PART II.—THE GODS.

I.—THE GODS OF OLYMPUS.

A.—SUPERIOR DEITIES.

=1. Zeus (Jupiter).=—Chief of the celestial deities is Zeus, called by

the Romans Jupiter, the controller and ruler of the universe. As being

the god of heaven _par excellence_, the “Skyfather,” he is to both

nations the source of all life in nature, and from his gracious hand are

shed blessing and abundance. All the phenomena of the air were supposed

to proceed from him. He gathers and disperses the clouds, casts forth

his lightning, stirs up his thunder, sends down rain, hail, snow, and

fertilising dew on the earth. With his ægis—an impenetrable shield hung

with a hundred golden tassels, in the midst of which the fearful head of

the Gorgon is fastened—he produces storm and tempest. The ægis, though

often meaning shield, is properly a goat-skin fastened to and supporting

the true shield; later it appears as a short cloak, and even as a

breastplate, covered with scales, and fringed with serpents. It is not

often found in representations of Zeus; though a statue of him at Leyden

shows it, and in a cameo he is seen with it wrapped around his left arm:

similarly it was common to wrap the chlamys or scarf round the left arm,

for purposes of defence. The ægis usually belongs to Athene, who borrows

it from her father in the _Iliad_. She is seen wearing it in Fig. 9. In

this word we probably see a confusion of two ideas, different, though of

similar origin; from the same root that gives us the “springing” goat we

have the storm-cloud “tossed” over the sky.

The ancients, however, were not content to regard Zeus merely as a

personification of Nature; they regarded him also from an ethical

standpoint, from which side he appears far more important and awful.

They saw in him a personification, so to speak, of that principle of

undeviating order and harmony which pervades both the physical and moral

world. The strict unalterable laws by which he rules the community of

the gods form a strong contrast to the capricious commands of his father

Cronus. Hence Zeus is regarded as the protector and defender of all

political order. From him the kings of the earth receive their

sovereignty and rights; to him they are responsible for a conscientious

fulfilment of their duties. Those among them who unjustly exceed their

powers and pervert justice he never fails to punish. Zeus, moreover,

also presides over councils and assemblies, keeps watch over their

orderly course, and suggests to them wise counsels. One of the most

important props of political society is the oath; and accordingly, as

Zeus Horkios (ὅρκιος, _deus fidius_ of the Romans), he watches over

oaths, and punishes perjury. He also watches over boundaries, and

accompanies the youths of the land as they march to the defence of their

country’s borders, giving them the victory over the invaders. All civil

and political communities enjoy his protection; but he particularly

watches over that association which is the basis of the political

fabric—the family. The head of every household was therefore, in a

certain sense, the priest of Zeus. It was he who presented the offerings

to the god in the name of the family. At his altar, which generally

stood in the middle of the court (in small households this was

represented by the hearth), all strangers, fugitives, and suppliants

found shelter. As Zeus Xenius (_hospitalis_) he protects the wanderer,

and punishes those who violate the ancient laws of hospitality by

mercilessly turning the helpless stranger from their door.

The superstition of early times saw in all the phenomena of the heavens

manifestations of the divine will. Thus the chief deity of heaven was

naturally regarded as the highest source of inspiration, and was

believed to reveal his will to men in the thunder, the lightning, the

flight of birds, or dreams. As the supreme oracular deity, Zeus not only

had an oracle of his own at Dodona in Epirus, which was the most ancient

in Greece, but also revealed the future by the mouth of his favourite

son Apollo. Though he possessed no proper oracle among the Romans, yet

the latter looked with all the more care and anxiety on the phenomena of

the air and sky, the right interpretation of which formed a special and

difficult branch of knowledge.

Zeus was the earliest national god of the Greeks. His worship extended

throughout the whole of Greece, though some of his shrines had a special

importance. The most ancient of them was that at Dodona, where the

Pelasgian Zeus was worshipped at a time prior to the existence of any

temples in Greece. He was here represented in the celebrated form of the

sacred oak, in the rustling of whose branches the deity revealed himself

to the faithful. He was also worshipped on the summit of Mount Tomarus,

at the foot of which lay Dodona—mountain-tops being naturally the

earliest seats of his worship. But all the earlier shrines were

overshadowed by the great national seat of the worship of Hellenic Zeus

at Olympia, on the northern banks of the river Alpheus, in Elis, where

the renowned Olympian games were celebrated. The magnificent statue of

Zeus, by Phidias, was an additional inducement to devotees, who flocked

thither from every quarter.

Neither was the worship of Jupiter any less extensive in Italy. The most

renowned of all his shrines was undoubtedly the temple erected by

Tarquin on the Capitol at Rome. This, after being nearly destroyed by

fire in the time of Sulla, was restored to more than its pristine

splendour. The original earthen image was replaced by a statue of gold

and ivory, the work of the Greek artist Apollonius, after the model of

the Olympian Zeus.

Before proceeding to discuss the god as he appears in art, we must take

a glance at his numerous family. The mythology of the Greeks stands in

notorious contrast to that of the Romans, in attributing to Zeus a great

number of mortal as well as immortal spouses, and an unusually numerous

posterity. Here we must remark that, in spite of the occasional jokes of

the comic poets on the numerous amours of the god, and the consequent

jealousy of Hera, there was nothing farther from the intention of the

Greeks than to represent the supreme deity of heaven as a sensual and

lascivious being. The explanation lies partly in the great number of

contemporaneous local forms of worship that existed independently of

each other, and partly in the fact that the lively fancy of the Greek

pictured every new production under the guise of procreation. In that

part of mythology which teaches the genealogy of the gods, the earliest

wife of Zeus was Metis (prudence), the daughter of Oceanus. Zeus

devoured her, fearing lest she should bear a son, who would deprive him

of the empire it had cost him so much to attain. It was soon after this

that he produced Pallas Athene from his own head. His second

goddess-wife was Themis, one of the Titans, by whom he became the father

of the Horæ and the Mœræ (Fates). Dione appears as the wife of Zeus of

Dodona, and the mother of Aphrodite; whilst Arcadian Zeus was wedded to

Maia, by whom he had Hermes. By Demeter (Ceres) he became the father of

Persephone (Proserpine, goddess of vegetation); by Eurynome, a daughter

of Oceanus, of the Charites (Graces); by Mnemosyne, of the Muses; by

Leto (Latona), of Apollo and Artemis. The youngest of all his divine

wives, who was recognised by later mythology as his only legitimate

queen, was his sister Hera. By her he became the father of Ares (Mars),

Hephæstus (Vulcan), and Hebe.

Among his mortal mistresses the most celebrated is Semele, the daughter

of Cadmus, king of Thebes, and mother of Dionysus. The others—Leda,

Danaë, Alcmene, Europa, and Io—will be mentioned hereafter.

The mythology of the Romans, as we have already remarked, first depicted

Jupiter as devoid of all family ties. It was only after their religion

had been Hellenised that men termed him the son of Saturn and Ops, made

Juno his wife and Minerva his daughter.

Statues of Zeus were necessarily very numerous, both from the great

extent of his worship and the great number of his temples that

existed in Greece. Of all these the most renowned was the

magnificent statue of Zeus at Olympia, the work of the Athenian

sculptor Phidias (500–432 B.C.). The figure was seated on a lofty

throne, and was more than 40 feet high. It was made of gold and

ivory, or more probably a statue of wood was overlaid with plates of

ivory and gold. The uncovered parts—the face, throat, breast, and

hands—were of ivory. In his right hand was a figure of Victory, also

of gold and ivory; in his left was a royal sceptre, on the top of

which perched an eagle. The numerous lengthy descriptions that exist

can give us but a faint idea of the lofty majesty that the sculptor

diffused over the countenance of the god. The object of Phidias was

to represent him to mankind, not only as the omnipotent ruler of

Olympus, far superior to all gods and men, both in power and wisdom;

but also as the gracious father of all, and the kindly dispenser of

all good gifts. The hair, which rose straight from the brow, and

then fell in equal divisions on either side, imparted to the face a

lion-like expression of conscious power. This was rendered still

more effective by the high forehead and strongly-formed nose. At the

same time, the expression of the slightly-opened lips lent an idea

of kindly benevolence. The story goes that Phidias, after completing

the statue, prayed of the god a sign that he was well pleased with

his work. Zeus thereupon caused a flash of lightning to descend

through the open roof of the temple, and thus acknowledged his own

image.

[Illustration: Fig. 3.—Zeus of Otricoli. Vatican Museum.]

[Illustration: Fig. 4.—Jupiter Verospi. Vatican Museum.]

This sublime masterpiece of Phidias, which was reckoned among the

seven wonders of the world, continued in existence, though not

without injury, for upwards of 800 years. It appears to have been

destroyed by fire in the time of Theodosius III.

[Illustration: Fig. 5.—Coins of Elis with Phidias’ Zeus. (After

Overbeck.)]

The following are the most important of the existing statues of Zeus

by Greek and Roman sculptors. The first in point of artistic worth

is a bust of Zeus, in Carrara marble—now in the Vatican Museum at

Rome—which was discovered in the last century at Otricoli (Fig. 3).

The union of serene majesty and benevolence is the chief feature in

the sublime countenance. Next comes a colossal statue in marble,

known as the Jupiter of Verospi, also in the Vatican Museum (Fig.

4). Lastly, there is a bust of Zeus, discovered at Pompeii, and now

in the Museum at Naples, besides an equally beautiful bronze statue

in the British Museum, found at Paramythia in Epirus. On comparing

all the extant art monuments of Zeus, we may gather that the object

of ancient art was to present him especially as the benign ruler of

the universe, sitting enthroned in conscious majesty and blissful

ease on the heights of Olympus. His characteristic features are the

clustering hair, falling like a mane on either side of his fine

arched brow, and the rich wavy beard. His attributes consist of the

sceptre, as a symbol of his sovereignty; the thunderbolt; the eagle;

the votive bowl, as a symbol of his worship; the ball beneath or

near his seat, as a symbol of the universe he rules; and, lastly, a

figure of Victory. His head is sometimes adorned with a garland of

oak-leaves, the oak being sacred to him; and sometimes with an

olive-branch or plain band, the latter being a mark of sovereignty.

In Fig. 5 we give an engraving of two coins of Elis, one of which is

in the Florentine and the other in the Paris Museum.

=2. Hera (Juno).=—Hera, according to Homer, was the eldest of the

daughters of Cronus and Rhea. She is the feminine counterpart of Zeus,

her brother and husband. She represents the air or atmosphere; for which

reason she, like Zeus, was supposed to control the phenomena of the air

and sky, and, as queen of heaven, shared with him all the honours of his

position. Her conjugal relations to Zeus, which form the substance of

all the myths that refer to her, afforded the poets a rich and

productive material for serious and sportive poetry. They sang of the

solemn marriage of Zeus and Hera, the remembrance of which was

celebrated at springtide with festive offerings and marriage rites

before the shrine of the goddess. Neither did they fail to tell of the

conjugal strife of the royal pair, and of the cruel fate which overtook

the mortal women who enjoyed the favours of Zeus. It was thus that

jealousy and contention became the leading features in the character of

the goddess; whereas, both in her worship and in the representations of

artists, she appears as a gracious and kindly deity, the especial

protectress of her own sex.

The natural signification of Hera appears to have quickly disappeared

among the Greeks, and she seems to have been chiefly honoured as the

guardian of the marriage tie. The nobleness of the woman who preserves

inviolate the sanctity of this bond finds in her its most sublime

expression. As the special patroness of marriage, she was supposed to

watch over its sanctity, to vouchsafe the blessing of children, and to

protect women in childbirth.

[Illustration: Fig. 6.—Barberini Juno. Vatican Museum.]

The worship of Hera was originally not very extensive. The cradle of her

worship was Argos, on which account she is often termed Argive. Argos,

Mycenæ, and Sparta are pointed out in the time of Homer as her favourite

towns. Her worship naturally extended as her new character of goddess of

marriage became more prominent. In Bœotia and Eubœa her worship was very

ancient, but her chief shrine was the Heræum, between Argos and Mycenæ.

