form of black magic practiced by the Paraiyans, who, when proficient
in it, are believed to be able to render themselves invisible,
or assume the form of a bull, cat, or dog. They are supposed to be
able to entice pregnant women from their houses at dead of night,
to destroy the foetus in the womb, and substitute other substances
for it; to bring sickness and death upon people; and so to bewitch
people as to transport them from one place to another. A Paraiya
who wishes to practice the cult goes to a guru (preceptor), and,
falling at his feet, humbly requests that he may be admitted into
the mysteries of the art. The master first tries to dissuade him, but
the disciple persists in the desire to learn it. He is then tried by
various tests as to his fitness. He follows his master to the forests
and lonely places at midnight. The master suddenly makes himself
invisible, and soon appears before him in the form of a terrible bull,
a ferocious dog, or an elephant, when the novice should remain calm and
collected. He is also required to pass a night or two in the forest,
which, according to his firm belief, is full of strange beings howling
horribly. He should remain unmoved. By these and other trials, he is
tested as to his fitness. Having passed through the various ordeals,
the guru initiates him into the brotherhood by the performance of puja
on an auspicious day to his favourite Nili, called also Kallatikode
Nili, through whose aid he works his black art. Flesh and liquor
are consumed, and the disciple is taught how to prepare pilla thilam
and angola thilam, which are the potent medicines for the working of
his cult. The chief ingredient in the preparation of pilla thilam,
or baby oil, is the sixth or seventh month's foetus of a primipara,
who should belong to a caste other than that of the sorcerer. Having
satisfied himself that the omens are favourable, he sets out at
midnight for the house of the woman selected as his victim, and walks
several times round it, waving a cocoanut shell containing a mixture
of lime and turmeric water (gurusi), and muttering mantrams to secure
the aid of the deity. He also draws yantrams (cabalistic devices)
on the ground. The woman is compelled to come out of her house. Even
if the door is locked, she will bang her head against it, and force
it open. The sorcerer leads her to a retired spot, strips her naked,
and tells her to lie flat on the ground. This she does, and a vessel
made of a gourd (Lagenaria) is placed close to her vagina. The uterus
then contracts, and the foetus emerges. Sometimes, it is said, the
uterus is filled with some rubbish, and the woman instantly dies. Care
is taken that the foetus does not touch the ground, as the potency
of the drug would thereby be ruined. The foetus is cut to pieces,
and smoked over a fire. It is then placed in a vessel provided with
a few holes, below which is another vessel. The two are placed in a
larger receptacle filled with water, which is heated over a fire. From
the foetus a liquid exudes, which is collected in the lower vessel. A
human skull is then reduced to a fine powder, which is mixed with
a portion of the liquid (thilam). With the mixture a mark is made
on the forehead of the sorcerer, who rubs some of it over various
parts of his body, and drinks a small quantity of cow-dung water. He
then thinks that he can assume the form of any animal he likes,
and achieve his object in view, be it murder or bodily injury. The
magic oil, called angola thilam, is extracted from the angola tree
(Alangium Lamarckii), which bears a very large number of fruits. One
of these is believed to be endowed with life and power of motion, and
to be capable of descending and returning to its original position
on dark nights. Its possession can be attained by demons, or by an
expert watching at the foot of the tree. When it has been secured,
the extraction of the oil involves the same operations as those for
extracting the pilla thilam, and they must be carried out within seven
hours. A mark made on the forehead with the oil enables its wearer
to achieve his desires, and to transform himself into some animal.
