make fire by what is known as the Malay or sawing method. A piece
of bamboo, about a foot in length, in which two nodes are included,
is split longitudinally into two equal parts. On one half a sharp
edge is cut with a knife. In the other a longitudinal slit is made
through about two-thirds of its length, which is stuffed with a
piece of cotton cloth. It is then held firmly on the ground with its
convex surface upwards, and the cutting edge drawn, with a gradually
quickening sawing motion, rapidly to and fro across it by two men,
until the cloth is ignited by the incandescent particles of wood in
the groove cut by the sharp edge. The cloth is then blown with the
lips into a blaze, and the tobacco or cooking fire can be lighted.
At Pudupadi an elephant mahout was jealously guarding a bit of bamboo
stick with notches cut in it, each notch representing a day for
which wages were due to him. The stick in question had six notches,
representing six days' wages.
Average height 157.4 cm. Nasal index 95 (max. 108.6). The average
distance from the tip of the middle finger to the top of the patella
was 4.6 cm. relative to stature = 100, which approximates very closely
to the recorded results of measurement of long-limbed African negroes.
Panjai.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division
of Pandya Vellala. The name Panjai, indicating a poverty-stricken
individual, is usually applied to mendicant Pandarams.
Panjaram.--Panjaram or Pancharamkatti is the name of a sub-division
of the Idaiyans, derived from the peculiar gold ornament, which the
women wear. It is said that, in this division, widow marriage is
commonly practiced, because Krishna used to place a similar ornament
round the necks of Idaiyan widows of whom he became enamoured, and
that this sub-division was the result of his amours with them.
Panjukkara (cotton-man).--An occupational name of a sub-division of
Vellalas, who are not at the present day connected with the cotton
trade. They call themselves Panjukkara Chettis. The equivalent panjari
(pinjari) or Panjukotti occurs as a Tamil synonym for Dudekula
(Muhammadan cotton-cleaners).
Pannadai (sheath of the cocoanut leaf).--A sub-division of Vettuvan.
Pannaiyan.--A title of Alavan.
Pannara.--A sub-division of Mali.
Pannendu Nal (twelve days).--A name for those Pallis who, like
Brahmans, perform the final death ceremonies on the twelfth day.
Pannirendam (twelfth) Chetti.--A section of the Chettis.
Pano.--In the Madras Census Report, 1891, the Panos are described as
"a caste of weavers found in the Ganjam district. This caste is no
doubt identical with the Pans, a weaving, basket-making, and servile
caste of Orissa and Chota Nagpore. The Panos occupy the same position
among the Khonds of Ganjam as the Dombs hold among the inhabitants
of the Vizagapatam hills, and the words Pano and Dombo are generally
regarded as synonyms [See Domb]. The members of the Sitra sub-division
are workers in metal." It is further noted, in the Census Report, 1901,
that the Panos are "an extensive caste of hill weavers found chiefly
in the Ganjam Agency. The Khond synonym for this word is Domboloko,
which helps to confirm the connection between this caste and the Dombas
of Vizagapatam. They speak Khond and Oriya." In a note on the Panos, I
read that "their occupations are trading, weaving, and theft. They live
on the ignorance and superstition of the Khonds as brokers, pedlars,
sycophants, and cheats. In those parts where there are no Oriyas,
they possess much influence, and are always consulted by the Khonds
in questions of boundary disputes." In a brief account of the Panos,
Mr. C. F. MacCartie writes [47] that "the Panos, also known by the
title of Dombo or Sitra in some parts, are supposed to be Paraiya
[Telugu Mala] emigrants from the low country. Their profession is
weaving or brass work, the monotony of which they vary by petty
trading in horns, skins and live cattle, and occasionally enliven
by house-breaking and theft at the expense of the Khonds, who have
an incautious trick of leaving their habitations utterly unguarded
when they go off to the hills to cultivate. [In the Madras Census
Report, 1901, the Sitras are said to be supposed to be the progeny
of a Khond man and a Haddi woman, who manufacture the brass rings
and bangles worn by the Khonds.] The Panos are drunken, immoral,
and dirty in their habits. The Khonds refuse to eat with them, but I
do not find that this objection extends to drinking, at which both
Khond and Pano display surprising capabilities. Panos are also the
professional musicians of the country, and attend weddings, deaths
and sacrifices in this character, for which they are recompensed with