Here was a most magnificent statue of the goddess, made of ivory and

gold, the work of the Sicyonian artist, Polycletus.[2]

Footnote 2:

Polycletus, a native of Sicyon, was a sculptor, architect, and caster

in bronze. He was a contemporary of Phidias, and, next to him, the

most celebrated artist of antiquity.

Juno (properly Jovino) takes the same place as goddess of childbirth and

patroness of marriage among the Romans as Hera did among the Greeks. In

addition to this she was venerated, under the name of Juno Regina, as

the tutelary deity of the city and empire of Rome. Her chief shrine was

on the Capitol, where she had a separate chapel in the temple of

Jupiter. The Matronalia, the chief festival of the goddess, was

celebrated on the first day of March, when all the matrons of the city

marched in procession to her temple on the Esquiline, and there offered

her flowers and libations. The victims usually sacrificed to Juno were

young heifers: her sacred birds were the goose and the crow, to which

the peacock of the Greek Hera was afterwards added.

[Illustration: Fig. 7.—Head of Hera, perhaps after Polycletus. Naples.]

The most celebrated of the art monuments that relate to Juno is the

Juno Ludovisi, a colossal marble bust of remarkable beauty, which,

thanks to casts and photographs, is tolerably well known. Her lofty

and commanding countenance is the ideal of perfect womanly beauty,

combining in a rare degree woman’s chief ornaments—dignity and

grace.

After this comes the Juno Barberini of the Vatican Museum, an entire

and upright figure of great size (Fig. 6), distinguished by the

admirable draping of the garments. The Farnese Juno, now in the

Naples Museum, also deserves mention. In the same museum there is a

singularly beautiful head of Hera (Fig. 7), which perhaps lays claim

to reflect the conception of Polycletus.

The characteristic features of Juno are a somewhat prominent chin,

expressing unbending determination of will; somewhat curling lips,

well-defined nostrils, large full eyes, and a high and noble

forehead. The attributes of the goddess consist of the sceptre and

diadem, significant of her power; the veil (often omitted in the

statues of later artists), as a symbol of the married woman; the

votive bowl in the hand, the pomegranate as a symbol of love, and

the peacock or goose at her feet, also at times the cuckoo, as

herald of spring.

=3. Pallas Athene (Minerva).=—The accounts which the Greeks gave of the

birth of Pallas vary considerably. The most common is that which has

been already mentioned. According to this, Zeus produced her from his

head, which he had ordered Hephæstus to cleave open. The great goddess

of war, in full armour, with poised spear, then sprang forth from her

father’s head, chanting a war-song, whilst a mighty commotion both on

sea and land announced the great event to the world. In her physical

character Pallas appears as the goddess of the dawn. The birth of the

dawn from the forehead of the sky is not only a natural idea, but one

which can be traced in the legends of other nations. Several of the

other stories of her birth are connected with the name Tritogenia, the

daughter of Tritos, a god, whose name, though not actually found in

Greek mythology, may be traced in Amphitrite, Triton, and the Lake

Tritonis. This name, which originally expressed the birth of the dawn

from the water, was afterwards explained in various ways, and the first

part was even derived from a provincial Greek word meaning head. Looked

at from her ethical side, she appears as the goddess of wisdom, a

reflection and personification of that profound wisdom and sagacity with

which Father Zeus controls the destinies of the world. Hence we may

easily gather the other features of her character. She is, in the first

place, the protectress of states; and all that their welfare requires in

peace or war proceeds from her. Thus she appears as goddess of peace as

well as war. In the latter capacity she accompanies the army on its

march, inspires the soldiers with ardour for the fray, and rewards them

with victory and rich spoils; she also affords her mighty protection to

towns and cities at home. In Homer she figures, besides, as the kindly

guide and protectress of individual heroes, such as Odysseus, Achilles,

Diomedes. It was she who first taught mankind to manage the horse, and

to build ships and chariots; she also invented the war-trumpet and

flute. As goddess of war she usually wears, besides helmet, shield, and

spear, the dreadful ægis. The latter, in art monuments, is represented

as a breastplate covered with dragon’s scales, and surrounded with

serpents, in the midst of which is the dreadful head of Medusa, which

has the effect of turning every one that looks on it into stone.

As goddess of peace, Athene is equally lavish in blessing. Everything

necessary either to the physical or intellectual welfare of mankind was

believed to proceed from her, and to be subject to her influence.

Accordingly, useful inventions of all kinds are ascribed to her. It was

she who first gave men the rake and the plough; it was she who invented

the distaff and loom, as well as the art of dyeing woven stuffs, and

many other feminine accomplishments.

By later writers this skill in art is extended to other things, and she

is represented as the patroness of every branch of science, art, and

manufacture.

She is also called Athene Hygiea, because she was believed to send pure

atmosphere, to ward off pestilence, and to promote the growth and health

of the youth of the land.

We cannot wonder, therefore, that the worship of a goddess so

benevolent, and exercising such an important influence on human life,

was very extensive in Greece. Nowhere did she receive a higher degree of

veneration than at Athens, of which city she was really the tutelary

deity. Her most important shrine was the Parthenon (temple of the virgin

goddess), which was erected by Pericles on the Acropolis, and the

remains of which, even in the present day, excite the wonder and

admiration of the world. The whole land of Attica was, indeed, in a

certain measure, the peculiar property of the goddess, which she won

after her well-known contest with Poseidon. Zeus had decreed the

sovereignty over Attica to that deity who should bestow on the land the

most useful present. Poseidon thereupon created the horse; but Athene

caused the olive-tree to grow, and was thus held to have won the

victory. The sacred olive-tree, which was thus called into existence,

was shown in the Temple of Erechtheus on the Acropolis, and possessed

such a wonderful vitality that, when the Persians burnt it after

capturing the town, it immediately put forth a fresh shoot. Argos and

Corinth were also renowned seats of the worship of Pallas Athene; and

she also enjoyed the highest veneration in Sparta, Bœotia, Thessaly,

Arcadia, and Rhodes.

The Roman Minerva, whose name was derived from a root meaning “to

think,” was Hellenised at a very early period, and identified with the

Greek Pallas. In Rome, however, the warlike character of the goddess was

completely merged in that of the peaceful inventress and patroness of

the art and sciences, and of all handiwork of women. She was here

worshipped, in company with Jupiter and Juno, as the tutelary deity of

the city and empire, and had, in consequence, her own shrine in the

temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. She also had temples on the Aventine and

Cœlian hills, to which a third was added by Pompey, in 61 B.C., in the

Campus Martius.

_Festivals of the goddess._—The Panathenæa, the chief festival of the

Greek Pallas, were celebrated with great pomp every four years. A solemn

procession passed through the streets of Athens up to the Acropolis; and

an offering was made to the goddess in the shape of a costly garment

(peplus), artistically embroidered by the Athenian maidens. Horse races,

athletic and musical contests, took place at the same time. Another

festival of less importance, called the Lesser Panathenæa, was

celebrated every year at Athens in honour of the goddess.

At Rome the chief festival of Minerva, the Quinquatrus Majores, was held

on the 19th of March, and was, in later times, extended to five days. It

was especially observed by all engaged in intellectual pursuits, and by

artists and artisans. As Minerva was also patroness of schools, the

schoolboys also took part in the celebration, and enjoyed a welcome

holiday.

[Illustration: Fig. 8.—Pallas Giustiniani. Vatican.]

The virgin goddess was at all times a favourite subject with ancient

art. Even in the earliest times, before casting in bronze or marble

sculpture was known, while the images of the gods were as yet rudely

carved in wood, Pallas was a frequent subject of delineation. These

wooden images usually represented the goddess as standing upright

with poised spear in front of the battle, and were then called

Palladia. Men delighted to believe them to have fallen from heaven,

and to be a sure means of protection against hostile attack. When

Greek art was in its prime, the first masters vied with each other

in the representation of the goddess. Phidias outdid them all in his

renowned statue of Athene Parthenos, which stood in the temple on

the Acropolis. The figure was 39 feet high, and was constructed of

ivory and gold. Its majestic beauty naturally formed one of the

chief attractions of the magnificent temple. It disappeared, without

leaving any clue behind it, during the stormy period of the invasion

of the nomadic tribes. In proceeding to give an account of the most

important existing statues of the goddess, we must first mention a

magnificent marble bust which King Ludwig I. of Bavaria procured for

the Munich collection, and which was formerly in the Villa Albani,

at Rome. The goddess here wears a tight-fitting helmet, the top of

which is decorated with a serpent, the emblem of wisdom. Her

breastplate, which is bordered with serpents, falls like a cape over

her shoulders, and is fastened in the middle by the Gorgon’s head, a

terrible but striking contrast to the pure and noble countenance of

the goddess. A fine bust, with a delicate and youthful expression of

countenance, is preserved in the Vatican Museum at Rome.

Another, not less beautiful, but with grave and almost masculine

features, was discovered in the excavations of Pompeii, and is now

in the Naples Museum.

Among existing (full-length) statues, the Pallas Giustiniani, of the

Vatican Museum at Rome, is held to be the finest (Fig. 8). This

probably once stood in a Roman temple, having been found in a place

where there was formerly a temple of Minerva. This statue, in

accordance with the Roman conception, bears a more peaceable

character, although neither the spear nor helmet are wanting. Next

come two statues found near Velletri, one of which is in the

Capitoline Museum at Rome, whilst the other forms a chief ornament

of the Louvre collection in Paris. Both represent the goddess in the

character of a benign deity fostering all peaceful works, with a

gentle but earnest expression of countenance.

[Illustration: Fig. 9.—Athene Polias. Villa Albani.]

[Illustration: Fig. 10.—Pallas Athene. Naples.]

The Farnese Minerva of the Naples Museum and the “Hope” copy in

London betray similar characteristics. On the other hand, in a

statue discovered at Herculaneum (now at Naples), Minerva appears as

a warlike goddess, in an evidently hostile attitude (Fig. 10). This

is also the case with the celebrated statue at the Louvre, which, on

account of the necklace worn by the goddess, is generally called

_Minerve au Collier_; and again in a statue of the Villa Albani, in

which a lion’s skin thrown over the head takes the place of the

helmet (Fig. 9).

On combining the characteristic features of Minerva, we may gather

that her most prominent trait is a lofty seriousness, well befitting

the chaste, grave character of the virgin goddess. The closed lips

and the prominent chin betray a determined and resolute disposition,

whilst her mien and bearing give token of strength and dignity.

Among the favourite animals of Minerva we may mention the serpent,

the owl, and the cock. The first is a symbol of wisdom, the second

of profound meditation, and the last of eager desire for the fray.

The attributes of Minerva consist of the ægis, which serves as a

shield, the spear, and the helmet. The helmet is sometimes adorned

with the figures of griffins, significant of the overpowering might

of the wearer. The statues are all fully clothed, in accordance with

the chaste character of the goddess.

=4. Apollo.=—As Athene is the favourite daughter of Zeus, so Apollo

ranks as the most glorious and beautiful of his sons. Like other sons of

Zeus, he is a god of light, and, indeed, the purest and highest

representative of this mighty power in nature. His mother, Leto

(Latona), is a representative of the darkness of the night. According to

the sacred legend, she was compelled when pregnant to wander about,

because mankind, dreading the appearance of the mighty god, refused to

receive her. This myth was afterwards altered by later writers, who

assign the jealousy of Hera as the cause of her wanderings. Leto at

length found a refuge on Delos, which was once a floating island, and

had to be fastened to the bottom of the sea by means of lofty columns.

As the bright god of heaven, to whom everything impure and unholy is

hateful, we find Apollo, soon after his birth, preparing to do battle

with the evil powers of darkness. With his arrows he slew both the giant

Tityus and the serpent Python, the latter a monster that inhabited the

valley of the Plistus, near Delphi, and destroyed both men and cattle.

These and similar myths are merely a panegyric on the conquering power

exercised by the genial warmth of Spring over the dark gloom of Winter.

But though Apollo thus appears as the foe of all that is evil and

impure, ancient myths, nevertheless, represent him also as a terrible

god of death, sending virulent pestilences and dealing out destruction

to men and animals by means of his unerring arrows. This may be easily

explained, however, by glancing at the natural signification of the god.