When a person has an enemy whom he wishes to get rid of, the
Paraiya magician is consulted, and the name of the enemy given to
him. Identifying his residence, the Paraiya starts off on a dark
night, and anyone whom he comes across is at once dispatched with a
blow. The victim comes out of his house in a state of stupefaction,
and the magician puts him to death either by a blow on the head,
or by suffocating him with two sticks applied to his neck. Odi cult
is said to have been practiced till only a few years ago in the rural
parts of the northern part of the State, and in the taluks of Palghat
and Walluvanad in Malabar, and even now it has not entirely died
out. But cases of extracting foetuses and putting persons to death
are not heard of at the present day, owing to the fear of Government
officials, landlords, and others. The story is current of a Nayar
village official, who had two fine bullocks, which a Mappila wished
to purchase. The Nayar, however, was unwilling to part with them. The
Mappila accordingly engaged some men to steal the animals. Availing
themselves of the absence of the Nayar from home, the robbers went
to his house, where they saw a Paraiya and his wife practicing the
odi cult, and compelling a young woman to come out of the house, and
lie on the ground. Catching hold of the Paraiya, the robbers tied
him to a tree, and secured him. The man and his wife were beaten,
and the would-be robbers rewarded with a present of the bullocks.
The Paraiyans have no temples of their own, but worship Siva or
Kali. According to a legend, in Tretayuga (the second age), a Paraiya
named Samvara, and his wife Pulini were living in a forest, and one
day came across a Sivalinga (stone lingam) at a dilapidated temple,
which they kept, and worshipped with offerings of flesh, and by
smearing it with ashes from the burial-ground. On a certain day, no
ashes were available, and the woman offered to have her body burnt, so
that the ashes thereof might be used. With much reluctance her husband
sacrificed her, and performed puja. Then he turned round to offer, as
usual, the prasadam to his wife forgetting that she was dead, and he
was surprised to see her standing before him, receiving his offering
(prasadam), in flesh and blood. Highly pleased with their conduct,
Siva appeared in person before them, and gave them absolution.
In every small village in the rural parts, is a small Bhagavati
temple, to the deity of which the Paraiyas are devotedly attached,
and look to it for protection in times of cholera, small-pox, or other
calamities. Kodungallur Bhagavati is their guardian deity, and they
take part in the festivals (yela) at the shrine. A few days before
the festival, a piece of cloth is given to the Velichapad (oracle),
who dresses himself in it, wears a piece of red cloth round his
neck, a peculiar dress around his loins, and ties a few small bells
(chelamba) round his legs. Accompanied by others with drums and fife
and a basket, he goes to every Nayar house daily for seven days, and
receives presents of paddy, wherewith to defray the expenses of the
festival. During the celebration thereof, the Velichapad and others
go to a shed at a distance from the temple (kavu), some dressed up
as ghosts, and dance and sing, to the accompaniment of a band, in
honour of the deity.
In a note on the Paraiyans of Malabar, Mr. T. K. Gopaul Panikkar writes
[70] that "at certain periods of the year the Paraiyas have to assume
the garb of an evil deity, with large head-dresses and paintings on the
body and face, and tender cocoanut leaves hanging loose around their
waists, all these embellishments being of the rudest patterns. With
figures such as these, terror-striking in themselves, dancing with
tom-toms sounding and horns blowing, representing the various temple
deities, they visit the Nair houses, professing thereby to drive off
any evil deities that may be haunting their neighbourhood. After their
dues have been given to them, they go their ways; and, on the last
day, after finishing their house-to-house visits, they collect near
their special temples to take part in the vela tamasha (spectacle)."
On the first of every month, a ceremony called kalasam is performed
on behalf of the spirits of the departed. Fish, cooked meat, rice,
parched grain, plantain fruits, cocoanuts, toddy, and other things,
are placed on a leaf with a lighted lamp in front of it. A prayer
is then uttered, expressing a hope that the ancestors will partake
of the food which has been procured for them with much difficulty,
and protect the living. One man, becoming inspired, acts the part of
an oracle, and addresses those assembled.
The following story is narrated concerning the origin of the
Elankunnapuzha temple on the island of Vypin. When some Paraiyas
were cutting reeds, one of them discovered a remarkable idol and
fell into a trance, under the influence of which he informed the
Raja of Cochin that the idol originally belonged to the Trichendur
temple in Tinnevelly, and that he must build a shrine for it. This
was accordingly done, and to the Paraiyan who discovered the idol
a daily allowance of rice, and a larger quantity of rice during the
annual temple festival were given. In return, he had to supply cadjan
(palm leaf) umbrellas used at the daily procession, and bamboo baskets
required for washing the rice offered to the idol. These allowances
were received by the Perum or big Paraiyan up to a recent date,
even if he is not receiving them at the present day.
