Cybium Commersonii, Lacep. Seir.
Cybium lanceolatum, Cuv. & Val. Seir.
Sillago sihama, Forsk. Whiting.
Stromateus cinereus, Bloch.--
Immature, silver pomfret.
Adult, grey pomfret.
Stromateus niger, Bloch. Black pomfret.
Mugal subviridis, Cuv. & Val. Mullet.
Psettodes erumei, Bl. Schn. 'Sole.'
Lates calcarifer, Bloch. Cock-up; the begti of Calcutta.
Lutjanus roseus, Day.
Lutjanus marginatus, Cuv. & Val.
Polynemus tetradactylus, Shaw.
Chorinemus lysan, Forsk.
'Whitebait.'
The Pattanavans are Saivites, but also worship various minor gods
and Grama Devatas (village deities). In some places, they regard
Kuttiyandavan as their special sea god. To him animal sacrifices
are not made, but goats are sacrificed to Sembu Virappan or Minnodum
Pillai, an attendant on Kuttiyandavan. In Tanjore, the names of the
sea gods are Pavadairayan and Padaithalaidaivam. Before setting out
on a fishing expedition, the Pattanavans salute the god, the sea,
and the nets. In the Tanjore district, they repair their nets once in
eight days, and, before they go out fishing, pray to their gods to
favour them with a big catch. On a fixed day, they make offerings
to the gods on their return from fishing. The gods Pavadairayan
and Padaithalaidaivam are represented by large conical heaps of wet
sand and mud, and Ayyanar, Ellamma, Kuttiyandavar, Muthyalrouthar
and Kiliyendhi by smaller heaps. At the Masimakam festival, the
Pattanavans worship their gods on the sea-shore. The names Jattan and
Jatti are given to children during the Jatre or periodic festival of
the village goddesses.
The Pattanavans afford a good example of a caste, in which the
time-honoured village council (panchayat) is no empty, powerless
body. For every settlement or village there are one or more headmen
called Yejamanan, who are assisted by a Thandakaran and a Paraiyan
Chalavathi. All these offices are hereditary. Questions connected
with the community, such as disrespect to elders, breach of social
etiquette, insult, abuse, assault, adultery, or drinking or eating
with men of lower caste, are enquired into by the council. Even
when disputes are settled in courts of law, they must come before
the council. Within the community, the headman is all powerful, and
his decision is, in most instances, considered final. If, however,
his verdict is not regarded as equitable, the case is referred to a
caste headman, who holds sway over a group of villages. No ceremony
may be performed without the sanction of the local headman, and the
details of ceremonies, except the feasting, are arranged by the
headman and the Thandakaran. In the case of a proposed marriage,
the match is broken off if the headman objects to it. He should be
present at the funeral rites, and see that the details thereof are
properly carried out. It is the duty of the Chalavathi to convey the
news of a death to the relations. Should he come to the shore when
the fishes are heaped up, he has the right to take a few thereof as
his perquisite. The Thandakaran, among other duties, has to summon
council meetings. When the members of council have assembled, he ushers
in the parties who have to appear before it, and salutes the assembly
by prostrating himself on the floor. The parties take a bit of straw,
or other object, and place it before the headman in token that they
are willing to abide by the decision of the council. This formality
is called placing the agreement (muchchilika).
The consent of the maternal uncles is necessary before a pair can
be united in matrimony. When the wedding day has been fixed, the
bridegroom's party distribute grama thambulam (village pan-supari or
betel) to the headman and villagers. The marriage milk-post is made of
Mimusops hexandra, Erythrina indica, Casuarina equisetifolia, the green
wood of some other tree, or even a pestle. In one form of the marriage
ceremony, which varies in detail according to locality, the bridegroom,
on the arrival of the bride at the pandal (booth), puts on the sacred
thread, and the Brahman purohit makes the sacred fire, and pours ghi
(clarified butter) into it. The bridegroom ties the tali round the
bride's neck, and the maternal uncles tie flat silver or gold plates,
called pattam, on the foreheads of the contracting couple. Rings are
put on their second toes by the brother-in-law of the bridegroom
and the maternal uncle of the bride. Towards evening, the sacred
thread, the threads which have been tied to the marriage pots and the
milk-post, and grain seedlings used at the ceremony, are thrown into
the sea. Some Pattanavans allow a couple to live together as man and
wife after the betrothal, but before the marriage ceremony. This is,
however, on condition that the latter is performed as soon as it is
convenient. The remarriage of widows is freely permitted. No marriage
pandal is erected, and the bridegroom, or a female relation, ties the
tali on the bride's neck within the house. Such marriage is, therefore,
called naduvittu (interior of the house) tali. When a woman, who has
been guilty of adultery, is remarried, a turmeric string is substituted
for the golden tali, and is tied on the bride's neck by a woman.