The rays of the sun do indeed put to flight the cold of winter, but as

their heat increases they themselves ultimately become the cause of

disease and death. This is beautifully portrayed in the fable of the

death of Hyacinthus.

To proceed further in the analysis of his character as god of light,

Apollo next appears as the protector of streets and houses. A conical

pillar was usually erected at the side of the doors of houses as a

symbol of him, and a defence against all sorceries. Connected with this

is his repute as a god of health; one who is indeed able to send disease

and death, but who, on the other hand, is all-powerful to protect

against physical maladies. This feature in his character, however, is

more extensively developed in the person of his son, Asclepius

(Æsculapius). But it is not only outward ills that this wonder-working

deity can cure: as the true redeemer from sin and crime, he alone can

afford consolation to guilty souls. Even those pursued by the Furies he

sometimes receives in tenderness and pity, a fine instance of which is

found in the story of Orestes. It is here that we must seek the

explanation of his character as god of music; in the fact that it

exercises so soothing and tranquillising an influence on the soul of

man. His favourite instrument was the lyre, which he was wont to play

with masterly skill at the banquets of the gods, whilst the Muses

accompanied him with their wondrous strains. Apollo was therefore

regarded as the leader of the Muses (Musagetes); and all the great

singers of antiquity, such as Orpheus and Linus, are mythically

represented as his sons.

But Apollo attained his greatest importance among the Greeks as god of

prophecy. His oracles continued to exercise an important influence on

social and political life, even down to the latest times. The

inspiration of Apollo was distinguished by the fact that the god

revealed the future less by means of outward signs than by inducing an

ecstatic condition of mind bordering on madness in those persons through

whom he wished to proclaim his oracles. These were generally women and

maidens, who, either at oracular shrines proper, or dwelling alone as

Sibyls, gave forth the responses of the god. In early times they were

somewhat numerous. There was an oracle at Clarus, near Colophon; an

oracle at Didyma, near Miletus; and an oracle on the Ismenus, near

Thebes. These were eventually all thrown into the shade by that of

Delphi. The responses of this oracle exercised, during a long period of

Grecian history, an all-powerful influence, especially on the Dorian

tribes. The convulsions of the Pythia, or priestess of Apollo, were

brought about partly by the chewing of laurel leaves, and partly by the

gaseous vapours that issued from a cleft in the earth beneath the sacred

tripod. The ecstatic condition in which she gave the responses, which

were comprehensible only to the initiated priests, manifested itself in

a foaming at the mouth and in convulsions of the body.

Delphi naturally became the chief seat of the worship of Apollo. The

gorgeous temple was rebuilt in the time of the Pisistratidæ, after the

destruction of the old one by fire. Its wealth from offerings became so

great that their value was computed at 10,000 talents (more than

£2,000,000). In the neighbourhood of Delphi the Pythian games were

celebrated in the third year of every Olympiad.

The shrine of the god at Delos, his birthplace, was little less

renowned. The sanctuary itself was situated at the foot of Mount

Cynthus; but the whole island was sacred to the god, for which reason no

one was buried there. Here, too, games, said to have been instituted by

Theseus, were celebrated every four years in honour of the god. Apollo

had, besides, a great number of less celebrated shrines and temples, not

only in Greece, but also in Asia Minor, and wherever the Greek colonies

extended.

The Apollo of the Romans, as his name indicates, was transferred to Rome

from Greece. At a comparatively early period men began to feel the want

of a prophetic deity, as the Roman gods, although they vouchsafed hints

as to the future, confined their responses to a mere Yea or Nay.

Moreover, in the character of god of healing, he was early admitted into

the Roman system, as we gather from the fact that the first temple

really dedicated to Apollo was erected in 429 B.C., under the pressure

of a grievous pestilence. The worship of Apollo was especially exalted

by the Emperor Augustus, who ascribed his victory at Actium chiefly to

the assistance of the god. He accordingly erected a magnificent temple

to Apollo on the Palatine, which was embellished with the celebrated

statue of Apollo Citharœdus, by Scopas.

[Illustration: Fig. 11.—Apollo Belvedere. Vatican.]

[Illustration: Fig. 12.—Head of Apollo Belvedere.]

This remark leads us to contemplate the different statues of the

god. Apollo constantly bears a very youthful appearance, and is

always beardless. His figure is strong and handsome, his head

covered with fair clustering locks, and his face expressive of

majesty, but marked withal by a cheerful serenity. Such is the

original and fundamental type, which was usually followed in the

representation of the god. It was principally developed by Scopas

and Praxiteles, who belonged to the later Attic school, which

flourished from the end of the Peloponnesian war to the reign of

Alexander the Great. The principal creation of Scopas was a marble

statue, representing the god as a Pythian Citharœdus with the lyre

in his hand, clothed in a long robe reaching to the feet.

This invaluable work was procured by Augustus for the temple he

erected to Apollo on the Palatine. Praxiteles, a younger

contemporary of Scopas, acquired considerable renown by his bronze

figure of a youthful Apollo pursuing a lizard (Apollo Sauroctonus).

In existing art monuments sometimes the conception of a warlike,

vengeful deity obtains, in which case the god is represented as

nude, or nearly so, and armed with quiver and bow. At other times

he wears a mild and benevolent aspect; he is then distinguished by

his lute, and completely enveloped in a chlamys. Of the former

kind is the most beautiful and celebrated of all his existing

statues, the Apollo Belvedere, which was discovered in 1503, near

Nettuno, the ancient Antium, and is now in the Vatican. The proud

self-consciousness of a conquering deity is inimitably expressed

in his whole attitude. He stands with his right hand and leg

against the trunk of a tree, his left arm outstretched, with the

ægis, probably as a symbol of fear and terror, in his hand. The

serpent creeping up the tree is a symbol of the powers of darkness

vanquished by the god (Fig. 11). It may also be taken as the

symbol of life and healing, like the serpent of Asclepius (see p.

96). We have also given a larger engraving of the head of the

Belvedere Apollo, in order to afford a clearer idea of its

wondrous beauty (Fig. 12).

The so-called Apollino, of the Florence gallery, a youthful figure

resting after battle, is a work of scarcely less beauty. The shape

of the body, which is entirely nude, is wonderfully soft and

delicate. With his left arm the god leans upon a tree; in his left

hand he negligently holds the bow, whilst his right hand is raised

to his head in a meditative fashion. The Farnese Apollo of the

Naples Museum possesses an equally graceful form. The god is here

represented as a musician; in his left hand he holds the lyre,

whilst his right glides over the strings. The animated expression of

his face, indicating his entire devotion to his art, is exquisitely

beautiful. The goose at his feet, which was regarded even by the

ancients as a music-loving bird, appears to drink in with rapture

the heavenly tones.

In those works which represent the god as a Pythian lute-player in a

long Ionian garment, we perceive an almost feminine figure and a

visionary expression of face. The most important works of this kind

are the Apollo Citharœdus of the Munich collection (Fig. 13),

formerly called the Muse of Barberini, which is marked by a somewhat

quieter attitude; and the so-called Apollo Musagetes of the Vatican

collection, which is characterised by a lively dancing movement of

the figure, and is generally regarded as an imitation of the

masterpiece of Scopas already mentioned. A pure and heavenly

inspiration seems to pervade the features of the laurel-crowned god;

his mighty lyre, to the tones of which he appears to be singing, is

suspended from a band across the chest, and is aptly adorned with

the portrait of Marsyas, his vanquished rival.

[Illustration: Fig. 13.—Apollo Citharœdus. Munich.]

Lastly, the graceful statue of Apollo Sauroctonus (Lizard-slayer)

deserves mention. Many copies of it still exist, the chief of which

is a marble statue in the Vatican collection. The delicate figure of

the god, midway between youth and boyhood, leans carelessly against

the trunk of a tree, up which a lizard is creeping. The god is

eagerly watching its movements, in order to seize a favourable

moment to nail it to the tree with his arrow.

The principle attributes of Apollo are the bow, arrows, quiver,

laurel crown, and lyre. To these may be added, as symbols of his

prophetic power, the tripod and the omphalos (navel), the latter

being a representation of the earth’s centre in the temple at

Delphi, on which he is often depicted as sitting. The god also

appears standing on the omphalos; as in the case of a marble statue

lately found in the theatre of Dionysus. His sacred animals were the

wolf, the hind, the bat, the swan, the goose, and the dolphin; the

three last being music-loving creatures.

=5. Artemis (Diana).=—Artemis is the feminine counterpart of her twin

brother Apollo, with whom she entirely harmonises when regarded from her

physical aspect. Like him, she is a beautiful and propitious deity; but

like him, too, she can deal out, at times, death and destruction among

mankind. Like Apollo, she promotes the growth of the young plant, and is

equally the foe of all that is evil and impure. Like him, she is skilled

in the use of the bow, of which she avails herself, however, not only

for the destruction of monsters, but also at times to chastise the

insolence of man—witness the death of the children of Niobe. Her

favourite amusement is the chase; armed with quiver and bow she ranges

mountain and valley, accompanied by a band of nymphs. The chase ended,

she delights to bathe in some fresh spring, or to lead off some

favourite dance on the flowery meadows, surrounded by her nymphs, all of

whom she overtops by a head. Then the heart of her mother, Leto,

rejoices as she gazes on the innocent sports of her lovely daughter.

As a virgin goddess she was especially venerated by young maidens, whose

patroness she remained till their marriage, and to whom she afforded an

example of chastity. The story of Actæon, who was changed into a stag

and then torn to pieces by his own dogs, shows that she did not suffer

any injury to her virgin modesty to go unpunished. (For this story see

the Theban legends.)

Originally, Artemis appears to have been the goddess of the moon, just

as her brother Apollo is unmistakably identical with the sun. This

conception, however, continued to grow fainter and fainter, until, in

the later days of confusion of religions, it was again revived. Artemis

was frequently confounded with Selene or Phœbe (Luna).

The national Artemis of the Greeks was originally quite distinct from

the Artemis Orthia, a dark and cruel deity, to whom human sacrifices

were offered in Laconia. Lycurgus abolished this barbarous custom, but

caused instead a number of boys to be cruelly whipped before the image

of the goddess on the occasion of her annual festival. This is the same

Artemis to whom Agamemnon was about to offer, in Aulis, his daughter

Iphigenia, previous to the departure of the Greeks for Troy. The

Scythians in Tauris likewise had a goddess whom they propitiated with

human sacrifices. This caused her to be confounded with Artemis Orthia,

and the story arose that Iphigenia was conveyed by the goddess to

Tauris, from which place she subsequently, assisted by her brother

Orestes, brought the image of the goddess to Greece.

The Ephesian Artemis, known to us as “Diana of the Ephesians,” was

distinct from all that have been mentioned. She was, in fact, an

Asiatic, not a Hellenic deity.

The Roman Diana, who was early identified with the Greek Artemis, was

likewise originally a goddess of the moon. As such, she possessed a very

ancient shrine on Mount Algidus, near Tusculum. Like the Greek Artemis,

she was also regarded as the tutelary goddess of women, and was invoked

by women in childbirth. This was also the case with Artemis, although

the matrons of Greece looked for more protection in this respect at the

hands of Hera. She gained, however, a certain political importance in

Rome after having been made by Servius Tullius the tutelary deity of the

Latin League. As such, she possessed a sacred grove and temple on the

Aventine.

[Illustration: Fig. 14.—Diana of Versailles.]

Artemis is a favourite subject with the masters of the later Attic

school. She is always represented as youthful, slender and light of

foot, and without womanly fulness. Her devotion to the chase is

clearly betokened by the quiver and bow which she generally bears,

and by the high girt robe and Cretan shoes, which allow her to pass

unencumbered through the thickets of the forest.

Among existing statues, the most celebrated is the so-called Diana

of Versailles, which came from the Villa of Hadrian, at Tibur (Fig.

14). It is now a chief ornament of the Louvre collection, and is a

worthy companion to the Belvedere Apollo, although it does not quite

equal this in beauty. In this statue the goddess does not appear as

a huntress, but rather as the protectress of wild animals. She is

conceived as having just come to the rescue of a hunted deer, and is

in the act of turning with angry mien on the pursuers. With her

right hand she grasps an arrow from the quiver that hangs at her

back, and in her left she holds the bow.