When a Paraiyan woman is delivered, she is secluded for two weeks in
a temporary hut erected at a short distance from the dwelling hut. On
the tenth day, some male member of the family goes to his Brahman or
Nayar landlord, from whom he receives some milk, which is sprinkled
over the woman and her infant. She can then come to the verandah of
her home, and remains there for five days, when she is purified by
bathing. The temporary hut is burnt down.
The dead are buried, and the corpse, after being laid in the grave,
is covered with a mat.
The Paraiyas are engaged in the manufacture of wicker baskets,
bamboo mats, and cadjan umbrellas. They also take part in all kinds
of agricultural work, and, when ploughing, will not use buffaloes,
which are regarded as unclean beasts, the touch of which necessitates
a ceremonial ablution.
Many Paraiyans become converts to Christianity, and thereby receive
a rise in the social scale, and a freedom from the disabilities under
which their lowly position in the social scale places them.
In 1829 several natives of Malabar were charged with having proceeded,
in company with a Paraiyan, to the house of a pregnant woman, who was
beaten and otherwise ill-treated, and with having taken the foetus out
of her uterus, and introduced in lieu thereof the skin of a calf and
an earthen pot. The prisoners confessed before the police, but were
acquitted, mainly on the ground that the earthen pot was of a size
which rendered it impossible to credit its introduction during life.
In 1834 the inhabitants of several villages in Malabar attacked a
village of Paraiyans on the alleged ground that deaths of people and
cattle, and the protracted labour of a woman in childbed, had been
caused by the practice of sorcery by the Paraiyans. They were beaten
inhumanely, with their hands tied behind their backs, so that several
died. The villagers were driven, bound, into a river, immersed under
water so as nearly to produce suffocation, and their own children
were forced to rub sand into their wounds. Their settlement was then
razed to the ground and they were driven into banishment.
The following extract is taken from a note on the Paraiyans of
Travancore by Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. The Paraiyas may be broadly
divided into two classes, viz., the Tamil-speaking Paraiyas of the east
coast who are found in considerable numbers in the southern taluks,
and the indigenous Paraiyas, who mostly abound in Central Travancore,
avoiding the sea-coast taluks. The latter only are considered here. The
titles owned by some are Velan conferred upon certain families for
their skill in magic; Panikkan; and Muppan. The Paraiyas may be mainly
divided into four divisions, viz., Vellam (water or jaggery?), Vel
(a lance), Natuvile (middle), and Pani (work). The last is considered
to be the lowest in the social scale, and members thereof are not
admitted into the houses of the other divisions. One theory of the
origin of the Paraiyas is that they were formerly one with the Pulayas,
from whom they separated on account of their eating beef. The Paraiyas
have a dialect of their own, with which the Pulayas are not familiar,
and which would seem to be worthy of study. In the Keralolpathi, they
are classed as one of the sixteen hill tribes. Concerning their origin
the following tradition is current. They were originally Brahmans, but,
on certain coparceners partitioning the common inheritance, the carcase
of a cow, which was one of the articles to be partitioned, was burnt as
being useless. A drop of oil fell from the burning animal on to one of
the parties, and he licked it up with his tongue. For this act he was
cast out of society, and his descendants, under the name of Paraiyas,
became cow-eaters. Pakkanar is said to have been born a Paraiyan,
though subsequent tradition honours him with Brahmanical parentage.