Some Pattanavans have adopted the custom of burying their dead in a
seated posture (samathi). If a corpse is cremated, fire is carried to
the burning-ground by a barber. When the corpse has been laid on the
pyre, rice is thrown over it. The son, accompanied by a barber and a
Panisavan or washerman, and carrying a pot of water on his shoulder,
goes thrice round the pyre. At the third round, the Panisavan or
washerman makes holes in the pot, and it is thrown away. On the day of
the funeral, all the agnates shave their heads. On the following day,
they go to the burial or burning ground with tender cocoanuts, milk,
cakes, etc., and Arichandra, who presides over the burial-ground,
is worshipped. Milk is then poured over the grave, or the remains
of the bones, which are thrown into the sea. On the night of the
fifteenth day, Panisavans blow the conch and horn, and red cloths
are presented to the widow of the deceased by her relations. At about
4 A.M., a white cloth is thrown on her neck, and the tali string is
cut by an old woman. The tali is removed therefrom, and dropped into
a new pot filled with water. Hence, a form of abuse among Pattanavan
women is, May your tali be snapped, and thrown into water. The tali
is removed from the pot, which is thrown into the sea. The tali is
laid on a dish containing milk, and all those who visit the widow
must set eyes on it before they see her.
In the city of Madras, the Pattanavans have the privilege of supplying
bearers at temples, and the atmosphere surrounding them as they carry
the idols on their sturdy shoulders through Triplicane is said to be
"redolent of brine and the toddy shop."
In a judgment of the High Court of Judicature, Madras, it is recorded
that, in the eighteenth century, some boat-owners and boatmen
belonging to the Curukula Vamsha or Varunakula Mudali caste, who were
residing at Chepauk in the city of Madras, had embraced Christianity,
and worshipped in a chapel, which had been erected by voluntary
contributions. In 1799 the site of their village was required for
public purposes, and they obtained in lieu of it a grant of land
at Royapuram, where a chapel was built. Partly by taxes levied on
boatmen, and partly by tolls they were allowed to impose on persons
for frequenting the Royapuram bazar, a fund was formed to provide for
their spiritual wants, and this fund was administered by the Marine
Board. In 1829, a portion of the fund was expended in the erection
of the church of St. Peter, Royapuram, and the fund was transferred
to Government. The administration of the fund has been the source of
litigation in the High Court. [94]
It is noted by Mrs. F. E. Penny that some of the fisherfolk "adopted
Xavier as their special patron saint, and, as time passed, almost
deified him. In the present day, they appeal to him in times of
danger, crying 'Xavier! Xavier! Xavier!' in storm and peril. Even if
they are unfortunate in their catch when fishing, they turn to their
saint for succour."
As a numismatist, I resent the practice resorted to by some fishermen
of melting old lead coins, and converting them into sinkers for
their nets.
Pattapu.--Pattapu for Tulivandlu is a name for Tamil Pattanavans,
who have migrated to the Telugu country. Pattapu also occurs as a
sub-division of Yerukala.
Pattar.--The Pattars are Tamil Brahmans, who have settled in
Malabar. The name is said to be derived from the Sanskrit bhatta. It
is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that Pattar (teacher)
has been recently assumed as a title by some Nokkans in Tanjore. (See
Brahman.)
Pattariar.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a Tamil
corruption of Pattu Saliyan (silk-weaver). Pattariar or Pattalia is
a synonym of Tamil-speaking Saliyans.
Pattegara (headman).--An exogamous sept of Okkiliyan.
Pattindla (silk house).--An exogamous sept of Tota Balija.
Pattola Menon.--Recorded, in the Cochin Census Report, 1901, as a
sub-caste of Nayars, who are accountants in aristocratic families.
Pattukuruppu.--Recorded in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as
synonymous with Vatti, a sub-division of Nayar.
Pattu Sale.--A sub-division of Sales, who weave silk (pattu) fabrics.
Pattuvitan.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a
sub-division of Nayar.