A really beautiful statue of the Vatican collection depicts the

goddess in a most striking attitude. She has just sent forth her

deadly arrow, and is eagerly watching its effect. The hound at her

side is just about to start in eager pursuit of the mark, which was

evidently therefore a wild animal. In her left hand is the bow,

still strung, from which her right hand has just directed the arrow.

Her foot is likewise upraised in triumph, and her whole deportment

expresses the proud joy of victory. The chief attributes of Diana

are bow, quiver, and spear, and also a torch, as an emblem of her

power to dispense light and life. The hind, the dog, the bear, and

the wild boar were esteemed sacred to her.

=6. Ares (Mars).=—Ares, the son of Zeus and Hera, represents war from

its fatal and destructive side, by which he is clearly distinguished

from Athene, the wise disposer of battles. He was, it is probable,

originally a personification of the angry clouded sky. His home,

according to Homer, was in Thrace, the land of boisterous, wintry

storms, among whose warlike inhabitants he was held in high esteem,

although his worship was not so extensive in Greece. Homer, in the

_Iliad_, paints in particularly lively colours the picture of the rude

“manslaying” god of war. He here appears as a deity who delights only in

the wild din of battle, and is never weary of strife and slaughter. Clad

in brazen armour from head to foot, with waving plume, helmet, and

high-poised spear, his bull’s hide shield on his left arm, he ranges the

battlefield, casting down all before him in his impetuous fury. With

strength he combines great agility, and is, according to Homer, the

fleetest of the gods. Strong though he be, however, he is overmatched in

battle by Athene; a palpable indication that prudent courage often

accomplishes more than impetuous violence.

The usual attendants and servants of Ares are Fear and Terror. By some

writers they are described as his sons, yet in Homer they fight against

him. There is little to be said of the principal seats of his worship in

Greece. In Thebes he was regarded as the god of pestilence; and

Aphrodite, who elsewhere appears as the wife of Hephæstus, was given him

to wife. By her he became the father of Harmonia, who married Cadmus,

and thus became the ancestress of the Cadmean race in Thebes. According

to an Athenian local legend, his having slain a son of Poseidon gave

rise to the institution of the Areopagus. He was here regarded as the

god of vengeance. A celebrated statue by Alcamenes adorned his temple at

Athens. Among the warlike people of Sparta the worship of Ares was also

extensive.

This deity was regarded with a far greater degree of veneration in Rome,

under the appellation of Mars, or Mavors. He seems to have occupied an

important position even among the earliest Italian tribes. It was not as

god of war, however—for which, amid the peaceful pursuits of

cattle-rearing and husbandry, they cared little—but as the god of the

spring triumphing over the powers of winter that he was worshipped. It

was from his bounty that the primitive people looked for the prosperous

growth of their flocks and the fruits of their fields; it was Mars on

whom they called for protection against bad weather and destructive

pestilence.

In warlike Rome, however, this deity soon laid aside his peaceful

character, and donned the bright armour of the god of war. He was even

regarded as being, after Jupiter, the most important god of the state

and people of Rome. Numa himself gave him a flamen of his own, and

created or restored in his honour the priesthood of the Salii. The

occasion, according to the sacred legend, was on this wise. As King Numa

one morning, from the ancient palace at the foot of the Palatine, raised

his hands in prayer to Jove, beseeching his protection and favour for

the infant state of Rome, the god let fall from heaven, as a mark of his

favour, an oblong brazen shield (ancile). At the same time a voice was

heard declaring that Rome should endure as long as this shield was

preserved. Numa then caused the sacred shield, which was recognised as

that of Mars, to be carefully preserved. The better to prevent its

abstraction, he ordered an artist to make eleven others exactly similar,

and instituted for their protection the college of the Salii, twelve in

number, like the shields, who were selected from the noblest families in

Rome. Every year in the month of March, which was sacred to Mars, they

bore the sacred shields in solemn procession through the streets of

Rome, executing warlike dances and chanting ancient war-songs. From the

days of Numa the worship of “Father Mars” continued to acquire an

ever-increasing popularity. Before the departure of a Roman army on any

expedition, the imperator retired to the sanctuary of the god in the old

palace, and there touched the sacred shields and the spear of the statue

of Mars, crying aloud at the same time, “Mars, watch over us!” According

to popular belief, the god himself went unseen before the host as it

marched to battle, whence he was called “Gradivus.” In the war with the

Lucanians and Bruttians (282 B.C.), when the consuls were hesitating

whether to begin the attack, an unknown youth of extraordinary stature

and beauty encouraged the troops to begin the assault on the enemy’s

camp, and was himself the first to scale the wall. When he was

afterwards sought for, in order that he might receive his richly merited

reward, he had disappeared, leaving no trace behind him. As it could

have been none other than Father Mars, the consul, Fabricius, decreed

him a thanksgiving of three days’ duration.

Mars naturally received a due share of all booty taken in war. Defeat

was ascribed to his wrath, which men strove to avert by extraordinary

sin-offerings.

Popular belief made Mars the father, by a vestal virgin, of Romulus and

Remus, the legendary founders of the city. His wife appears to have been

Nerio; but she enjoyed no honours at Rome.

In attendance on Mars we find Metus and Pallor, who answer to the Greek

deities already mentioned; and also his sister Bellona, corresponding to

the Enyo, who was worshipped in Pontus and Cappadocia, though not in

Greece proper. Bellona had a temple in the Campus Martius.

[Illustration: Fig. 15—Mars Ludovisi.]

The Campus Martius (Field of Mars), the celebrated place of exercise of

the Roman youth, stretched from the Quirinal westwards to the Tiber, and

was dedicated to the god of war. Augustus, after the overthrow of the

murderers of Cæsar, his adoptive father, erected a temple to Mars, which

was built in Greek style, and far surpassed in grandeur and splendour

all the other temples of the god. Three columns of it are still

standing, mute witnesses of vanished splendour. A large number of

religious festivities were celebrated in the month of March in honour of

Mars. The procession of the Salii formed the chief feature of the

festival; but there were also races and games. On the Ides of October

also a chariot race took place in honour of Mars, at which the singular

custom prevailed of offering the near horse of the victorious team to

the god. The inhabitants of the two oldest quarters of the city

contended for the head of the slaughtered animal, and whoever got it was

supposed to reap great blessings from its possession.

Ancient artists represented Mars as a tall and powerful young man,

whose activity, however, is as apparent as his strength. His

characteristic features are short curly hair, small eyes, and broad

nostrils, significant of the violence and passionateness of his

nature. The most celebrated of existing statues is the Mars Ludovisi

of the Villa Ludovisi, at Rome. It has often been conjectured that

this is an imitation of the renowned work of Scopas. The deity is

depicted as resting after battle; and, in spite of the usual

turbulence of his disposition, he here appears to have surrendered

himself to a more gentle frame of mind. The little god of love

crouching at his feet gazes into his face with a roguish, triumphant

smile, as though rejoiced to see that even the wildest and most

untameable must submit to his sway, and thus shows us what has

called forth this gentle mood. (Fig. 15.) The Mars Ludovisi is an

original work, Greek in its origin, though belonging to a somewhat

late period. The Borghese Mars of the Louvre, on the other hand, is

undoubtedly of Roman origin. It is supposed to represent Ares bound

by the craft of Hephæstus.

[Illustration:

Fig. 16.—Bust of Ares. Sculpture Gallery at Munich.]

Besides these two principal statues, the bust of Mars of the Munich

collection deserves mention. It is distinguished by a peculiarly

expressive head, of which we give an engraving (Fig. 16).

The attributes of Mars are the helmet (decorated with the figures of

wolf-hounds and griffins), shield, and spear. The animals sacred to

him were the wolf, the horse, and the woodpecker.

=7. Aphrodite (Venus).=—In the _Iliad_, Aphrodite is represented as the

daughter of Zeus and Dione, the goddess of moisture, who, as the wife of

the god of heaven, was held in high esteem among the old Pelasgians. The

same notion of the goddess being produced from moisture is seen in the

legend, which relates that Aphrodite was born of the foam of the sea,

and first touched land on the island of Cyprus, which was henceforth

held sacred to her. She was probably a personification of the creative

and generative forces of nature, and figured among the Greeks as goddess

of beauty and sexual love. We must not forget that this conception does

not cover the whole character of the goddess. She not only appears as

Aphrodite Pandemus (the earthly Aphrodite), a goddess of the spring, by

whose wondrous power all germs in the natural and vegetable world are

quickened, but we also hear of Aphrodite Urania, a celestial deity, who

was venerated as the dispenser of prosperity and fertility; and also an

Aphrodite Pontia (of the sea), the tutelary deity of ships and mariners,

who controlled the winds and the waves, and granted to ships a fair and

prosperous passage. As the worship of Aphrodite was extremely popular

among the numerous islands and ports of the Grecian seas, we can well

imagine that it was in this latter character that she received her

greatest share of honour.

The poets paint Aphrodite as the most beautiful of all the goddesses,

whose magic power not even the wisest could withstand. Even wild animals

were conscious of her influence, and pressed round her like lambs. She

was endowed with the celebrated love-begetting magic girdle, which she

could lay aside at will and lend to others. And as she thus gave rise to

passion in others, she herself was not free from its influence. This is

evidenced by the numerous stories of her amours with the gods or

favoured mortals, which it is so difficult to bring into harmony with

each other. Sometimes Ares, sometimes Hephæstus, is said to be her

husband. The latter account, which originated in Lemnos, was the more

popular; doubtless because its very strangeness in mating the sweetest

and most lovely of the goddesses with the lame and ugly god of fire had

a certain charm. No children are mentioned as springing from the union

of Aphrodite with Hephæstus; but Eros and Anteros, as well as Demus and

Phobus, are said to be her children by Ares. Other legends, generally of

a local character, unite her to Dionysus, or to Hermes.

The story of her love for the beautiful Adonis clearly represents the

decay of nature in autumn, and its resuscitation in spring. Adonis, whom

Aphrodite tenderly loved, was killed, when hunting, by a wild boar.

Inconsolable at her loss, Aphrodite piteously entreated Father Zeus to

restore his life. Zeus at length consented that Adonis should spend one

part of the year in the world of shadows, and the other in the upper

world. Clearly the monster that deprived Adonis of life is only a symbol

of the frosty winter, before whose freezing blast all life in nature

decays.

In the story of Troy, Aphrodite plays an important part. She was the

original cause of the war, having assisted Paris in his elopement with

Helen. This was his reward for his celebrated judgment, in which he

awarded the prize of beauty to Aphrodite in preference to Hera or

Athene. Besides the Trojan prince Anchises enjoyed her favours, and she

became by him the mother of the pious hero Æneas.

The goddess appears ever ready to assist unfortunate lovers; thus she

aided the hero Peleus to obtain the beautiful sea-nymph Thetis. On the

other hand, she punishes with the utmost severity those who from pride

or disdain resist her power. This appears in the legend of Hippolytus,

son of Theseus, King of Athens, whom she ruined through the love of his

step-mother Phædra; also in the story of the beautiful youth Narcissus,

whom she punished by an ungratified self-love, because he had despised

the love of the nymph Echo.

The Seasons and the Graces appear in attendance on Aphrodite. Their

office is to dress and adorn her. She is also accompanied by Eros,

Pothus, and Himerus (Love, Longing, and Desire), besides Hymen, or

Hymenæus, the god of marriage.

The Roman Venus (the Lovely One) was regarded by the earlier Italian

tribes as the goddess of spring, for which reason April, the month of

buds, was held sacred to her. She early acquired a certain social

importance, by having ascribed to her a beneficent influence in

promoting civil harmony and sociability among men.

After her identification with the Aphrodite of the Greeks, she became

more and more a goddess merely of sensual love and desire. She had three

principal shrines—those of Venus Murcia, Venus Cloacina, and Libitina.

The first of these surnames points to Venus as the myrtle goddess (the

myrtle being an emblem of chaste love); her temple was situated on the

brow of the Aventine, and was supposed to have been erected by the

Latins, who were planted there by Ancus Marcius.

