that "the bride and bridegroom proceeded to the church at the head
of an imposing procession, with music and banners. The service, which
was fully choral, was conducted by a priest from their own community,
after which the newly wedded couple went in procession to the residence
of the Jati Talavamore, being escorted by their distinguished host
in person. The Jati Talavamore, who wore a picturesque, if somewhat
antiquated, robe, rode in a gorgeously upholstered palanquin,
with banners, trophies, elephants, and other emblems of his high
office. The bride, who was resplendent with diamonds, was becomingly
attired in a purple Benares sari with gold floral designs, and wore
a superb kincob bodice."
In a note on the Paravans of Travancore, Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar writes
that "they are found in most taluks of the State. The title sometimes
used by them is Kuruppu. The Paravans of Chengannur and Tiruvella call
themselves Chakka, a word supposed by the castemen to be derived from
slaghya or praiseworthy, but perhaps more correctly from Chakku, the
basket carried by them in their hands. The Paravans are divided into
numerous sections. In the south, the Tamil-speaking division follows
the makkathayam, while all the Malayalam-speaking sections follow
the marumakathayam law of inheritance. There is also a difference
in the dress and ornaments of the two sections, the former adopting
the fashion of the east coast, and the latter that of the west. The
Travancore Paravas are really one with the Tamil-speaking Paravas of
the east coast. While most of them became converts to Christianity,
in Travancore they have tried to preserve their separate existence,
as they had already spread into the interior of the country before the
proselytism of St. Xavier had made its enduring mark on the sea-coast
villages. There is a curious legend about the settlement of the Chakkas
in Central Travancore. Formerly, it would appear, they were Sudras,
but, for some social offence committed by them, they were outcasted by
the Edappalli chieftain. They were once great devotees of Sri Krishna,
the lord of Tiruvaranmulai in the Tiruvella taluk. The Paravas say
further that they are descended from a high-caste woman married to an
Izhava. The word Parava is accordingly derived from para, which in
Sanskrit means foreign. The Paravas engage in various occupations,
of which the most important in Central Travancore are climbing palm
trees, catching fish, and washing clothes for Christians, Muhammadans,
and depressed classes of Hindus. In South Travancore they make wicker
baskets, rattan chairs, and sofas. Women, in all parts of the State,
are lime and shell burners. They worship at the Aranmula temple,
and pay special worship to Bhadrakali. Their priest is known as
Parakuruppu, who, having to perform four different functions, is
also entitled Nalonnukaran. It is his duty to preside at marriage
and other rites, to be caste barber, to carry the news of death to
the relations, and to perform the priestly functions at funerals. The
Paravas perform both the tali-kettu and sambandham ceremonies."
Parel Maddiyala.--Barbers of the Billavas.
Parenga.--A sub-division of Gadaba.
Pariah.--See Paraiyan.
Parikimuggula.--Professional tattooing women in the Telugu country. The
name refers to the patterns (parika or muggu), which they carry about
with them, as designs for tattooing or to be drawn on the floor on
occasions of festival and ceremonial.
Parivara.--A sub-division of Bant.
Parivaram.--It is noted, in the Census Report, 1891, that "this is
a caste, which presents some difficulty. Parivaram means 'an army,
a retinue,' and it is alleged that the people of this caste were
formerly soldiers. Parivaram is found as a sub-division of Maravan and
Agamudaiyan, and the Parivaras of Madura and Tinnevelly are probably
either a sub-division or an offshoot of the Maravans. In Coimbatore,
the only other district in which the Parivaras are numerous, they
seem to be a sub-division of Toreyas, a fishing caste, and Mr. Rice,
in his Gazetteer (of Mysore), says that Parivara is a synonym of
Besta." Further, in the Census Report, 1901, it is stated that "the
word Parivaram means 'a retinue,' and was probably originally only an
occupational term. It is now-a-days applied to the domestic servants
and the Tottiya zamindars in the districts of Coimbatore, Trichinopoly,
Madura, and Tinnevelly, who are recruited from several castes, but
have come to form a caste by themselves. The Kotaris of South Canara
are a somewhat parallel case, and probably in time the Paiks among the
Oriyas, and the Khasas, who are servants to the Telugu zamindars, will
similarly develop into separate castes. The caste is said to require
all its members of both sexes to do such service for its masters as
they may require. Persons of any caste above the Paraiyas are admitted
into its ranks, and the men in it may marry a woman of any other caste
with the permission of the zamindar under whom they serve. They do not
habitually employ Brahmans as priests, and in places the head of the
Tottiyan caste conducts their ceremonies. Their titles are Maniyagaran
and Servaigaran. The latter is also used by the Agamudaiyans."