food, liquor, and cloths. The generality of Khond and Pano houses are
constructed of broad sâl (Shorea robusta) logs, hewn out with the axe
and thatched with jungle grass, which is impervious to white-ants. In
bamboo jungles, of course, bamboo is substituted for sâl. The Panos
generally affect a detached quarter, known as Dombo sai. Intermarriage
between Khonds, Panos, and Uriyas is not recognised, but cases do
occur when a Pano induces a Khond woman to go off with him. She may
live with him as his wife, but no ceremony takes place. [A few years
ago, a young Khond was betrothed to the daughter of another Khond,
and, after a few years, managed to pay up the necessary number of
gifts. He then applied to the girl's father to name the day for the
marriage. Before the wedding took place however, a Pano went to the
girl's father, and said that she was his daughter (she had been born
before her parents were married), and that he was the man to whom
the gifts should have been paid. The case was referred to a council,
which decided in favour of the Pano.] If a Pano commits adultery
with a Khond married woman, he has to pay a paronjo, or a fine of
a buffalo to the husband (who retains his wife), and in addition
a goat, a pig, a basket of paddy (rice), a rupee, and a load of
pots. There is close communication between the Panos and the Khonds,
as the former act as the advisers of the latter in all cases of doubt
or difficulty. The Uriyas live apart from both, and mix but little
with either, except on the occasion of sacrifices or other solemn
assemblages, when buffaloes are slaughtered for Panos and Khonds,
and goats or sheep for Uriya visitors. [It is noted, in the Ganjam
Manual, in connection with Khond death ceremonies, that "if a man
has been killed by a tiger, purification is made by the sacrifice
of a pig, the head of which is cut off with a tangi (axe) by a Pano,
and passed between the legs of the men in the village, who stand in a
line astraddle. It is a bad omen to him, if the head touches any man's
legs.] Among the products of the jungles may be included myrabolams
(Terminalia fruits), tasar silk cocoons, and dammer, all of which
are bartered by the finders to trading Panos in small quantities,
generally for salt." In the Ganjam Maliahs, the jungles are said to
be searched by Panos for tasar cocoons, and, just across the border
in Boad, the collection of these cocoons is a regular industry among
them. Small portions of jungle are regularly reserved, and divided
up into small allotments. Each of these is given to a Pano for rent,
and here he cultivates the silkworms, and collects the silk, which
is sent to Berhampur and Sambalpur for manufacture.
The Panos are divided into two distinct sections, viz., the Khonda
Panos who live amidst the Khonds, and the Desa Panos of the plains. The
former have adopted some of the customs of the Khonds, while the
latter follow the customs of the Uriya castes which dwell in the
lowland. The Khond Panos are governed by the Molikos (headmen) of the
Khonds. In some cases, the fines inflicted for breach of caste rules
are rather severe. For example, in the neighbourhood of Baliguda, a
man who is convicted of adultery has to pay two rupees, and give two
buffaloes to the council which tries the case. Further south, for a
similar offence twelve buffaloes are demanded, and the culprit has to
pay twice the amount of the bride-price to the injured husband. The
Desa Panos conform to the standard Uriya type of caste council, and
have a headman called Behara, who is assisted by a Nayako, and caste
servants entitled Bhollobaya or Gonjari.
The marriage ceremonies of the Desa Panos are closely allied to those
of the Dandasis and Haddis, whereas those of the Khonda Panos bear a
close resemblance to the ceremonies of the Khonds. Like Khond girls,
unmarried Khond Pano girls sleep in quarters (dhangadi) specially
set apart for them, and, as among the Khonds, wedding presents in
the form of gontis are given. It is noted with reference to the
Khonds, in the Ganjam Manual, that "the bride is looked upon as a
commercial speculation, and is paid for in gontis. A gonti is one of
anything, such as a buffalo, a pig, or a brass pot; for instance,
a hundred gontis might consist of ten bullocks, ten buffaloes, ten
sacks of corn, ten sets of brass, twenty sheep, ten pigs, and thirty
fowls." At a Khond Pano marriage, the fingers of the contracting
couple are linked together, and an important item of the ceremonial,
which adds dignity thereto, is placing in front of the house at which
a marriage is being celebrated a big brass vessel containing water,
with which the guests wash their feet.