The temple of Venus Cloacina (the Purifier) was said to have been

erected in memory of the reconciliation of the Romans and Sabines, after

the rape of the Sabine women. The surname of Libitina points to her as

goddess of corpses. All the apparatus of funerals were kept in this

temple, and her attendants were at the same time the public undertakers

of the city.

To these ancient shrines was added another in the time of Julius Cæsar,

who erected a temple to Venus Genetrix, the goddess of wedlock, in

fulfilment of a vow made at the battle of Pharsalus.

[Illustration: Fig. 17.—Venus of Milo. Louvre.]

Aphrodite, or Venus, is notoriously an especially common subject of

representation among the artists of antiquity. The task of giving

expression to the most perfect female beauty, arrayed in all the

charms of love, by means of chisel or brush, continually spurs the

artist to fresh endeavours. It was especially among the masters of

the later Attic school, who devoted themselves to the representation

of the youthful and beautiful among the gods in whom the nude

appeared least offensive, that statues of Venus were attempted. The

Venus of Cnidus, by Praxiteles, was the most important work of that

master; and the people of Cnidus were so proud of it that they

engraved her image on their coins. The fact that they ventured to

portray the goddess as entirely nude may be regarded as a sign both

of the falling away of the popular faith and of the decay of art.

Henceforth, except in the case of statues for the temples, it became

an established custom to represent Venus and other kindred deities

as nude. Venus is further distinguished by a fulness of form, which

is, nevertheless, combined with slenderness and grace. The

countenance is oval; the eyes are not large, and have a languishing

expression; the mouth is small, and the cheeks and chin full and

round.

Of the numerous existing statues we can here mention only the most

important. First among them in artistic worth is a marble statue

larger than life, which was found in 1820 on the island of Melos

(Milo), and is now in the Louvre at Paris (Fig. 17). In this

statue only the upper part of the body is nude, the lower

portions, from the hips downward, being covered with a light

garment. One scarcely knows which to admire most in this splendid

statue—the singularly dignified expression of the head, or the

charming fulness and magnificent proportions of the limbs. The

arms are quite broken off, so that we cannot determine the

conception of the artist with any certainty. It is supposed that

the goddess held in her hand either an apple, which was a symbol

of the Isle of Melos, or the bronze shield of Ares. Her looks

express proud and joyous self-consciousness.

In the Venus of Capua (so called because found among the ruins of

the Amphitheatre) she again appears as a victorious goddess (Venus

Victrix). This statue is now in the Museum at Naples. The shape of

the nude body is not so vigorous or fresh as that of the Venus of

Milo, but somewhat soft and ill-defined.

[Illustration: Fig. 18.—Venus Genetrix. Villa Borghese.]

The Medicean Venus, formerly in the Villa Medici at Rome, is better

known. It is a work of the later Attic school, in which, at the end

of the second century B.C., Greek art once more blooms for a while.

It is the work of the Athenian artist Cleomenes, though probably

chiselled in Rome. As Venus Anadyomene (rising from the sea) the

goddess appears entirely nude. This is the most youthful in

appearance of all her statues, and is distinguished by the perfect

regularity and beauty of its form, though there is no trace of the

lofty dignity of the goddess. “What a descent,” says Kraus in his

_Christian Art_, “is there from the Venus of Milo to this coquette,

whose apparently bashful posture is only meant to challenge the

notice of the beholder.”

The “Venus crouching in the bath” of the Vatican collection, and the

“Venus loosing her sandal” of the Munich Gallery, are creations

similar in style. In some imitations of the Cnidian Venus, the most

important of which are in Rome and Munich, the goddess wears a more

dignified demeanour; and also in the wonderfully graceful Venus

Genetrix of the Villa Borghese, at Rome (Fig. 18).

The attributes of Venus vary much according to the prevailing

conception of the goddess. The dove, the sparrow, and the dolphin,

and among plants the myrtle, the rose, the apple, the poppy, and the

lime-tree, were sacred to her.

=8. Hermes (Mercurius).=—Hermes was the son of Zeus and Maia, a daughter

of Atlas. He was born in a grotto of Mount Cyllene in Arcadia, whence he

is called Cyllenius. We know the stories of his youth chiefly from the

so-called Homeric Hymn.

From this we learn how Hermes, soon after his birth, sprang from his

mother’s lap to seek the oxen of Apollo. Finding outside the cave a

tortoise, he stretched strings across its shell, and thus made a lyre,

to which he sung the loves of Zeus and Maia. Then hiding the lyre in his

cradle, he went out to seek for food. Coming to Pieria in the evening,

he stole thence fifty cows from the herds of Apollo, and drove them to

the river Alpheüs. Here he slew two of them, and roasted the flesh, but

could not swallow it. Then returning home in the early morning, he

passed through the key-hole like the morning breeze, and lay down in his

cradle. Apollo, however, soon remarked the theft, and hurried after the

impudent robber. Hermes now played the innocent, and obstinately denied

the charge; but Apollo was not to be deceived, and forced the young

thief to accompany him to the throne of Zeus to have their quarrel

decided. Zeus ordered Hermes to restore the cattle, but Apollo gladly

made them over to Hermes on receiving the newly-invented lyre. Thus

Hermes became the god of shepherds and pastures, whilst Apollo

henceforth zealously devoted himself to the art of music.

As a token of their thorough reconciliation, Apollo gave his brother god

the golden Caduceus, or magic wand, by means of which he could bestow

happiness on whomsoever he would; and henceforth both dwelt together in

the utmost harmony and love, the favourite sons of their father Zeus.

Various interpretations have been given of the nature of Hermes. Some

have seen in him the thunderstorm, some the dawn, and some the morning

breeze. The name Hermes, compared with the corresponding Indian words,

seems to make his connection with the morning certain. Several points in

the legend just related guide us to the breeze rather than the dawn; the

invention of music, the kine carried off—which, nevertheless, he cannot

eat (the wind cannot consume as fire does what it breaks down and

carries off)—and the passing through the key-hole “like the morning

breeze.” So also his function of guide and conductor of the soul, which

we shall speak of presently.

The following are the most important features in the character of

Hermes:—Not only does he promote the fruitfulness of flocks and herds,

but he also bestows prosperity and success on all undertakings,

especially those of trade and commerce. As the guardian of the streets

and roads, and the friendly guide of those travelling on business,

Hermes must have appeared especially worthy of honour among the Greeks,

who were at all times sharp and greedy men of business. Accordingly, men

erected in his honour, on the roads, what were called Hermæ—mere blocks

of stone, or posts, with one or more heads: these latter were at

cross-roads, and also served as finger-posts. Hermæ[3] were also often

to be seen in the streets of towns and in public squares. Not only did

Hermes protect and guide merchants whilst travelling, but he also

endowed them with shrewdness and cunning to outwit others. And as a god

who had himself commenced his career by a dexterous theft, he was fain

to allow thieves and rogues to invoke his protection before entering on

their operations; just as in the present day robbers and bandits in

Italy or Greece see nothing strange in asking their patron saint to

bestow on them a rich prey. Every chance gain—in gambling, for

instance—and every fortunate discovery were attributed to Hermes.

Footnote 3:

In this meaning, however, some have derived the word from a different

root, and supposed it to mean originally only “pillars.”

Though playing such an important part in human life, Hermes also appears

as the fleet messenger and dexterous agent of Zeus. It is in this guise

that the epic poets love to depict him. With his golden-winged shoes he

passes more swiftly than the wind over land and sea, executing the

commissions of his father Zeus or the other inhabitants of Olympus. Thus

he is sent by Zeus to command the nymph Calypso to release Odysseus, and

to warn Ægisthus against the murder of Agamemnon. At times, difficult

tasks are allotted to him; for instance, the destruction of the

hundred-eyed guardian of Io, on which account Homer calls him the

Argus-slayer. Doubtless in this myth the hundred-eyed Argus represents

the starry heavens; Argus is slain by Hermes, that is, in the morning

the stars cease to be visible. As messenger and herald of the gods, he

is a model for all earthly heralds, who, in ancient times, were the

indispensable agents of kings in every difficult business. Hence he

bears the herald’s staff, or _caduceus_. This is the same wand once

given him by Apollo, consisting of three branches, one of which forms

the handle, whilst the other two branch off like a fork, and are joined

in a knot. The origin of this herald’s staff appears to have been the

olive branch wreathed with fillets of wool. It was only at a later

period that the two last were converted into serpents. By means of this

wand Hermes can either induce deep sleep or rouse a slumberer, but he

uses it chiefly in guiding souls to the infernal regions. This leads us

to speak of the important office of Hermes as Psychopompus, or conductor

of the soul. Every soul, after death, commenced its journey to the

region of shadows under the guidance of the god. On extraordinary

occasions, where, for instance, the spirits were summoned in the oracles

of the dead, Hermes had to reconduct the souls of the departed to the

upper world, thus becoming a mediator between these two regions, in

other respects so far divided.

As dreams come from the lower world, Hermes was naturally regarded as

the deity from whom they proceeded; on which account people were wont to

ask him for good dreams before going to sleep.

The highest conception of Hermes, however, is that of the god who

presides over the bringing up of children; and, indeed, what god was

more fitted to be presented as an example to Grecian youth than the

messenger of the gods, equally dexterous in mind and body? He is the

fleetest of runners and the most skilful of disc-throwers and boxers;

and though he does not, like Apollo, represent any of the higher forms

of intellectual life, still he possesses in the highest degree that

practical common sense which was so greatly valued among the Greeks. The

wrestling school and the gymnasium were consequently regarded as his

institutions, and adorned with his statues. In further development of

his relation to the education of the young, later poets even made him

the inventor of speech, of the alphabet, and of the art of interpreting

languages. The custom which prevailed among the Greeks of offering him

the tongues of the slaughtered animals, shows clearly that they also

considered him as the patron of eloquence.

There is little to be said of the Roman Mercury. As his name (from

_mercari_, to trade) signifies, he was considered by the Romans solely

as god of trade. His worship was introduced at the same time as that of

Ceres—some years after the expulsion of the Tarquins, at a season of

great scarcity—but appears to have become confined to the plebeians. The

guild of merchants regarded him as their tutelary deity, and offered

sacrifices to him and his mother Maia on the Ides of May.

The plastic representation of Hermes made equal progress with his

ideal development. The first statues of the god, founded on the

ancient Hermæ already mentioned, represented him as a shepherd,

sometimes as the herald and messenger of the gods, always as a

powerful, bearded man. Later, he assumed a more youthful appearance,

and was represented as a beardless youth in the very prime of

strength, with broad chest, lithe but powerful limbs, curly hair,

and small ears, mouth, and eyes; altogether a wonderful combination

of grace and vigour. If we add to this the expression of kindly

benevolence which plays around his finely-cut lips, and the

inquiring look of his face as he bends forward thoughtfully, we have

the principal characteristic features of the god.

[Illustration: Fig. 19.—Resting Hermes. Bronze Statue at Naples.]

Among existing statues, a full-sized “Hermes at rest,” in bronze,

which was found at Herculaneum, and is now in the Naples Museum, is

perhaps most worthy of mention. He here appears as the messenger of

the gods, and has just sat down on a rock to rest. The winged

sandals form his only clothing, and these are, strictly speaking,

not really sandals, but simply straps covering the foot, to which

wings are fastened close to the ankles (Fig. 19).

[Illustration: Fig. 20.—Statue of Hermes. Capitoline Collection.]

A splendid marble statue of the Vatican collection, which, was once

taken for Antinous, portrays the god as the patron of wrestling; the

Caduceus which he holds in his left hand is, however, a modern

addition. In the Hermes Ludovisi of Rome we have a graceful

representation of Hermes Logius, the patron of the art of rhetoric.

The wings are here not placed on the feet, or even directly on the

head, as is often the case, but are fastened to a low round

travelling-hat.

A pretty bronze statuette in the British Museum depicts Hermes as

the god of trade and commerce, with a well-filled purse in his hand.