The houses of the Paraiyas are, like those of the Pulayas, mean
thatched sheds, with a couple of cocoanut leaves often serving as
the wall between one room and another. The village sites are shifted
from place to place, according to the exigencies of the inhabitants
thereof. The Paraiyas imbibe freely, and toddy is the drink most
scrupulously prescribed for those who are under a vow. Like the
Pulayas, the Paraiyas work in the rice fields and cocoanut gardens,
and are employed in hill cultivation, and the manufacture of
wicker baskets. The sun god is their principal deity, and in his
name all solemn oaths are uttered. It is believed that the Brahman
who originally became a Paraiya cursed Brahma. To remove the evil
effects of the curse, the sun gave to his descendants as objects of
worship forty-eight thousand gods and eight special deities. A certain
portion of the house is regarded as their own, and to them offerings
of beaten rice and toddy are made on the first of every month, and,
if convenient, every Tuesday and Friday. To these deities small
shrines are dedicated, whereat the priests, on the 28th of Makaram
(January-February), become inspired, and answer questions concerning
the future put to them by the assembled Paraiyas. The priests are known
as Kaikkarans, and belong ordinarily to the lowest or Pani division.
Adultery, be it said to the credit of the Paraiyas, is an offence
which is severely punished. The man is fined, and the erring woman
has to jump over a fire which is blazing in a deep pit. This ordeal
recalls to mind the smarthavicharam of the Namburi Brahman.
Pollution, on the occurrence of the first monthly period, lasts for
seven days. The headmen and elders, called Jajamanmar and Karanavanmar,
are invited to attend, and direct four women of the village to take the
girl to a hut erected at a considerable distance from the house. This
hut is called pachchakottilil kutiyiruttuka, or seating a person
within a hut made of green leaves. On the fourth day the girl has a
bath, and the Kaikkaran waves paddy and flowers in front of her. On
the morning of the eighth day the shed is burnt down, and the place
occupied by it cleansed with water and cow-dung. The girl bathes,
and is thus rendered free from pollution. A woman, during her menses,
should remain at a distance of sixty-four feet from others.
The Paraiyas observe two marriage rites, the tali-kettu and
sambandham. The former ceremony must be performed before the girl
reaches puberty, and the tali-tier is her maternal uncle's or
paternal aunt's son. The Kaikkaran invites at least four headmen to
be present, and they prescribe the manner in which the ceremony is
to be performed. The auspicious time for the marriage celebration is
fixed by a Kaniyan (astrologer), and, on the day before the wedding,
the Kaikkaran invites the Paraiyas of the village to be present at
the tunniruttal, or erection of the pandal (booth). All those who
attend are presented with betel, tobacco, and a liberal allowance of
toddy. The next item in the programme is the vachchorukkal, or placing
beaten and cooked rice, flowers, toddy, and other things in the pandal,
under the direction of the Kaikkaran. Some of the assembled males
then sing a song called maranpattu, or song of the god of love. The
bride then becomes inspired, and dances, while the sorcerer rolls
out mystic hymns. On the following morning, the bridegroom goes to
the home of the bride in procession, and is led to a wooden seat
in the centre of the pandal, where he is joined by the bride, who
seats herself on his left. He then ties the minnu (marriage badge)
round her neck, and retires with her to the maniyara, or bedroom,
where they remain together for some minutes. On the final day of the
ceremonies, the bride is bathed.
When a Kaikkaran dies, a conch shell is buried with the corpse. Once
a year, and on some new moon day, offerings are made to all the
deceased ancestors.
The Paraiyas have a dramatic entertainment called Paraiyan Kali,
in which the performer plays his part, standing on a mortar, to the
accompaniment of music.
Paraiyas are required to keep at a distance of 128 feet from Brahmans,
i.e., double the distance required of a Pulaya. But they will not
receive food at the hands of the Pulayas.