Patvegara.--The Patvegaras or Pattegaras (pattu, silk) of South
Canara are described by Mr. H. A. Stuart [95] as "a Canarese caste
of silk weavers. They are Hindus, and worship both Siva and Vishnu,
but their special deity is Durga Paramesvari at Barkur. They wear
the sacred thread, and employ Brahmans for ceremonial purposes. They
are governed by a body called the ten men, and pay allegiance to
the guru of the Ramachandra math (religious institution). They are
divided into balis (septs) and a man may not marry within his own
bali. Polygamy is allowed only when a wife is barren, or suffers
from some incurable disease, such as leprosy. The girls are married
in infancy, and the binding portion of the ceremony is called dhare
(see Bant). Widow marriage is not permitted, and divorce is only
allowed in the case of an adulterous wife. They follow the ordinary
Hindu law of inheritance. The dead are cremated. The sradha (memorial)
ceremony is in use, and the Mahalaya ceremony for the propitiation
of ancestors in general is performed annually. Female ancestors are
also worshipped every year at a ceremony called vaddap, when meals
are given to married women. They eat fish but not meat, and the use
of alcohol is not permitted."
In the Mysore Census Report, 1891, the Patvegars are described as
"silk weavers who speak a corrupt Marathi conglomerate of Guzarati and
Hindi. They worship all the Hindu deities, especially the female energy
under the name of Sakti, to which a goat is sacrificed on the night
of the Dasara festival, a Musalman slaughtering the animal. After the
sacrifice, the family of the Patvegar partake of the flesh. Many of
their females are naturally fair and handsome, but lose their beauty
from early marriage and precocity." A few Pattegaras, who speak a
corrupt form of Marathi, are to be found in the Anantapur district.
Pavalamkatti (wearers of corals).--A sub-division of Konga Vellala.
Pavini.--See Vayani.
Payyampati.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a
sub-division of Nayar.
Pedakanti.--Pedakanti or Pedaganti is the name of a sub-division
of Kapu. It is said by some to be derived from a place called
Pedagallu. By others it is derived from peda, turned aside, and kamma,
eye, indicating one who turns his eyes away from a person who speaks
to him. Yet another suggestion is that it means stiff-necked.
Pedda (big).--A sub-division of Boya, Bagata, Konda Dora, Pattapu,
and Velama.
Peddammavandlu.--A fancy name taken by some Telugu beggars.
Pedditi.--A sub-division of Golla, some members of which earn a
livelihood by begging and flattery.
Pegula (intestines).--An exogamous sept of Boya.
Pekkan.--A division of Toda.
Pendukal (women).--A name applied to Deva-dasis in Travancore.
Pengu.--A sub-division of Poroja.
Pennegara.--Konkani-speaking rice-beaters in South Canara.
Pentiya.--The Pentiyas also call themselves Holuva and Halaba or
Halba. In the Madras Census Report, 1901, they are called Pantia
as well as Pentiya, and described as Oriya betel-leaf (panno)
sellers. Their occupation, in the Jeypore Agency tracts, is that
of cultivators. According to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao, to whom I am
indebted for the following note, numbers of them migrated thither from
Bustar, and settled at Pentikonna, and are hence called Pentikonaya or
Pentiya. Their language is Halba, which is easily understood by those
who speak Oriya. They are divided into two endogamous sections, called
Bodo (big or genuine), and Sanno (little), of whom the latter are said
to be illegitimate descendants of the former. The Bodos are further
sub-divided into a series of septs, e.g., Kurum (tortoise), Bhag
(tiger), Nag (cobra), and Surya (sun). The caste is highly organized,
and the head of a local centre is called Bhatha Nayako. He is assisted
by a Pradhani, an Umriya Nayako, and Dolayi. The caste messenger is
called Cholano, and he carries a silver baton when he summons the
castemen to a meeting. An elaborate ceremony is performed when a
person, who has been tried by the caste council, is to be received
back into the caste. He is accompanied to the bank of a stream,
where his tongue is burnt with a gold or silver wire or ornament by
the Bhatha Nayako, and some offerings from the Jagannatha temple at
Puri are given to him. He is then taken home, and provides a feast,
at which the Nayako has the privilege of eating first. He has further
to make a present of cloths to the assembled elders, and the four heads
of the caste receive a larger quantity than the others. The feast over,
he is again taken, carrying some cooked rice, to the stream, and with
it pushed therein. This ceremonial bath frees him from pollution.