Such is also the conception of a fine statue of the Capitoline

collection at Rome (Fig. 20). The principal attributes of the god

have already been incidentally mentioned: they are wings on the

feet, head, or cap; the herald’s staff, the votive bowl, and the

purse.

=9. Hephæstus (Vulcan).=—Hephæstus, the god of fire and the forge, was

commonly regarded as a son of Zeus and Hera. He was so lame and ugly

that his mother in shame cast him from heaven into the sea. But Eurynome

and Thetis, the Oceanids, took pity on him, and tended him for nine

years in a deep grotto of the sea, in return for which he made them many

ornaments. After being reconciled to his mother, he returned to Olympus

under the guidance of Dionysus. According to another not less popular

account, it was not his mother who treated him so cruelly, but Zeus.

Hephæstus, on the occasion of a quarrel between Zeus and Hera, came to

the help of his mother, whereupon the angry god of heaven seized him by

the foot and hurled him from Olympus. The unfortunate Hephæstus fell for

a whole day, but alighted at sundown on the isle of Lemnos with but

little breath in his body. Here the Sintians, who inhabited the island,

tended him till his recovery. Later writers say that it was from this

fall that he became lame. The same fundamental idea lies at the root of

these various legends, viz., that fire first came down from heaven in

the form of lightning. Hephæstus originally represented the element of

fire, and all the effects of fire are accordingly referred to him. The

fires of the earth break forth from the open craters of volcanoes; it

must therefore be Hephæstus who is working in the midst of the fiery

mountain, where he has his forges and his smithies. So says the legend

of Mount Mosychlus, in Lemnos, the chief seat of his worship. Scarcely

less celebrated, from its connection with him, was Mount Ætna, in

Sicily. After it was observed that the wine was particularly good in the

neighbourhood of volcanic mountains, the story of the intimate

friendship between Hephæstus and Dionysus was concocted.

The most beneficial action of fire is manifested in its power to melt

metals and render them useful to man in the shape of implements and

tools of all kinds. Hence the conception of the character of Hephæstus

tended ever more and more to represent him as the master of all

ingenious working in metals, and as the patron of artificers and

craftsmen using fire. In this character he was brought into close

connection with the art-loving goddess Athene, and hence we see why both

these divinities enjoyed so many kindred honours and had so many

festivals in common at Athens, the chief seat of Greek science and art.

It was also chiefly in the character of artificer that Hephæstus was

treated of by the poets, who delight to describe the gorgeous brazen

palace which he built himself on Olympus, in which was a huge workshop

with twenty cunningly-devised pairs of bellows. He also constructed

there the imperishable dwellings of the gods. Many also were the

ingenious implements which he constructed, such as the walking tables,

or tripods, which moved of their own accord into the banqueting-chamber

of the gods, and then returned to their places after the meal was over.

He also made himself two golden statues of maidens, to assist him in

walking, and bestowed on them speech and motion. Among the other works

of his mentioned by the poets are the ægis and sceptre of Zeus, the

trident of Poseidon, the shield of Heracles, and the armour of Achilles,

among which, also, was a shield of extraordinary beauty.

[Illustration:

Fig. 21.—Hephæstus. Bronze Figure in the British Museum.]

The worship of Hephæstus was not very extensive in Greece. The most

important seat of his worship was the isle of Lemnos, where he was

supposed to dwell on Mount Mosychlus with his workmen, the Cabiri, who

answer to the Cyclopes of Ætna. He was held in great esteem at Athens,

where, at different festivals, torch races were held in his honour.

Young men ran with burning torches, and whoever first reached the goal

with his torch alight received the prize. He was, moreover, highly

venerated by the Greeks in Campania and Sicily, a fact which may be

easily explained by the fiery mountains of these places.

The Romans called this god Vulcanus, or, according to its more ancient

spelling, Volcanus. They honoured in him the blessings and beneficial

action of fire. They also sought his protection against conflagrations.

Under the influence of the Greek writers, the original and more common

conception of the god gave place to the popular image of the smith-god,

or Mulciber, who had his forges in Ætna, or on the Lipari Isles, and who

vied with his comrades in wielding the hammer. In correspondence with

the Greek myths, Venus was given him to wife; by this men doubtless

sought to convey the idea that truly artistic works can only be created

in harmony with beauty.

The chief shrine of the god in Rome was the Volcanal, in the Comitium,

which was not really a temple, but merely a covered fire-place. In the

Campus Martius, however, was a real temple close to the Flaminian

Circus, where the festival of the Volcanalia was celebrated with every

kind of game on the 23rd day of August.

Greek and Roman artists generally represented this god as a

powerful, bearded man of full age. He is distinguished by the

shortness of his left leg, by the sharp, shrewd glance of his

cunning eye, and his firm mouth. His attributes are the smith’s

tools, the pointed oval workman’s cap, and the short upper garment

of the craftsman or humble citizen.

With the exception of some small bronzes in London and Berlin, and a

newly discovered marble bust of the Vatican collection, we possess

no antique statues of the god worth mentioning. The engraving (Fig.

21) is from a bronze in the British Museum.

=10. Hestia (Vesta).=—It must have been at a comparatively late period

that Hestia, the daughter of Cronus and Rhea, attained a general

veneration, as her name is not mentioned either in the _Iliad_ or

_Odyssey_. Hestia is the guardian angel of mankind, who guards the

security of the dwelling, and is, in consequence, regarded as the

goddess of the family hearth, the centre of domestic life. The hearth

possessed among the ancients a far higher significance than it does in

modern life. It not only served for the preparation of meals, but was

also esteemed the sacred altar of the house; there the images of the

household gods were placed, and thither, after the old patriarchal

fashion, the father and priest of the family offered sacrifice on all

the important occasions of domestic life. No offering was made in which

Hestia, the very centre of all domestic life, had not her share.

And as the state is composed of families, the goddess of the domestic

circle naturally becomes the protectress of every political community.

On this account, in Greek states the Prytaneum, or seat of the governing

body, was dedicated to Hestia; there she had an altar, on which a fire

was ever kept burning. From this altar colonists, who were about to

leave their native land in search of new homes, always took some fire—a

pleasing figurative indication of the moral ties between the colony and

the mother country.

As the hearth-fire of the Prytaneum was an outward and visible sign to

the members of a state that they were one great family, so the Hestia of

the temple at Delphi signified to the Greeks their national connection

and the unity of their worship. Her altar in this temple was placed in

the hall before the cave of the oracle; on it was placed the celebrated

omphalus (navel of the earth, likewise an emblem of the goddess), Delphi

being regarded by the Greeks as the centre of the whole earth. Here,

too, a fire was kept ever burning in honour of Hestia. The character of

the goddess was as pure and untarnished as flame itself. Not only did

she herself remain a virgin, though wooed by both Poseidon and Apollo,

but her service could be performed only by chaste virgins. She does not

appear to have had a separate temple of her own in Greece, since she had

a place in every temple.

The service of Vesta occupied a far more important place in the public

life of the Romans. Her most ancient temple, which was supposed to have

been built by Numa Pompilius, was situated on the slope of the Palatine

opposite the Forum. It was built in a circle, and was of moderate

dimensions, being, indeed, little more than a covered fire-place. In it

the eternal fire, a symbol of the life of the state, was kept burning.

Here, too, the service was performed by virgins, whose number was at

first four, but was afterwards increased to six. Their chief occupation

was to maintain the sacred fire, and to offer up daily prayers at the

altar of the goddess for the welfare of the Roman people. The extinction

of the sacred flame was esteemed an omen of coming misfortune, and

brought severe punishment on the negligent priestess. The choice of

vestals lay with the Pontifex Maximus. They were chosen between the ages

of six and ten years, always out of the best Roman families. For thirty

years they remained bound to their sacred office, during which time they

had to preserve the strictest chastity. After the lapse of thirty years

they returned to civil life, and were permitted to marry if they liked.

Another sanctuary of Vesta existed in Lavinium, the metropolis of the

Latins, where the Roman consuls, after entering on their office, had to

perform a solemn sacrifice. The festival of Vesta was celebrated on the

9th of June, on which occasion the Roman women were wont to make a

pilgrimage barefooted to the temple of the goddess, and place before her

offerings of food.

In the domestic life of the Romans the hearth and the hearth-goddess

Vesta occupied as important a position as among the Greeks. The worship

of Vesta is closely connected with that of the Penates, the kindly,

protecting, household gods, who provided for the daily wants of life,

and about whom we shall have more to say before concluding the subject

of the gods.

[Illustration:

Fig. 22.—Vesta Giustiniani. Torlonia Collection.]

Agreeably to the chaste, pure character of the goddess, she could

only be represented in art with an expression of the strictest moral

purity; she generally appears either sitting or standing, her

countenance characterised by a thoughtful gravity of expression. Her

principal attributes consist of the votive bowl, the torch, the

simpulum, or small cup, which was used in making libations, and the

sceptre. In consequence of the dignity and sanctity of her

character, she was always represented as fully clothed, which may

account for the fact that the ancients had so few statues of the

goddess. We may, therefore, consider it fortunate that such a

splendid example as the Vesta Giustiniani, which belongs to the

private collection of Prince Torlonia, at Rome, has come down to us.

It is supposed to be an original work of the best period of Greek

art. The goddess is represented as standing in a calm posture, her

right hand pressed against her side, whilst with the left she points

significantly towards heaven, as though wishing to impress on

mankind where to direct their prayers and thoughts (Fig. 22).

=11. Janus.=—Among the most important gods of the Romans was the

celebrated Janus, a deity quite unknown to the Greeks. In his original

character he was probably a god of the light and sun—the male

counterpart, in fact, of Jana, or Diana, and thus very similar to the

Greek Apollo. As long as he maintained this original character, derived

from nature, he was regarded as the god of all germs and first

beginnings, and possessed, in consequence, an important influence both

on the public and private life of the Romans. We must confine ourselves

to mentioning some of the most important traits resulting from this view

of his character. First, Janus is the god of all beginnings of time. He

begins the new year, whose first month was called January after him, and

was dedicated to him. Thus, New Year’s Day (_Kalendæ Januariæ_) was the

most important festival of the god; on this occasion the houses and

doors were adorned with garlands and laurel boughs, the laurel being

supposed to exercise a potent influence against all magic and diseases.

Relatives and friends exchanged small presents (principally sweets; for

example, dates and figs wrapped in laurel leaves) and good wishes for

the coming year. The god himself received offerings of cake, wine, and

incense, and his statue was adorned with fresh laurel boughs. This

offering was repeated on the first day of every month, for Janus opened

up every month; and as the Kalends were sacred to Juno, he was therefore

called Junonius. In the same way Janus was supposed to begin every new

day, and called _Matutinus Pater_. He also appears as the doorkeeper of

heaven, whose gates he opened in the morning and closed in the evening.

From being the god of all temporal beginnings, he soon became the patron

and protector of all the beginnings of human activity. The Romans had a

most superstitious belief in the importance of a good commencement for

everything, concluding that this had a magical influence on the good or

evil result of every undertaking. Thus, neither in public nor private

life did they ever undertake anything of importance without first

confiding the beginning to the protection of Janus. Among the most

important events of political life was the departure of the youth of the

country to war. An offering was therefore made to the god by the

departing general, and the temple, or covered passage sacred to the god,

was left open during the continuance of the war, as a sign that the god

had departed with the troops and had them under his protection. The

consul never neglected, when he entered on his office, to ask the

blessing of Janus, and the assemblies never began their consultations

without invoking Janus. In the same way the private citizen, in all

important occurrences and undertakings, sought by prayers and vows to

acquire the favour of Janus. The husbandman, before he commenced either

to sow or to reap, brought to Janus Consivius an offering of cake and

wine. The merchant, when he entered on a journey of business, and the

sailor, when he weighed anchor and started on a long and dangerous

voyage, never omitted to invoke the blessing of the god. This view of

the god also explains the custom of calling on Janus first in every

prayer and at every sacrifice, since, as keeper of the gates of heaven,

he also appeared to give admittance to the prayers of men.

As the god of all first beginnings, Janus is also the source of all

springs, rivers, and streams of the earth. On this account the fountain

nymphs were generally looked on as his wives, and Fontus and Tiberinus

as his sons.