The title Servaigaran or Servaikaran indicates that members of the
caste do servai, or service, and the further title uliyakkaran is
a sign that they do uliyam, or menial work. Servaikaran is also a
title of the Tamil Ambalakarans, Agamudaiyans, Kallans, and Maravans,
and the Canarese Toreyas, some of whom have settled in the Tamil
districts of Madura and Coimbatore. It also occurs as a synonym of
the Canarese Kotegaras.
The illegitimate offspring of Maravans, Kallans, and Agamudaiyans,
are said to become members of the mixed Parivaram caste.
It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Madura district, that the
Parivaram caste "is divided into two endogamous sections; the Chinna
Uliyam (little services) who are palanquin-bearers, and have the
title Tevan, and the Periya Uliyam (big services), who are called
Maniyakaran. The Kombai Parivarams, who are the servants of the
Kappiliyan Zamindars of Kombai and Tevaram in the Periyakulam taluk,
are a separate community, and do not intermarry with the others. When
a girl attains maturity, she is kept for sixteen days in a hut, which
is guarded at night by her relations. This is afterwards burnt down,
and the pots she used are broken into very small pieces, as there is
an idea that, if rain-water collects in any of them, the girl will
be childless. Some of the ceremonies at weddings are unusual. On
the first day, a man takes a big pot of water with a smaller empty
pot on top of it, and marches three times round the open space in
front of the bride's house. With him march the happy couple carrying
a bamboo, to which are tied in a turmeric-coloured cloth the nine
kinds of grain. After the third journey round, these things are put
down at the north-east corner, and the marriage pandal is made by
bringing three more poles of the same size. Afterwards the wrists
of the couple are tied together, and bridegroom's brother carries
the pair a short distance. They plunge their hands into a bowl of
salt. Next the husband takes an ordinary stone rolling-pin, wraps it
in a bit of cloth, and gives it to his wife, saying 'Take the child;
I am going to the palace.' She takes it, replying 'Yes, give me the
child, the milk is ready.' This has to be repeated three times in a set
formula. Several other odd rites are observed. Brahmans officiate, and
the bridegroom's sister, as usual, ties the tali. Divorce is allowed
to both sides. Adultery within the caste, or with the Zamindar, is
tolerated. The husbands accept as their own any children their wives
may bear to the Zamindar. Such children are called Chinna Kambalattar,
and may marry with Tottiyans. But adultery outside the caste is most
rigorously prohibited, and sternly punished with excommunication. A
mud image of the girl who so offends is made, two thorns are poked
into its eyes, and it is thrown away outside the village."
Pariyari (doctor).--A name given to Tamil barbers (Ambattan), who
practice as barber-surgeons.
Pariyata.--Five individuals were recorded, at the census, 1901,
under the name Pariyata or Parit, as members of a Bombay caste of
washermen in South Canara.
Parvatha.--Parvatha or Parvathala, meaning hill or mountain, has been
recorded as an exogamous sept of Gamalla, Kapu, Mala, and Medara.
Pasi.--A few members of this Bengal caste of toddy-drawers were
returned at the Madras census, 1901. The name is said to be derived
from pasa, a noose or cord, probably in reference to the sling used by
them in climbing palm trees. [82] Pasi, meaning coloured glass beads,
occurs as a sub-division of Idaiyan, and the equivalent Pasikatti as
a sub-division of Valaiyan.
Pasu.--Pasu (cow) or Pasula has been recorded as an exogamous sept
of Boya, Mala and Madiga, and a sub-division of west coast Pulayans,
who eat beef.
Pasupula (turmeric).--Pasula or Pasupula is an exogamous sept of
Boya and Devanga. Pasupuleti occurs as a sub-division of Balija. See
Arashina.
Patabonka.--A sub-division of Bonka.
Patali.--An occupational name applied to priests of temples and
bhuthasthanas (devil shrines), and Stanikas in South Canara.
Patha (old).--A sub-division of Idiga, and a sept of Togata.
Pathanchitannaya (green pea sept).--An exogamous sept of Bant.
Pathi (cotton).--A sub-division of Kurubas, who use a wrist-thread
made of cotton and wool mixed during the marriage ceremony. Also an
exogamous sept of Gudala and Padma Sale.
Pathinettan.--The Pathinettan or eighteen are carpenters in Malabar,
who "are said to be the descendants of the smiths who remained to
attend to the repairs to the eighteen temples, when the rest of the
community fled to Ceylon, as related in the tradition of the origin
of the Tiyans". [83]
Paththar.--A section of Saivite Chettis, who wear the lingam, and
have separated from the Acharapakam Chettis. They bury their dead in
a sitting posture. A bamboo stick is tied to the kudumi (hair-knot)
of the corpse, and the head pulled by its means towards the surface of
the grave. Paththar is also a name given to goldsmiths by other castes.
Patnaik.--A title of Karnam.