In a further note on the "Paraiya Caste in Travancore," the
Rev. S. Mateer writes as follows. [71] "They were formerly bought and
sold like cattle, starved, flogged 'like buffaloes,' made to work
all day for a little rice, and kept at a distance as polluted; and
they still are in a position of subservience and deep degradation,
not vitally differing from that of the Pulayas and Vedars. One
particular characteristic of this caste, and most offensive to
others, is that they eat the flesh of bullocks and cows left dead by
the roadside. They cut it up, and bear it away; what they leave the
vultures and dogs devour. This disgusting practice is to a great extent
disappearing among the Christian castes. The Paraiyas of Nevandrum
(Trivandrum?) district live in clusters of huts, and eat the putrid
flesh of dead cattle, tigers, and other animals. Their girls are
'married' when very young for mere form to their cousins, but, when
grown up, are selected by others, who give them a cloth, and live
with them in concubinage. Cases of polygamy occur, and sometimes also
of polyandry. They eat the seed of Ochlandra Rheedii, which abounds
in an unusually dry season, as does also the bamboo. Jungle roots,
land crabs, and snails form part of their food. Some of them have
enough of rice at harvest time, but seldom at any other period of the
year. They are zealous devil worshippers, their chief demons being
Madan (the cow one), Rathachamandy Mallan (the giant) and Muvaratta
Mallan, Karunkali (black kali), Chavus (departed spirits), Bhutham,
Mantramurtti, and other Murttis (ghosts), with many other evil beings,
to whom groves and altars are dedicated. The souls of their deceased
ancestors are called Marutta (ghosts), for whose worship young cocoanut
leaves are tied at the bottom of a tree, and a small shed is erected on
poles, and decorated with garlands of flowers. Presents of cocoanuts,
parched rice, and arrack are offered, and cocks killed in sacrifice. In
the devil-dancing they use clubs and rattans, bells, handkerchiefs,
and cloths dedicated to their deities. Other castes generally dread
incurring the displeasure and malice of these deities. Sudras and
Shanars frequently employ the Paraiya devil-dancers and sorcerers to
exorcise demons, search for and dig out magical charms buried in the
earth by enemies, and counteract their enchantments; and, in cases
of sickness, send for them to beat the drum, and so discover what
demon has caused the affliction, and what is to be done to remove
it. Sometimes a present of a cow is given for those services. These
pretended sorcerers are slightly acquainted with a few medicines,
profess to cure snake-bite, and can repeat some tales of the Hindu
gods. They also profess to discover thieves, who sometimes indeed
through fear actually take ill, confess, and restore the property. One
priest whom I knew used to pretend that he had a 'bird devil' in his
possession, by which he could cast out other devils. On one occasion,
however, when he made the attempt in the presence of a large concourse
of Sudras and others, he utterly failed, and hurt himself severely by
beating his chest with a cocoanut and leaping into the fire. He soon
after resolved to abandon this course of life, and became a Christian.
"After the wife's confinement, the husband is starved for seven days,
eating no cooked rice or other food, only roots and fruits, and
drinking only arrack or toddy. The shed, in which she was confined,
is burnt down.
"In cases of sickness, the diviner is first consulted as to its
cause. He names a demon, and offerings are demanded of rice, fruits,
flowers, and fowls. Being daily supplied with these articles, the
diviner spreads cow-dung thinly over a small space in the yard,
where he places the offerings on three plantain leaves, invokes the
presence of the demons, dances and repeats mantras, looking towards the
east. He catches the demon that is supposed to come in an old piece of
cloth filled with flowers and parched rice, and carries both demon and
offerings into the jungle, where, again preparing a spot as before,
two torches are set, the food arranged, and, after further mantras,
a fowl is sacrificed. He takes the whole afterwards for himself, gets
a good meal, and is also paid twelve chuckrams (small silver coins)
for the service.
"In cases of small-pox, one who has had this disease is called in to
attend. He takes the patient to a temporary hut in a lonely place,
and is well paid, and supplied with all that he requires. Through
fear, none of the relatives will go near. Should the patient die, the
attendant buries him on the spot, performing the ceremonies himself,
then comes to the house, repeats mantras, and waves his hands round
the head of each to remove further alarm. If a woman with child dies,
she is buried at a great distance away. Occasionally the remains of
an aged man are burnt on a funeral pile, as being more honourable
than burial, and providing some merit to the soul.
