Luard. The Dangis, it must be remembered, are a high caste ranking
just below Rajputs.
[490] This article is mainly based on notes taken by Rai Bahadur
Hira Lal at Raigarh, with extracts from Colonel Dalton's and Sir
H. Risley's accounts of the tribe.
[491] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Kharia.
[492] Saccharum spontaneum. This grass infests cultivated fields and
is very difficult to eradicate.
[493] Melia indica.
[494] Ethnology of Bengal.
[495] Jungle Life in India, p. 89.
[496] Linguistic Survey, vol. iv. Munda and Dravidian Languages, p. 22.
[497] Ibidem, p. 129.
[498] Mr. Crooke's Tribes and Castes, art. Khatik.
[499] Census Report (1881), para. 502.
[500] This statement does not apply to the Chamars of the Central
Provinces.
[501] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Khatik.
[502] Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat, pp. 55, 56.
[503] Tribes and Castes, art. Khatri.
[504] Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat, p. 55.
[505] Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat, p. 189.
[506] Ibidem, pp. 58, 59.
[507] Hindus of Gujarat, pp. 58, 59.
[508] This article consists mainly of extracts from Mr. F. L. Faridi's
full account of the Khojahs in the Bombay Gazetteer, Muhammadans
of Gujarat.
[509] Kandh is the Uriya spelling, and Kond or Khond that of the
Telugus.
[510] Linguistic Survey of India.
[511] Narsingha means a man-lion and is one of Vishnu's incarnations;
this subsept would seem, therefore, to have been formed since the
Khonds adopted Hinduism.
[512] In Orissa, however, relationship through females is a bar to
marriage, as recorded in Sir H. Risley's article.
[513] Report on the Khonds, p. 56.
[514] Report, p. 59.
[515] Sir H. Risley notes that the elephant represented the
earth-goddess herself, who was here conceived in elephant form. In the
hill tracts of Gumsur she was represented in peacock form, and the post
to which the victim was bound bore the effigy of a peacock. Macpherson
also records that when the Khonds attacked the victim they shouted,
'No sin rests on us; we have bought you with a price.'
[516] Golden Bough, 2nd ed. vol. ii. p. 241 sq.
[517] Pages 517-519. Published 1906.
[518] Journal, A. S. of Bengal, 1898.
[519] Sir G. A. Grierson's Linguistic Survey, Munda and Dravidian
Languages.
[520] This article is compiled principally from a paper by Pandit
Sakharam, Revenue Inspector, Hoshangabad District.
[521] Tod's Rajasthan, vol. ii. p. 327.
[522] Elliott's Hoshangabad Settlement Report, p. 60.
[523] Compiled from papers by Mr. Mulchand, Deputy Inspector of
Schools, Betul; Mr. Shams-ul-Husain, Tahsildar, Sohagpur; Mr. Kalyan
Chand, Manager, Court of Wards, Betul; and Kanhya Lal, clerk in the
Gazetteer Office.
[524] Hoshangabad Settlement Report (1867), p. 60.
[525] History of the Sikhs, p. 15, footnote.
[526] Ibbetson's Census Report (1881), p. 297.
[527] Nagpur Settlement Report, p. 24.
[528] Mr. Lawrence's Bhandara Settlement Report (1867), p. 46.
[529] Bombay Gazetteer, Satara, p. 106.
[530] See article on Kunbi.
[531] Bhandara District Gazetteer, para. 90.
[532] Bhandara Settlement Report.
[533] Ibidem.
[534] Subordinate revenue officer.
[535] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Bhumij.
[536] The Mundas and their Country, p. 400.
[537] Linguistic Survey, Munda and Dravidian Languages, vol. vi. p. 7.
[538] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Munda.
[539] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, p. 15.
[540] Introduction to The Mundas and their Country, p. 9.
[541] Introduction to The Mundas and their Country, p. 9.
[542] Garha is six miles from Jubbulpore.
[543] The Mundas and their Country, p. 124.
[544] Rasmala, i. p. 113.
[545] Two baskets slung from a stick across the shoulders.
[546] Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 166.
[547] Dalton, p. 152.
[548] November, January and February.
[549] Tribes and Castes, art. Munda.
[550] Thuiya, Bhuiya is a mere jingle.
[551] J.A.S.B., No. 1 of 1903, p. 31.
[552] Dalton, ibidem.
[553] Mr. B. C. Mazumdar's Monograph.
[554] Roy, ibidem, p. 428.
[555] The Mundas and their Country, p. 121.
[556] Linguistic Survey, vol. iv., Munda and Dravidian Languages,
p. 27.
[557] This article includes some extracts from notes made by Colonel
Mackenzie when Commissioner of Berar, and subsequently published in
the Pioneer newspaper; and information collected for the District
Gazetteers in Yeotmal and Wardha.
[558] Papers relating to the Aboriginal Tribes of the Central
Provinces, p. 10.