The power of Janus in causing springs to rise suddenly from the earth

was experienced, to their cost, by the Sabines. The latter, in

consequence of the rape of their women, had overrun the infant state of

Rome, and were about to introduce themselves into the town on the

Palatine through an open gate, when they suddenly found themselves

drenched by a hot sulphur spring that gushed violently from the earth,

and were obliged to retire.

In the legend alluded to, Janus appears as the protector of the gates of

the city. As the god who presided over the fortunate entrance to and

exit from all houses, streets, and towns, Janus was held in high honour

among the people. His character as guardian of gates and doors brought

him into close connection with the Penates and other household gods;

hence the custom of erecting over the doors an image of the deity with

the well-known two faces, one of which looked out and the other in.

Janus had no temple, in the proper sense of the word, at Rome. His

shrines consisted of gateways in common places of resort and at

cross-roads, or of arched passages, in which the image of the god was

erected. The Temple of Janus in the Forum at Rome, which has been

already alluded to, was a sanctuary of this kind closed with doors, and

was probably the most ancient in the city. Its doors stood open only in

time of war.

Roman art never succeeded in executing a plastic representation

peculiar to Janus, the double head being only an imitation of the

Greek double Hermæ. In course of time entire figures of Janus

appeared, but these always had a double face. They were generally

bearded, but in later times one face was bearded, the other

youthful. Not one specimen of these works of art has been preserved,

so that we only know these forms from coins. The usual attributes of

Janus were keys and staff.

=12. Quirinus.=—Quirinus was also a purely Roman divinity, but having

been reckoned among the great deities of heaven, he must therefore be

mentioned here. In his symbolic meaning he bore a great resemblance to

Mars; and as Mars was the national god of the Latin population of Rome,

so Quirinus was the national god of the Sabines who came to Rome with

Titus Tatius. Together with Jupiter and Mars, he formed the tutelary

Trinity of the Roman empire. His shrine was on the Quirinal, which was

originally inhabited by the Sabines, and which was named after him. Numa

gave Quirinus a priest of his own. He had a special feast on the 17th of

February, but his worship appears to have assimilated itself more and

more to that of Mars. He was subsequently identified with Romulus.

B.—SECONDARY DEITIES.

_1. Attendant and Ministering Deities._

[Illustration: Fig. 23.—Head of Eros. Vatican.]

=1. Eros (Amor).=—Of the deities who appear in the train of Aphrodite,

Eros alone seems to have enjoyed divine honours; Longing and Desire

being no more than allegorical figures typifying some of the influences

that emanate from the goddess of love. Eros was commonly reputed the son

of Aphrodite and Ares, and was generally depicted as a boy of wondrous

beauty, on the verge of youth. His characteristic weapon is a golden

bow, with which he shoots forth his arrows from secret lurking-places,

with an unfailing effect that represents the sweet but consuming pangs

of love. Zeus himself is represented as unable to withstand his

influence—an intimation that love is one of the most terrible and mighty

forces of nature.

As unrequited love is aimless, Anteros was conceived by the imagination

of the poets as the brother and companion of Eros, and consequently a

son of Aphrodite. As the little Eros, says the myth, would neither grow

nor thrive, his mother, by the advice of Themis, gave him this brother

as a playfellow; after which the boy was glad so long as his brother was

with him, but sad in his absence.

Eros was not only venerated as the god who kindles love between the

sexes, but was also regarded as the author of love and friendship

between youths and men. On this account his statue was generally placed

in the gymnasia between those of Hermes and Heracles; and the Spartans

sacrificed to him before battle, binding themselves to hold together

faithfully in battle, and to stand by one another in the hour of need.

[Illustration:

Fig. 24.—Eros trying his Bow. Capitoline Museum.]

This deity was termed by the Romans Amor, or Cupido, but this was solely

in imitation of the Greek Eros, since he never enjoyed among them any

public veneration.

The significant fable of the love of Cupid for Psyche, a personification

of the human soul, is of comparatively late origin, though it was a very

favourite subject in art.

Artists followed the poets in the delineation of Eros, in so far as

they generally depicted him as a boy on the confines of youth. An

Eros by the renowned artist Praxiteles was esteemed one of the best

works of antiquity. It was brought to Rome by Nero, but was

destroyed by fire in the reign of Titus. In later times the god of

love was represented as much younger, because the mischievous pranks

attributed to him by the poets were more adapted to the age of

childhood.

[Illustration: Fig. 25.—Polyhymnia. Berlin Museum.]

A considerable number of statues or statuettes of Eros have come

down to us from antiquity. Among the most celebrated is the Torso

(mutilated statue) of the Vatican, of the glorious head of which we

give an engraving (Fig. 23). There is also an “Eros trying his bow”

(Fig. 24) in the Capitoline Museum at Rome, and an “Eros playing

with dice” in the Berlin Museum. Lastly, there is the celebrated

group of the Capitoline Museum, which represents the embraces of

Cupid and Psyche.

Eros generally appears with wings in the art monuments of antiquity.

His insignia are bow and arrows, in addition to a burning torch. The

rose was held especially sacred to him, for which reason he often

appears crowned with roses.

In connection with Venus and in company with Amor we find Hymenæus,

a personification of the joys of marriage, who was, however, only

recognised by later writers and by later art. He is portrayed as a

beautiful youth, winged like Eros, but taller, and of a more serious

aspect. His indispensable attribute is the marriage torch.

[Illustration: Fig. 26—Melpomene. Vatican.]

=2. The Muses.=—Pindar gives the following account of the origin of the

Muses. After the defeat of the Titans, the celestials besought Zeus to

create some beings who might perpetuate in song the mighty deeds of the

gods. In answer to this prayer, Zeus begot with Mnemosyne (Memory) the

nine Muses. They sing of the present, the past, and the future, while

Apollo’s lute accompanies their sweet strains, which gladden the hearts

of the gods as they sit assembled in the lofty palace of Father Zeus, in

Olympus. Looked at in connection with nature, there is little doubt but

that the Muses were originally nymphs of the fountains. The veneration

of the Muses first arose in Pieria, a district on the eastern declivity

of Mount Olympus in Thessaly, from whose steep and rocky heights a

number of sweet rippling brooks descend to the plains. The perception of

this natural music led at once to a belief in the existence of such

song-loving goddesses. Their seat was subsequently transferred from the

declivities of Olympus to Mount Helicon in Bœotia, or to Mount

Parnassus, at the foot of which the Castalian fountain, which was sacred

to them, had its source. Originally the Muses were only goddesses of

song, though they are sometimes represented with instruments on vases.

In early times, too, they only appear as a chorus or company, but at a

later period separate functions were assigned to each, as presiding over

this or that branch of art. Their names were Clio, Melpomene,

Terpsichore, Polyhymnia, Thalia, Urania, Euterpe, Erato, and Calliope.

[Illustration: Fig. 27.—Euterpe. Vatican.]

According to the art-distribution made, probably, at the time of the

Alexandrine school, Calliope represents epic poetry and science

generally, her attributes being a roll of parchment and a pen. Clio

is the muse of history, and is likewise characterised by a roll and

pen, so that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish her from

Calliope. Euterpe represents lyric poetry, and is distinguished by

her double flute. Melpomene, the muse of tragedy, generally appears

with a tragic mask, a club or sword, and a garland of vine leaves.

Terpsichore is the muse of dancing, and has a lyre and plectrum. To

Erato is assigned erotic poetry, together with geometry and the

mimic art; she generally bears a large stringed instrument. Thalia,

the muse of comedy, is distinguished by a comic mask, an ivy

garland, and a crook. Polyhymnia presides over the graver chant of

religious service; she may be recognised by her dress, wrapped

closely round her, and her grave, thoughtful countenance, but is

without attribute of any kind. Lastly, Urania, the muse of

astronomy, holds in one hand a celestial globe, and in the other a

small wand.

Several European museums possess ancient groups of the Muses, among

which, perhaps, the finest is that preserved in the Vatican. From

this group are copied our engravings of Melpomene and Euterpe (Figs.

26 and 27). The original of Polyhymnia (Fig. 25) is in the Berlin

Museum.

The Romans venerated a number of fountain-nymphs of song and prophecy

under the name of Camenæ, among whom the Egeria of the history of Numa

is well known. The Roman writers seem to have identified these goddesses

with the Muses at pleasure.

=3. The Charites (Gratiæ).=—The Charites generally appear in the train

of the goddess of love, whom it was their duty to clothe and adorn. They

are often found, however, in attendance on other gods, since all that is

charming and graceful, either to the senses or the intellect, was

supposed to proceed from them.

Their names are Aglaïa, Euphrosyne, and Thalia. They were commonly

represented as the daughters of Zeus and Eurynome, the Oceanid. Later

writers, however, make them the daughters of Dionysus and Aphrodite.

They were venerated as the source of all that makes human life more

beautiful and pleasant, without whom there could be no real enjoyment of

life. Thus, even the gods would not sit down to banquets without the

Charites; and whenever men came together to feast, they first called on

them and offered them the first bowl. Music, eloquence, art, and poetry

received the higher consecration only at their hands; whence Pindar

terms his songs a gift from them. Wisdom, bravery, kindly benevolence,

and gratitude—in fine, all those qualities which become men most, and

make them agreeable in the eyes of their fellow-men, were supposed to

proceed from the Charites.

The Graces of the Romans were simply transferred from the mythology of

the Greeks, and have, therefore, the same meaning as the Charites.

Art represented the Charites or Graces as blooming maidens, of

slender, comely form, characterised by an expression of joyous

innocence. In their hands they often hold flowers, either roses or

myrtles. They are less often distinguished by definite attributes

than by a mutual intertwining of arms. In earlier Greek art they

always appear fully clothed; but gradually their clothing became

less and less, until at length, in the age of Scopas and Praxiteles,

when nude figures had become common, it entirely disappeared. There

are, however, few ancient statues of the Charites in existence.

=4. Themis and the Horæ (Seasons).=—In intimate connection with the

Charites we find the Horæ, the daughters of Zeus and Themis. They were

generally represented as three in number—Eunomia, Dice, and Irene. They

represent the regular march of nature in the changes of the seasons, and

Themis, who personifies the eternal laws of nature, and as the daughter

of Uranus and Gæa ranks among the most ancient deities, is consequently

their mother. Themis is the representative of the reign of law among

gods and men; at Zeus’ command she calls together the assemblies of the

gods. She also occupies a similar position on earth, as presiding over

national assemblies and the laws of hospitality. Her daughters, the

Horæ, appear in a similar though in a subordinate and attendant

character. In Homer they figure as the servants of Zeus, who watch the

gates of heaven, now closing them with thick clouds, now clearing the

clouds away. They also appear as the servants and attendants of other

divinities, such as Hera, Aphrodite, Apollo, and the Muses. Like their

mother, they preside over all law and order in human affairs; and under

their protection thrives all that is noble and beautiful and good.

We know but little concerning the worship of the Horæ among the Greeks.

The Athenians celebrated a special festival in their honour, but they

recognised only two—Thallo, the season of blossom, and Carpo, the season

of the ripened fruit. The adoption of four Horæ, corresponding to the

four seasons of the year, appears to have arisen at a later period.

[Illustration: Fig. 28.—The Horæ. Relief from the Villa Albani.]

In plastic art Themis is generally represented with a balance in one

hand and a palm branch in the other. The Horæ generally appear as

lovely girls dancing with their garments tucked up, and adorned with

flowers, fruit, and garlands. Subsequently they were distinguished

by various attributes, typical of the different seasons. Such is the

case in the engraving (Fig. 28), after a relief in the Villa Albani.

=5. Nice (Victoria).=—Nice is nothing but a personification of the

irresistible and invincible power exercised by the god of heaven by

means of his lightning. She also appears in the company of Pallas

Athene, who was herself honoured by the Athenians as the goddess of

victory. Victory does not seem to have had many separate temples or

festivals, since she generally appears only in attendance on her

superior deities.

[Illustration: Fig. 29.—Victoria. United Collections in Munich.]