The Panos pay reverence to ancestors, to whom, when a death occurs
in a family, food is offered. In some Pano villages, when a child is
born, it is customary to consult a pujari (priest) as to whether the
grandfather or great-grandfather is re-born in it. If the answer is
in the affirmative, pigs are sacrificed to the ancestors. Some Panos
have adopted the worship of Takuranis (village deities), to whom rice
and turmeric are offered by placing them before the image in the form
of a figure-of-eight. A fowl is sacrificed, and its blood allowed to
flow on to one loop of the figure. In some places, Dharmadevata and
Gagnasuni are worshipped, a castrated goat being sacrificed annually
to the former, and fowls and an entire goat to the latter.
Pano women, who live among the Khonds, tattoo their faces in like
manner, and in other respects resemble Khond women.
I am informed that, on more than one occasion, Panos have been known
to rifle the grave of a European, in the belief that buried treasure
will be found.
Panta (a crop).--A sub-division of Kapu and Yanadi. In the Gazetteer
of South Arcot, Pan Reddi is recorded as a caste of Telugu-speaking
ryots (Kapus).
Pantala.--Recorded, in Travancore, as a sub-division of Samantan. The
name is said to be derived from Bhandarattil, or belonging to the
royal treasury.
Pantari.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, as synonymous
with the Idacheri sub-division of Nayar. Pantrantu Vitan is also
there recorded as a sub-division of Nayar.
Pappadam.--People calling themselves Pappadam Chetti are largely
found in Malabar, living by the manufacture and sale of cakes called
pappadam, which are purchased by all classes, including Nambutiri
Brahmans.
Pappini.--A name for Brahmanis, a class of Ambalavasi.
Pappu (split pulse).--An exogamous sept of Balija.
Paradesi.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a class of
Malayalam beggars. The name indicates strangers (paradesa, a foreign
country), and is applied to the White Jews of Cochin, in connection
with whom it occurs in Sirkar (State) accounts and royal writs granted
to them.
Paraiya Tada.--Recorded, in the North Arcot Manual, as a name for
those who are considered impure Valluvans. The name literally means
Paraiya Tadan or Dasari.
Paraiyan.--The Paraiyans or, as they are commonly termed, Pariahs of
the Tamil country number, according to recent census returns, over two
million souls, and a large proportion of those who returned themselves
as Native Christians are said also to belong to this class. For the
following note I am mainly indebted to an account of the Paraiyans
by the Rev. A. C. Clayton. [48]
The late Bishop Caldwell derived the name Paraiyan from the Tamil
word parai a drum, as certain Paraiyans act as drummers at marriages,
funerals, village festivals, and on occasions when Government or
commercial announcements are proclaimed. Mr. H. A. Stuart, however,
seems to question this derivation, remarking [49] that "it is only
one section of Paraiyans that act as drummers. Nor is the occupation
confined to Paraiyans. It seems in the highest degree improbable that
a large, and at one time powerful, community should owe its name to
an occasional occupation, which one of its divisions shares with other
castes. The word Paraiyan is not found in Divakaram, a Tamil dictionary
of the eleventh century A.D., and the word Pulayan was then used to
denote this section of the population, as it is still in Malayalam to
this day." In the legend of the Saivite saint, Nandan is, in the prose
version of the Periya Puranam, called a Pulayan, though a native of
Sholamandalam, which was a distinctly Tamil kingdom. Mr. W. Francis
writes [50] that "the old Tamil poems and works of the early centuries
of the Christian era do not mention the name Paraiyan, but contain
many descriptions of a tribe called the Eyinas, who seem to have
been quite distinct from the rest of the population, and did not
live in the villages, but in forts of their own. Ambur and Vellore
are mentioned as the sites of two of these. They may perhaps have
been the ancestors of the Paraiyans of to-day."