Patnulkaran.--The Patnulkarans are described, in the Madras Census
Report, 1901, as "a caste of foreign weavers found in all the Tamil
districts, but mainly in Madura town, who speak Patnuli or Khatri,
a dialect of Gujarati, and came originally from Gujarat. They have
always been known here as Patnulkarans, or silk thread people. They
are referred to in the inscriptions of Kumara Gupta (A.D. 473)
at Mandasor, south of Gujarat, by the name of Pattavayaka, which
is the Sanskrit equivalent of Patnulkaran, and the sasanam of Queen
Mangammal of Madura, mentioned below, speaks of them by the same name,
but lately they have taken to calling themselves Saurashtras from
the Saurashtra country from which they came. They also claim to be
Brahmans. They thus frequently entered themselves in the schedules
as Saurashtra Brahmans. They are an intelligent and hard-working
community, and deserve every sympathy in the efforts which they
are making to elevate the material prosperity of their members and
improve their educational condition, but a claim to Brahmanhood is a
difficult matter to establish. They say that their claim is denied
because they are weavers by profession, which none of the Southern
Brahmans are, and because the Brahmans of the Tamil country do not
understand their rites, which are the northern rites. The Mandasor
inscriptions, however, represent them as soldiers as well as weavers,
which does not sound Brahmanical, and the Tamil Brahmans have never
raised any objections to the Gauda Brahmans calling themselves such,
different as their ways are from those current in the south. In Madura
their claim to Brahmanhood has always been disputed. As early as 1705
A.D. the Brahmans of Madura called in question the Patnulkarans' right
to perform the annual upakarma (or renewal of the sacred thread) in
the Brahman fashion. [Eighteen members of the community were arrested
by the Governor of Madura for performing this ceremony.] The matter
was taken to the notice of the Queen Mangammal, and she directed her
State pandits to convene meetings of learned men, and to examine into
it. On their advice, she issued a cadjan (palm leaf) sasanam (grant)
which permitted them to follow the Brahmanical rites. But all the
twice-born--whether Brahmans, Kshatriyas, or Vaisyas--are entitled to
do the same, and the sasanam establishes little. The Patnuls point
out that, in some cases, their gotras are Brahmanical. But, in many
instances which could be quoted, Kshatriyas had also Brahmanical
gotras."
It is stated, in the Gazetteer of the Madura district, that the
inscription at Mandasor in Western Malwa "relates how the Pattavayas,
as the caste was then called, were induced to migrate thither from
Lata on the coast of Gujarat by king Kumara Gupta (or one of his
lieutenants), to practice there their art of silk-weaving. The
inscription says many flattering things about the community, and
poetically compares the city to a beautiful woman, and the immigrants
to the silk garments in which she decks herself when she goes to meet
her lover. [The inscription further records that, while the noble
Bandhuvarman was governing this city of Dasapura, which had been
brought to a state of great prosperity, a noble and unequalled temple
of the bright-rayed (sun) was caused to be built by the silk-cloth
weavers (pattavayair) as a guild with the stores of wealth acquired by
(the exercise of their) craft.] On the destruction of Mandasor by the
Mussalmans, the Pattavayas seem to have travelled south to Devagiri,
the modern Daulatabad, the then capital of the Yadavas, and thence,
when the Mussalmans again appeared on the scene at the beginning of
the fourteenth century, to Vijayanagar, and eventually to Madura. A
curious ceremony confirming this conjecture is performed to this
day at Patnulkaran weddings in South India. Before the date of the
wedding, the bridegroom's party go to the bride's house, and ask
formally for the girl's hand. Her relations ask them in a set form
of words who they are, and whence they come, and they reply that
they are from Sorath (the old name for Saurashtra or Kathiawar),
resided in Devagiri, travelled south (owing to Mussalman oppression)
to Vijayanagar, and thence came to Madura. They then ask the bride's
party the same question, and receive the same reply. A Marathi MS.,
prepared in 1822 at Salem under the direction of the then Collector,
Mr. M. D. Cockburn, contains the same tradition. Mr. Sewell's 'A
Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar' shows how common silk clothing and
trappings were at Vijayanagar in the days of its glory. Most of the
Patnulkarans can still speak Telugu, which raises the inference
that they must have resided a long time in the Telugu country,
while their Patnuli contains many Canarese and Telugu words, and
they observe the feast of Basavanna (or Boskanna), which is almost
peculiar to the Bellary country. After the downfall of Vijayanagar,
some of the caste seem to have gone to Bangalore, for a weaving
community called Patvegars, who speak a dialect similar to Patnuli,
still reside there." Concerning the Patnulis who have settled in
the Mysore Province, it is noted, in the Mysore Census Report, 1891,
that "with silk they manufacture a fine stuff called katni, which no
other weavers are said to be able to prepare. It is largely used by
Mussalmans for trousers and lungas (gowns). It is said that Haider
Ali, while returning from his expeditions against Madras, forcibly
brought with him some twenty-five families of these weavers, who were
living in the Tanjore district, and established them at Ganjam near
Seringapatam, and, in order to encourage silk and velvet weaving,
exempted them from certain taxes. The industry flourished till the
fall of Seringapatam, when most of the class fled from the country,
a few only having survived those troublous times. At present there are
only 254 souls returned to these people, employed in making carpets
in Bangalore."