Far more extensive was the veneration of Victoria at Rome, a fact for

which the warlike character of the people easily accounts. Her chief

shrine was on the Capitol, where successful generals were wont to erect

statues of the goddess in remembrance of their exploits. The most

magnificent statue of this kind was one erected by Augustus in

fulfilment of a vow after his victory at Actium. The proper festival of

the goddess took place on the 12th of April.

In both Greek and Roman art Victory was represented as a winged

goddess. She is distinguished by a palm branch and laurel garland,

which were the customary rewards of bravery among the ancients.

Large statues of the goddess are seldom met with, though she is

often depicted on vases, coins, and small bronzes. The museum of

Cassel has a small bronze statue of the goddess, whilst a fine

_alto-relievo_ in terra-cotta exists in the Royal Collection at

Munich (Fig. 29).

=6. Iris.=—Iris was originally a personification of the rainbow, but she

was afterwards converted into the swift messenger of the gods, the

rainbow being, as it were, a bridge between earth and heaven. In this

character she makes her appearance in Homer, but, later still, she was

again transformed into a special attendant of Hera. Her swiftness was

astounding; “Like hail or snow,” says Homer, “that falls from the

clouds,” she darts from one end of the world to the other—nay, dives to

the hidden depths of the ocean and into the recesses of the lower world,

executing the commands of the gods.

In art Iris was represented with wings, like Nice, to whom she, in

many respects, bears a strong resemblance. She may be distinguished

from the latter, however, by her herald’s staff (Caduceus). A very

much injured specimen, from the east pediment of the Parthenon at

Athens, is now preserved in the British Museum.

=7. Hebe (Juventas).=—Hebe was the daughter of Zeus and Hera, and,

according to her natural interpretation, represented the youthful bloom

of Nature. In the fully developed mythology of the Greeks she appears as

the cupbearer of the gods, to whom, at meals, she presents the sweet

nectar. It may at first seem strange that the daughter of the greatest

of the divinities of Greece should be relegated to so inferior a

position. This, however, is easily explained by the old patriarchal

custom of the Greeks, by which the young unmarried daughters, even in

royal palaces, waited at table on the men of the family and the guests.

In post-Homeric poetry and legend Hebe no longer appears as cupbearer of

the gods, the office having been assigned to Ganymedes. This was either

in consequence of the promotion of the son of the King of Troy, or on

account of Hebe’s marriage with the deified Heracles.

Hebe occupies no important place in the religious system of the Greeks;

she seems to have been chiefly honoured in connection with her mother

Hera, or now and then with Heracles.

[Illustration: Fig. 30.—Hebe. From Antonio Canova.]

Juventas, or Juventus, is the corresponding deity of the Romans; but, as

was the case with so many others, they contrived to bring her into a

more intimate connection with their political life by honouring in her

the undying and unfading vigour of the state. She had a separate chapel

in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus.

With regard to the artistic representation of Hebe, statues of this

goddess appear to have been very rare in ancient times; at least,

among all the numerous statues that have been discovered, none can

be safely identified with Hebe. She is the more often met with on

ornamental vases and reliefs, on which the marriage of Heracles and

Hebe is a favourite subject. She is usually depicted as a

highly-graceful, modest maiden, pouring out nectar from an upraised

vessel. She appears thus in the world-renowned masterpiece of the

Italian sculptor Canova, so well known from casts. In default of an

ancient statue, we give an engraving of this work (Fig. 30).

=8. Ganymedes.=—A similar office in Olympus was filled by the son of

Tros, the King of Troy, Ganymedes, who was made immortal by Zeus, and

installed as cupbearer of the gods. Neither Homer nor Pindar, however,

relate the episode of Zeus sending his eagle to carry off Ganymedes.

This feature of the story, which is a favourite subject of artistic

representation, is first found in Apollodorus. The Roman poet, Ovid,

then went a step farther, and made the ruler of Olympus transform

himself into an eagle, in order to carry off his favourite.

[Illustration: Fig. 31.—Ganymedes and the Eagle. From Thorwaldsen.]

The rape of the beautiful boy is often portrayed in ancient art. The

most famous monument is a bronze group of Leochares, an artist who

flourished in the fourth century B.C. A copy of it still exists in

the celebrated statue of Ganymedes in the Vatican collection. In

modern art the story has been treated with still greater frequency.

There is an extremely beautiful group of this kind by Thorwaldsen,

in which Ganymedes is represented as giving the eagle drink out of a

bowl (Fig. 31).

_2. The Phenomena of the Heavens._

=1. Helios (Sol).=—Helios (Latin _Sol_), the sun-god, belongs to that

small class of deities who have preserved their physical meaning intact.

His worship was confined to a few places, the most important of which

was the island of Rhodes. An annual festival, attended with musical and

athletic contests, was here celebrated with great pomp in honour of the

sun-god. He is portrayed by the poets as a handsome youth with flashing

eyes and shining hair covered with a golden helmet. His daily office was

to bring the light of day to gods and men, which he performed by rising

from Oceanus in the east, where the Ethiopians live, and completing his

course along the firmament. For this purpose the post-Homeric poets

endow him with a sun-chariot drawn by four fiery horses; and though

Homer and Hesiod do not attempt to explain how he passed from the west

where he sets, to the east where he rises, later poets obviate the

difficulty by making him sail round half the world in a golden boat

(according to others a golden bed); and thus he was supposed again to

arrive at the east. In the far west Helios had a splendid palace, and

also a celebrated garden, which was under the charge of the Hesperides.

He is described as the son of the Titans Hyperion and Thea, whence he

himself is called a Titan. By his wife Perse, a daughter of Oceanus, he

became the father of Æëtes, King of Colchis, celebrated in the legend of

the Argonauts, and of the still more celebrated sorceress Circe. Another

son of Helios was Phaëthon, who, in attempting to drive his father’s

horses, came to an untimely end.

Helios sees and hears every thing; whence he was believed to bring

hidden crimes to light, and was invoked as a witness at all solemn

declarations and oaths.

All the stories relating to Helios were gradually transferred to the

Roman Sol, who was originally a Sabine deity, chiefly by means of the

Metamorphoses of Ovid. The untiring charioteer of the heavens was also

honoured as the patron of the race-course; but he never attained a

prominent position in religious worship.

Helios, or Sol, is depicted as a handsome youth, his head encircled

by a crown, which gives forth twelve bright rays corresponding to

the number of the months, his mantle flying about his shoulders as

he stands in his chariot. It was chiefly in Rhodes, however, that

Helios was made the subject of the sculptor’s art. Here, in 280

B.C., was erected in his honour the celebrated colossal statue which

has acquired a world-wide celebrity under the name of the Colossus

of Rhodes, and which was reckoned as one of the seven “wonders of

the world.” It was the work of Chares of Lindus, and was 105 feet in

height.

=2. Selene (Luna).=—As Artemis is the twin sister of Apollo, so is

Selene the twin sister of Helios; he representing the sun, she the moon.

Selene, however, never really enjoyed divine honours in Greece. The

poets depict her as a white-armed goddess, whose beautiful tresses are

crowned with a brilliant diadem. In the evening she rises from the

sacred river of Oceanus, and pursues her course along the firmament of

heaven in her chariot drawn by two white horses. She is gentle and

timid, and it is only in secret that she loves beautiful youths and

kisses them in sleep. Poets delight to sing of the secret love she

cherished for the beautiful Endymion, the son of the King of Elis. She

caused him to fall into an eternal sleep, and he now reposes in a rocky

grotto on Mount Latmus, where Selene nightly visits him, and gazes with

rapture on his countenance.

In later times she was often confounded with Artemis, Hecate, and

Persephone. The same remarks apply to the Roman Luna. The latter,

however, had a temple of her own on the Aventine, which was supposed to

have been dedicated to her by Servius Tullius. Like her brother Sol, she

was honoured in Rome in connection with the circus, and was held to

preside over the public games.

In sculpture, Selene, or Luna, may be recognised by the half moon on

her forehead, and by the veil over the back of her head; she also

bears in her hand a torch. The sleeping Endymion was a frequent

subject of representation on sarcophagi and monuments.

=3. Eos (Aurora).=—Eos, the goddess of the dawn, was also a daughter of

Hyperion and Thea, and a sister of Selene and Helios. She was first

married to the Titan Astræus, by whom she became the mother of the

winds—Boreas, Zephyrus, Eurus, and Notus (north, west, east, and south

winds). This is a mythological mode of intimating the fact that the wind

generally rises at dawn. After Astræus, who, like most of the Titans,

had rebelled against the sovereignty of Zeus, and had been cast into

Tartarus, Eos chose the handsome hunter Orion for her husband. The gods,

however, would not consent to their union, and Orion was slain by the

arrows of Artemis, after which Eos married Tithonus, the son of the King

of Troy. She begged Zeus to bestow on him immortality, but, having

forgotten to ask for eternal youth, the gift was of doubtful value,

since Tithonus at last became a shrivelled-up, decrepid old man, in whom

the goddess took no pleasure.

Memnon, King of Æthiopia, celebrated in the story of the Trojan war, was

a son of Eos and Tithonus. He came to the assistance of Troy, and was

slain by Achilles. Since then, Eos has wept without ceasing for her

darling son, and her tears fall to the earth in the shape of dew.

Eos is represented by the poets as a glorious goddess, with beautiful

hair, rosy arms and fingers—a true picture of the invigorating freshness

of the early morning. Cheerful and active, she rises early from her

couch, and, enveloped in a saffron-coloured mantle, she harnesses her

horses Lampus and Phaëthon (Brightness and Lustre), in order that she

may hasten on in front of the sun-god and announce the day.

The views and fables connected with Eos were transferred by the Roman

writers to the person of their goddess Aurora[4] without undergoing any

alteration.

Footnote 4:

The Mater Matuta of the Romans was a deity very similar to the Eos of

the Greeks. She was the goddess of the early dawn, and was held in

high estimation among the Roman women as a deity who assisted them in

childbirth. Like the Greek Leucothea, she was also regarded as a

goddess of the sea and harbours, who assisted those in peril.

Representations of this goddess are found now and then on vases and

gems. She either appears driving a chariot and four horses, as

harnessing the steeds of Helios, or as gliding through the air on

wings and sprinkling the earth with her dew.

=4. The Stars.=—Only a few of the stars are of any importance in

mythology. Phosphorus and Hesperus, the morning star and the evening

star, which were formerly regarded as two distinct beings, were

represented in art in the guise of beautiful boys with torches in their

hands. There were also several legends relating to Orion, whom we have

already alluded to as the husband of Eos. He himself was made a

constellation after having been slain by the arrows of Artemis, while

his dog was Sirius, whose rising announces the hottest season of the

year. All kinds of myths were invented about other constellations; among

others, the Hyades, whose rising betokened the advent of the stormy,

rainy season, during which the sailor avoids going to sea. The story

went that they were placed among the constellations by the gods out of

pity, because they were inconsolable at the death of their brother Hyas,

who was killed by a lion whilst hunting. Connected with them are the

Pleiades, _i.e._, the stars of mariners, so called because on their

rising in May the favourable season for voyages begins. They were seven

in number, and were likewise set in the heavens by the gods. Finally, we

must not forget to mention Arctus, the Bear. Tradition asserted that

this was none other than the Arcadian nymph Callisto, who had been

placed among the constellations by Zeus when slain in the form of a

she-bear by Artemis. She had broken her vows of chastity, and borne a

son, Arcas, to Zeus.

=5. The Winds.=—The four chief winds have been already alluded to as the

sons of Eos. They were especially venerated by those about to make

voyages, who then solicited their favour with prayers and offerings.

Otherwise, they maintained their character of pure natural forces, and

were, consequently, of little importance in mythology. The rude north

wind, Boreas, or Aquilo, was especially dreaded on account of his stormy

violence, and was hence regarded as a bold ravisher of maidens. Thus an

Attic legend asserts that he carried off Orithyia, the daughter of

Erechtheus, as she was playing on the banks of the Ilissus. She bore him

Calaïs and Zetes, well known in the story of the Argonauts. Boreas,

however, stood in high favour among the Athenians, who erected an altar

and chapel to him, because, during the Persian war, he had partially

destroyed the fleet of Xerxes off Cape Sepias.