In a note on the Paraiyans, Sonnerat, writing [51] in the eighteenth
century, says that "they are prohibited from drawing water from the
wells of other castes; but have particular wells of their own near
their inhabitations, round which they place the bones of animals,
that they may be known and avoided. When an Indian of any other caste
permits a Paraiya to speak to him, this unfortunate being is obliged
to hold his hand before his mouth, lest the Indian may be contaminated
with his breath; and, if he is met on the highway, he must turn on one
side to let the other pass. If any Indian whatever, even a Choutre,
by accident touches a Paraiya, he is obliged to purify himself in a
bath. The Brahmans cannot behold them, and they are obliged to fly
when they appear. Great care is taken not to eat anything dressed
by a Paraiya, nor even to drink out of the vessel he has used; they
dare not enter the house of an Indian of another caste; or, if they
are employed in any work, a door is purposely made for them; but they
must work with their eyes on the ground; for, if it is perceived they
have glanced at the kitchen, all the utensils must be broken. The
infamy of the Paraiyas is reflected on the Europeans: last are held
in more detestation, because, setting aside the little respect they
have for the cow, whose flesh they eat, the Indians reproach them with
spitting in their houses, and even their temples: that when drinking
they put the cup to their lips, and their fingers to their mouths in
such a manner that they are defiled with the spittle."
Paraiyans are to be found throughout the Tamil districts from North
Arcot to Tinnevelly, and in the southern extremity of the Native
State of Travancore. In the Telugu country the Malas and Madigas and
in the Canarese country the Holeyas take their place.
Some of the most common names of Paraiyan males are--
Kanni or Kanniyappan.
Raman or Ramaswami.
Raju.
Velu.
Muttan.
Mari.
Kanagan.
Subban.
Nondi.
Tambiran.
Perumal.
Viran.
Sellan.
Amavasi.
Among females the most common names are Tai, Parpathi, Ammai, Kanni,
Muttammal, Rajammal, Ammani, Selli, Gangammal. In one village,
where the Paraiyans were almost all Vaishnavas, by profession not by
practice, Mr. Clayton found the inhabitants all named after heroes
of the Mahabharata, and dirty naked children answered to the names
of Ikshvakan, Karnan, Bhiman, and Draupadi. It is usual to give
the father's name when distinguishing one Paraiyan from another,
e.g., Tamburan, son of Kannan. In legal documents the prefix Para
denotes a Paraiyan, e.g., Para Kanni, the Paraiyan Kanni, but this
is a purely clerical formula. The Paraiyan delights in nicknames,
and men sometimes grow so accustomed to these that they have almost
forgotten their real names. The following nicknames are very common :--
Nondi, lame.
Kallan, thief.
Kullan, dwarf.
Vellei, white or light complexioned.
Kannan, with eyes.
Muthalai, crocodile.
Kudiyan, drunkard.
No name, indicating virtue or merit, is given, lest the wrath of
malevolent spirits should be aroused.
At the census, 1891, 348 sub-divisions were returned, of which the
following were strongest in point of numbers :--Amma found chiefly
in Tanjore and Madura; Katti in Salem and Trichinopoly; Kizhakkatti
(eastern) in Salem; Koliyan (weavers) in Chingleput, Tanjore and
Trichinopoly; Konga in Salem; Korava in Coimbatore; Kottai (fort) in
South Arcot; Morasu (drum) in Salem; Mottai in Madura; Pacchai (green)
in Coimbatore; Samban in South Arcot; Sangidum (sanku, conch, or chank
shell) in Coimbatore; Sozhia (natives of the Sozha or Chola country)
in Tanjore and Madura; Tangalan in North and South Arcot, Chingleput,
Salem, and Trichinopoly; and Valangamattu in South Arcot. The members
of the various sub-divisions do not intermarry.
It has been suggested to me that the Morasu Paraiyans, included in
the above list, are Canarese Holeyas, who have settled in the Tamil
country. In the south their women, like the Kallans, wear a horsehair
thread round the neck. As additional sub-divisions, the following
may be noted :--
Aruththukattatha, or those who, having once cut the tali-string, do
not tie it a second time, i.e., those who do not permit remarriage
of widows.
Valai (a net).--Paraiyans who hunt.
Sanku (conch-shell).--Those who act as conch-blowers at funerals.
Thatha.--Thathan is the name given to mendicants who profess
Vaishnavism. Such Paraiyans are Vaishnavites, and some are beggars.
In the Census Report, 1901, Mr. Francis notes that the term Paraiyan
"is now almost a generic one, and the caste is split up into many
sub-divisions, which differ in manners and ways. For example, the
Koliyans, who are weavers, and the Valluvans, who are medicine men and
priests and wear the sacred thread, will not intermarry or eat with
the others, and are now practically distinct castes." As occupational
titles of Paraiyans Mr. Francis gives Urumikkaran and Pambaikkaran,
or those who play on drums (urumi and pambai), and Podarayan or Podara
Vannan, who are washermen. The title Valangamattan, or people of the
right-hand division, is assumed by some Paraiyans.