"The Patnulkars," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [84] "say that they were
originally Brahmans, living in a town of Surat called Devagiri,
in which twelve streets were entirely peopled by them. For some
reason, of which they profess themselves to be ignorant, the
residents of one of these streets were excommunicated by the rest
of the caste, and expelled. They travelled southwards, and settled
in Tirupati, Arni, and Vellore, as well as in Trichinopoly, Tanjore,
Madura, and other large towns, where they carried on their trade of
silk-weaving. Another story is to the effect that they were bound to
produce a certain number of silken cloths at each Dipavali feast in
Devagiri for the goddess Lakshmi. One year their supply fell short,
and they were cursed by the goddess, who decreed that they should no
longer be regarded as Brahmans. They, however, still claim to be such,
and follow the customs of that caste, though they refuse to eat with
them. They acknowledge priests from among themselves, as well as from
among Brahmans, and profess to look down upon all other castes. In
religion they are divided into Smartas, Vaishnavas, and Vyaparis,
some among the Smartas being Lingayats. Those who can write usually
employ the Telugu characters in writing their language."
The Patnulkarans, according to one tradition, claim descent from a
certain Brahman sage, known as Tantuvardhanar, meaning literally a
person who improves threads, i.e., manufactures and weaves them into
cloths. This is, it is suggested, probably only an eponymous hero.
In the Manual of the Madura district, the Patnulkarans are described
as "a caste of Surat silk-weavers, whose ancestors were induced to
settle in Madura by one of the earlier Nayakkan kings, or in response
to an invitation from Tirumala Naik, and who have thriven so well that
they now form by far the most numerous of all the castes resident in
the town of Madura. They are very skilful and industrious workmen,
and many of them have become very wealthy. They keep altogether
aloof from other castes, and live independently of general society,
speaking a foreign tongue, and preserving intact the customs of the
land of their origin. They are easily distinguished in appearance
from Tamils, being of a light yellowish colour, and having handsomer
and more intelligent features. They are called Chettis or merchants
by Tamils." In a recent note, [85] the Patnulkarans of Madura are
described as being "exceedingly gregarious; they live together in large
numbers in small houses, and their social status in the country is
quite unsettled. Though they delight to call themselves Saurashtra
Brahmans, the Tamils consider them to be a low caste. Like the
Brahmans, they wear the sacred thread, and tack on to their names such
titles as Iyengar, Iyer, Rao, Bhagavather, Sastrigal, and so forth,
though the conservatives among them still cling to the time-honoured
simple Chetti. Child marriage is the rule, and widow marriage is never
practiced. Hindus by religion, they worship indiscriminately both the
Siva and Vaishnava deities, but all of them wear big Iyengar namams
on their foreheads, even more prominently than do the real Iyengars
themselves. All of them pass for pure vegetarians. The proud position
of Madura to this day as second city in the Presidency is mainly,
if not solely, due to her prosperous and industrious community of
Saurashtra merchants and silk-weavers, who have now grown into nearly
half her population, and who have also come to a foremost place among
the ranks of her citizens. They have their representatives to-day in
the Municipal Councils and in the Local and District Boards. Their
perseverance has won for them a place in the Devastanam Committee of
one of the most prosperous temples in the district. But, in spite of
their affluence and leading position it must be confessed that they
are essentially a 'backward class' in respect of English education and
enlightenment. They are, however, making steady progress. An English
high school for Saurashtra boys, and a number of elementary schools
for girls, are now maintained by the Saurashtra Sabha for the proper
education of their children." In 1906, a member of the community was
appointed a member of the committee of the Sri Kalla Alagar temple
in the Madura district.
In an order of the Director of Public Instruction, in 1900, it was laid
down that "Saurashtras having been recognised (in 1892) as a backward
class falling under Pattunulgars, the manager cannot continue to enjoy
the privileges accorded under the grant-in-aid code to schools intended
for backward classes, if he returns his pupils as Brahmans. If the
pupils have been returned as Saurashtra Brahmans, the manager should
be requested to revise, as no such caste is recognised." A deputation
had an interview with the Director, and it was subsequently ruled that
"Saurashtras will continue to be treated as a backward class. Pupils
belonging to the above class should invariably be returned in future
as Saurashtras, whether the word Brahman is added or not."