Girls are married either before or after puberty. A man can claim his
paternal aunt's daughter in marriage. The bridegroom's party proceed,
with the bridegroom, to the bride's village, and take up their abode in
a separate house. They then take three cloths for the bride's mother,
three rupees for her father, and a cloth and two annas for each of
her brothers, and present them together with rice, liquor, and other
articles. Pandals (booths) are erected in front of the quarters of the
bridal couple, that of the bridegroom being made of nine, and that of
the bride of five sal (Shorea robusta) poles, to which a pot containing
myrabolams (Terminalia fruits) and rice is tied. The couple bathe,
and the bridegroom proceeds to the house of the bride. The Desari,
who officiates, dons the sacred thread, and divides the pandal into
two by means of a screen or curtain. The couple go seven times round
the pandal, and the screen is removed. They then enter the pandal,
and the Desari links their little fingers together. The day's ceremony
concludes with a feast. On the following day, the bride is conducted to
the house of the bridegroom, and they sprinkle each other with turmeric
water. They then bathe in a stream or river. Another feast is held,
with much drinking, and is followed by a wild dance. The remarriage
of widows is permitted, and a younger brother may marry the widow of
his elder brother. The dead are burnt, and death pollution is observed
for ten days, during which the relatives of the deceased are fed by
members of another sept. On the tenth day a caste feast takes place.
The Pentiyas are said [96] to distribute rice, and other things, to
Brahmans, once a year on the new-moon day in the month of Bhadrapadam
(September-October), and to worship a female deity named Kamilli on
Saturdays. No one, I am informed, other, I presume, than a Pentiya,
would take anything from a house where she is worshipped, lest the
goddess should accompany him, and require him to become her devotee.
The caste title is Nayako.
Peraka (tile).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.
Perike.--This word is defined, in the Madras Census Report, 1901,
as meaning literally a gunny bag, and the Perikes are summed up as
being a Telugu caste of gunny bag (goni) weavers, corresponding to
the Janappans of the Tamil districts. Gunny bag is the popular and
trading name of the coarse sacking and sacks made from the fibre
of jute, much used in Indian trade. It is noted, in the Census
Report, 1891, that "the Perikes claim to be a separate caste, but
they seem to be in reality a sub-division, and not a very exalted
sub-division, of Balijas, being in fact identical with the Uppu (salt)
Balijas. Their hereditary occupation is carrying salt, grain, etc.,
on bullocks and donkeys in perikes or packs. Perike is found among
the sub-divisions of both Kavarai and Balija. Some of them, however,
have attained considerable wealth, and now claim to be Kshatriyas,
saying that they are the descendants of the Kshatriyas who ran away
(piriki, a coward) from the persecution of Parasurama. Others again
say they are Kshatriyas who went into retirement, and made hills
(giri) their abode (puri)." These Perike 'Kshatriyas' are known as
Puragiri Kshatriya and Giri Razu. The Periki Balijas are described, in
the Vizagapatam Manual, as chiefly carrying on cultivation and trade,
and some of them are said to hold a high position at 'the Presidency'
(Madras) and in the Vizagapatam district.
Perike women appear to have frequently committed sati (or suttee) on
the death of their husbands in former days, and the names of those who
thus sacrificed their lives are still held in reverence. A peculiar
custom among the Perikes is the erection of big square structures
(brindavanam), in which a tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) is planted, on
the spot where the ashes of the dead are buried after cremation. I
am informed that a fine series of these structures may be seen at
Chipurapalli, close to Vizianagram. As a mark of respect to the dead,
passers-by usually place a lac bangle or flowers thereon. The usual
titles of the Perikes are Anna and Ayya, but some style themselves
Rao (= Raya, king) or Rayadu, in reference to their alleged Kshatriya
origin.
For the following note on the Perikes of the Godavari district, I am
indebted to Mr. F. R. Hemingway. "Like some of the Kammas, they claim
to be of Kshatriya stock, and say they are of the lineage of Parasu
Rama, but were driven out by him for kidnapping his sister, while
pretending to be gunny-bag weavers. They say that they were brought to
this country by king Nala of the Mahabharata, in gratitude for their
having taken care of his wife Damayanti when he quitted her during
his misfortunes. They support the begging caste of Varugu Bhattas,
who, they say, supported them during their exile, and to whom they
gave a sanad (deed of grant) authorising them to demand alms. These
people go round the Perike houses for their dues every year. The Pisu
Perikes, who still weave gunny-bags, are said not to belong to the
caste proper, members of which style themselves Racha Perikes.