Mr. Clayton states that he knows of no legend or popular belief
among the Paraiyans, indicating that they believe themselves to
have come from any other part of the country than that where they
now find themselves. There is, however, some evidence that the
race has had a long past, and one in which they had independence,
and possibly great importance in the peninsula. Mr. Stuart mentions
[52] that the Valluvans were priests to the Pallava kings before the
introduction of the Brahmans, and even for some time after it. He
quotes an unpublished Vatteluttu inscription, believed to be of the
ninth century, in which it is noted that "Sri Valluvam Puvanavan,
the Uvacchan (or temple ministrant), will employ six men daily, and do
the temple service." The inference is that the Valluvan was a man of
recognised priestly rank, and of great influence. The prefix Sri is
a notable honorific. By itself this inscription would prove little,
but the whole legendary history of the greatest of all Tamil poets,
Tiruvalluvar, "the holy Valluvan," confirms all that can be deduced
from it. His date can only be fixed approximately, but it is probable
that he flourished not later than the tenth century A.D. It is safe
to say that this extraordinary sage could not have attained the fame
he did, or have received the honours that were bestowed upon him, had
not the Valluvans, and therefore the Paraiyans, been in the circle
of respectable society in his day. This conjecture is strengthened
by the legend that he married a Vellala girl. The same hypothesis
is the only one that will account for the education and the vogue of
the sister of the poet, the aphoristic poetess Avvei.
In the Census Report, 1901, Mr. Francis mentions an inscription of
the Chola King Raja Raja, dated about the eleventh century A.D.,
in which the Paraiyan caste is called by its own name. It had then
two sub-divisions, the Nesavu or weavers, and Ulavu or ploughmen. The
caste had even then its own hamlets, wells and burning-grounds.
There are certain privileges possessed by Paraiyans, which they could
never have gained for themselves from orthodox Hinduism. They seem
to be survivals of a past, in which Paraiyans held a much higher
position than they do now. It is noted by Mr. M. J. Walhouse [53]
that "in the great festival of Siva at Trivalur in Tanjore the headman
of the Pareyars is mounted on the elephant with the god, and carries
his chauri (yak-tail fly fan). In Madras, at the annual festival of
Egatta, the goddess of the Black, [54] now George, Town, when a tali
is tied round the neck of the idol in the name of the entire community,
a Pareyan is chosen to represent the bridegroom. At Melkotta in Mysore,
the chief seat of the followers of Ramanuja Acharya, and at the Brahman
temple at Belur, the Holeyas or Pareyars have the right of entering
the temple on three days in the year specially set apart for them." At
Melkote, the Holeyas and Madigas are said to have been granted the
privilege of entering the sanctum sanctorum along with Brahmans and
others on three days by Ramanuja. In 1799, however, the right to
enter the temple was stopped at the dhvajastambham, or consecrated
monolithic column. At both Belur and Melkote, as soon as the festival
is over, the temples are ceremonially purified. At Sriperumbudur in
the Chingleput district, the Paraiyans enjoy a similar privilege to
those at Tiruvalur, in return for having sheltered an image of the
locally-worshipped incarnation of Vishnu during a Muhammadan raid. It
is noted by Mr. Stuart that the lower village offices, the Vettiyan,
Taliari, Dandasi or Barike, and the Toti, are, in the majority of
Madras villages, held by persons of the Paraiyan caste. Paraiyans
are allowed to take part in pulling the cars of the idols in the
great festivals at Conjeeveram, Kumbakonam, and Srivilliputtur. Their
touch is not reckoned to defile the ropes used, so that other Hindus
will pull with them. With this may be compared the fact that the
Telugu Malas are custodians of the goddess Gauri, the bull Nandi,
and Ganesa, the chief gods of the Saiva Kapus and Balijas. It may
also be noted that the Komatis, who claim to be Vaisyas, are bound
to invite Madigas to their marriages, though they take care that
the latter do not hear the invitation. Mr. Clayton records that he
has heard well-authenticated instances of Brahman women worshipping
at Paraiyan shrines in order to procure children, and states that he
once saw a Paraiyan exorciser treating a Brahman by uttering mantrams
(consecrated formulæ), and waving a sickle up and down the sufferer's
back, as he stood in a threshing floor.