"Let us pay a visit to one of the rural hamlets of the Kolam Paraiyans,
a considerable sub-division of this caste. The cattle manure is
saved, but handed over to the Sudra farmers. The Paraiyas plant a
few trees around their settlement as otti (mortgage) and kurikanam
(a kind of tenant right), then pay a sum to the Sudra landowner to
permit them to enjoy the produce, as it is so difficult for them
to get waste lands registered in their own name. Some have cleared
lands, and possess a few cocoanut and betel-nut palms, mangoes,
etc. They may have a few cattle also, and let out a milch cow to the
shepherds at one rupee per month. They grow some vegetables, etc.,
in waste valley lands temporarily cleared and cultivated. They work
in the rice fields, sowing, planting, and reaping, for which they are
paid in paddy. During the slack season they work at making mats of
Ochlandra Rheedii, for which the men bring loads of the reeds from
the hills, and the women do the work of plaiting. This art they are
said to have learnt from the Kanikar hill-men.
"Some Paraiyas in Nanjinad have enjoyed ancestral property for six
generations, and a few still have good properties. Titles were
purchased for money of the Rajas of Travancore, e.g., Sambavan,
an old name for Pandi Paraiyas. The Raja gave to such a headman a
cane, and authority to claim a double allowance of betel, etc. He,
however, had in his turn to give double at funerals and festivals to
his visitors. This head Paraiyan would be met with drums and marks of
honour by his people, and the arrangement would enable the Government
to rule the Paraiyas more easily. It is said that some Raja, fleeing
in war, hid himself in Paraiya huts at Changankadei, and was thereby
saved, for which he gave them a small grant of land producing a few
fanams annually, which they still enjoy. They have a tradition that,
in M.E. 102 (A.D. 927), one Vanji Mannan Raja granted privileges to
Paraiyas. During the war with Tippu, proclamation was made that every
Paraiyan in this district must have a Nayar or master, and belong to
some one or other. All who were not private property would be made
slaves of the Sirkar (Government), which was greatly dreaded on account
of the merciless oppression, and obliged to cut grass for the troops,
and do other services. Many, therefore, became nominally slaves to some
respectable man, asking it as a kindness to free them from Government
slavery. Several respectable families begged the Namburi high priest,
visiting Suchindram and other temples, to call them his slaves,
for which they paid him one fanam a head per annum. This payment is
still kept up. This priest conferred upon them additional benefits,
for in their troubles and oppressions, he wrote to the Government,
requiring from them justice and proper treatment. The slaves of
the Namburi would also be treated with consideration on account of
his sacred position and rank. These families, 'Potty slaves,' still
intermarry only among themselves, as in this case the wife could not
be claimed by a different owner from the husband's.
"Lastly, as to the Paraiyas of North Travancore. Their condition seems
lowest of all, as they enter further into the Malayalam country, and
enjoy fewer opportunities of escape from caste degradation and from
bitter servitude. 'Their own tradition,' the Rev. G. Matthan writes,
[72] 'has it that they were a division of the Brahmans, who were
entrapped into a breach of caste by their enemies, through making them
eat beef. They eat carrion and other loathsome things. The carcases
of all domestic animals are claimed by them as belonging to them by
right. They frequently poison cows, and otherwise kill them for the
sake of their flesh. They are also charged with kidnapping women of
the higher castes, whom they are said to treat in the most brutal
manner. It is their custom to turn robbers in the month of February,
in which month they pretend the wrong was done them, to break into
the houses of the Brahmans and Nairs, and to carry away their women,
children, and property, to which they are actuated more by motives
of revenge than of interest, and to justify which they plead the
injury their caste had received from these parties. In former times,
they appear to have been able to perpetrate these cruelties almost
with impunity, from the fear of which the people still betray great
uneasiness, though the custom has now grown into disuse.'"
Parasaivan.--A title of Occhans, who are Saivites, and priests at
temples of Grama Devatas (village deities). In the Malayalam country
Parasava occurs as a title of Variyar, a section of Ambalavasi. The
word indicates the son of a Brahman by a Sudra woman.