"The Perikes say that, like the Komatis, they have 101 gotras. Their
marriage ceremonies are peculiar. On the day of the wedding,
the bride and bridegroom are made to fast, as also are three male
relatives, whom they call suribhaktas. At the marriage, the couple
sit on a gunny-bag, and another gunny, on which a representation
of the god Mailar is drawn or painted, is spread between them. The
same god is drawn on two pots, and these, and also a third pot, are
filled with rice and dhal (Cajanus indicus), which are cooked by two
married women. The food is then offered to Mailar. Next, the three
suribhaktas take 101 cotton threads, fasten them together, and tie
seven knots in them. The bride and bridegroom are given cloths which
have been partly immersed in water coloured with turmeric and chunam
(lime), and the suribhaktas are fed with the rice and dhal cooked in
the pots. The couple are then taken round the village in procession,
and, on their return, the knotted cotton threads are tied round the
bride's neck instead of a tali.
Some Perikes style themselves Sathu vandlu, meaning a company of
merchants or travellers.
Perike Muggula is the name of a class of Telugu mendicants and
exorcists.
Periya (big).--Periya or Periyanan has been recorded as a sub-division
of Karalan, Kunnuvan, Occhan, and Pattanavan. The equivalent Peru or
Perum occurs as a sub-division of the Malayalam Kollans and Vannans
and Perim of Kanikars. Periya illom is the name of an exogamous illom
of Kanikars in Travancore.
Perugadannaya (bandicoot rat sept).--An exogamous sept of Bant.
Perum Tali (big tali).--A sub-division of Idaiyan, and of Kaikolans,
whose women wear a big tali (marriage badge).
Perumal.--Perumal is a synonym of Vishnu, and the name is taken by
some Pallis who are staunch Vaishnavites. A class of mendicants,
who travel about exhibiting performing bulls in the southern part
of the Madras Presidency, is known as Perumal Madukkaran or Perumal
Erudukkaran. Perumalathillom, meaning apparently big mountain house,
is an exogamous sept or illom of the Kanikars of Travancore.
Pesala (seeds of Phaseolus Mungo: green gram).--An exogamous sept
of Jogi.
Peta (street).--A sub-division of Balija.
Pettigeyavaru (box).--A sub-division of Gangadikara Vakkaliga.
Pichiga (sparrow).--An exogamous sept of Boya and Devanga. The
equivalent Pital occurs as a sept of Mala.
Pichigunta.--The name Pichigunta means literally an assembly of
beggars, who are described [97] as being, in the Telugu country, a
class of mendicants, who are herbalists, and physic people for fever,
stomach-ache, and other ailments. They beat the village drums, relate
stories and legends, and supply the place of a Herald's Office, as
they have a reputation for being learned in family histories, and
manufacture pedigrees and gotras (house names) for Kapus, Kammas,
Gollas, and others.
The Picchai or Pinchikuntar are described in the Salem Manual as
"servants to the Kudianavars or cultivators--a name commonly assumed
by Vellalas and Pallis. The story goes that a certain Vellala had a
hundred and two children, of whom only one was a female. Of the males,
one was lame, and his hundred brothers made a rule that one would
provide him with one kolagam of grain and one fanam (a coin) each
year. They got him married to a Telugu woman of a different caste,
and the musicians who attended the ceremony were paid nothing, the
brothers alleging that, as the bridegroom was a cripple, the musicians
should officiate from charitable motives. The descendants of this
married pair, having no caste of their own, became known as Picchi
or Pinchikuntars (beggars, or lame). They are treated as kudipinnai
(inferior) by Vellalas, and to the present day receive their prescribed
miras (fee) from the Vellala descendants of the hundred brothers, to
whom, on marriage and other festivals, they do service by relating
the genealogies of such Vellalas as they are acquainted with. Some
serve the Vellalas in the fields, and others live by begging." [97]
The caste beggars of the Tottiyans are known as Pichiga-vadu.
Pidakala (cow-dung cakes or bratties).--An exogamous sept of
Devanga. Dried cow-dung cakes are largely used by natives as fuel,
and may be seen stuck on to the walls of houses.
Pidaran.--A section of Ambalavasis, who, according to Mr. Logan [98]
"drink liquor, exorcise devils, and are worshippers of Bhadrakali
or of Sakti. The name is also applied to snake-catchers, and it was
probably conferred on the caste owing to the snake being an emblem
of the human passion embodied in the deities they worship."