[559] Ibidem, Editor's Note.
[560] Linguistic Survey, vol. iv., Munda and Dravidian Languages,
p. 561.
[561] India Census Report (1901), p. 287.
[562] Hunter's Imperial Gazetteer, art. Kolamallai hills.
[563] Based partly on papers by Mr. Bihari Lal, Naib-Tahsildar,
Bilaspur, and Mr. Aduram Chaudhri of the Gazetteer Office.
[564] For further information the articles on Sansia and Beria may
be consulted.
[565] Andropagon Schoenanthus.
[566] Gunthorpe, loc. cit.
[567] Ibidem, p. 49.
[568] Kitts, loc. cit.
[569] Ind. Ant. iii. p. 185, Satara Gazetteer, p. 119.
[570] Lyall's Berar Gazetteer, pp. 103-5.
[571] Kathiawar Gazetteer, p. 140.
[572] Crooke's edition of Hobson-Jobson, art. Koli.
[573] Bombay City Census Report (1901) (Edwards).
[574] Gujarat Gazetteer, p. 238.
[575] Golden Book of India, s.v.
[576] Semecarpus anacardium, the marking-nut tree.
[577] Kitts, Berar Census Report (1881), p. 131.
[578] Akola Gazetteer (Mr. C. Brown), p. 116.
[579] P. 197.
[580] Hindus of Gujarat, l.c.
[581] Indian Antiquary, vol. iii. p. 236.
[582] Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat, p. 250.
[583] Indian Antiquary, vol. iii. p. 236.
[584] This article is largely compiled from an interesting paper
submitted by Mr. Parmanand Tiwari, Extra Assistant Commissioner and
Assistant Settlement Officer, Sambalpur.
[585] Phaseolus mungo.
[586] Madras Census Report (1901), p. 162.
[587] Mysore Ethnographic Survey, Komati caste (H. V. Nanjundayya).
[588] H. V. Nanjundayya, loc. cit.
[589] H. V. Nanjundayya, loc. cit.
[590] Tribes and Castes of the North-West Provinces, iii. 316.
[591] This article is largely based on a monograph contributed by
Mr. H. R. Crosthwaite, Assistant Commissioner, Hoshangabad, and
contains also extracts from a monograph by Mr. Ganga Prasad Khatri,
Forest Divisional Officer, Betul, and from the description of the
Korkus given by Mr. (Sir Charles) Elliott in the Hoshangabad Settlement
Report (1867), and by Major Forsyth in the Nimar Settlement Report
(1868-69).
[592] Risley's Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Appendix V.: Korwa.
[593] See also art. Kol.
[594] The local term for the god Siva.
[595] Bauhinia Vahlii.
[596] Bassia latifolia, Buchanania latifolia, Gmelina arborea and
Sterculia urens.
[597] Nearly 3 1/2 tons.
[598] Paspalum scrobiculatum, Panicum psilopodium, Coix Lachryma,
Eleusine coracana, Saccharum officianarum, Setaria italica, Oryza
sativa.
[599] Eugenia jambolana.
[600] Makyatotha, Jondhratotha, Dharsiima, Changri, Lobo, Khambi,
Dagde, Kullya, Bursuma and Killibhasam.
[601] Zizyphus jujuba.
[602] The tiger-god.
[603] The above passage is taken from Mr. (Sir Charles) Elliott's
Hoshangabad Settlement Report written in 1867. Since that time the
belief in the magical powers of the Bhumka has somewhat declined.
[604] A small measure for grain.
[605] Most of the information in this paragraph is taken from Mr. Ganga
Prasad Khatri's Report.
[606] Boswellia serrata.
[607] This article is based on Colonel Dalton's account of the tribe
and on notes by Mr. N. T. Kunte, Jailor, Sarguja, and Mr. Narbad
Dhanu Sao, Assistant Manager, Uprora.
[608] Ethnology of Bengal, p. 221.
[609] Shorea robusta.
[610] Dalton, loc. cit. p. 229.
[611] Ethnology of Bengal, p. 228.
[612] Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 228, 229.
[613] Bauhinia Vahlii.
[614] Believed to be some kind of vulture.
[615] This article is based on a good paper by Mr. Raghunath Waman
Vaidya, schoolmaster, Hinganghat, and others by Mr. M. E. Hardas,
Tahsildar, Umrer, and Messrs. Aduram Chaudhri and Pyare Lal Misra of
the Gazetteer Office.
[616] V. Nanjundayya, Monograph on the Sale Caste (Mysore
Ethnographical Survey).
[617] With this may be compared the tradition of the sweeper caste
that winnowing fans and sieves were first made out of bones and sinews.
[618] Kitts, Berar Census Report (1881), p. 127.
[619] Bauhinia Rusa.
[620] Sir H. Risley's Tribes and Castes of Bengal, art. Tanti.