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Greek and Roman Mythology
[Illustration: Fig. 53.—Head of Niobe. Florence.]
THE MYTHOLOGY OF GREECE AND ROME
With Special Reference to Its Use in Art
Edited by
G. H. BIANCHI, M.A.
Late Scholar of St. Peter’S College, Cambridge Brotherton Sanskrit
Prizeman, 1875
With Sixty-four Illustrations
New and Revised Edition
London: Chapman and Hall, Ld.
Made and Printed in Great Britain.
Richard Clay & Sons, Limited.
Printers, Bungay, Suffolk.
[Illustration]
PREFACE.
No apology can be needed for introducing to the public a work like the
present. There has long been a want of a book which should, in a
moderate compass, give a clear and readable account of these legends;
for Dictionaries of Mythology do not give a view of the subject as a
whole; and the price of most other works on the Greek and Roman myths
would prevent their being used as class-books. These considerations have
led the publishers to bring out this book in an English dress.
If any should be inclined to ask what Mythology has to do with men of
the present day, the reply is plain. The works of art in our galleries
and museums require a certain amount of knowledge of the mythology of
the Greeks and Romans for the full appreciation of their subjects. There
is hardly any literature in Europe which has not been more or less
coloured by these legends; and in our own day their power to inspire the
poet has by no means ceased. Nay, they have incorporated themselves into
our very language: “Herculean strength” is almost as common an
expression now as it was two thousand years ago; and we still talk of
“chimerical” expectations, describe a man as “tantalised,” and use the
Sphinx as the symbol of the mysterious.
The present work, translated from the German of O. Seemann, seems well
adapted to convey a knowledge of these myths. It is illustrated with
cuts after some of the masterpieces of ancient and modern art.
Particular attention has been paid to this branch of the subject, and
the principal works of art in each case are mentioned.
The distinction between Greek and Roman deities and heroes has been
preserved, but the conventional spelling has been retained. A full index
is appended, in which the quantities of the vowels are carefully marked.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION.
I. SUBJECTS OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY 11
II. POPULAR IDEAS CONCERNING THE GODS 13
PART I.—COSMOGONY AND THEOGONY 17
PART II.—THE GODS.
THE GODS OF OLYMPUS.
A.—SUPERIOR DEITIES.
Zeus (Jupiter) 22
Hera (Juno) 31
Pallas Athene (Minerva) 34
Apollo 40
Artemis (Diana) 48
Ares (Mars) 51
Aphrodite (Venus) 56
Hermes (Mercurius) 62
Hephæstus (Vulcanus) 68
Hestia (Vesta) 71
Janus 74
Quirinus 77
B.—SECONDARY DEITIES.
1. Attendant and Ministering Deities—
Eros (Amor) 78
The Muses 80
The Charites (Gratiæ) 83
Themis and the Horæ (Seasons) 84
Nice (Victoria) 85
Iris 86
Hebe (Juventas) 87
Ganymedes 88
2. The Phenomena of the Heavens—
Helios (Sol) 89
Selene (Luna) 91
Eos (Aurora) 92
The Stars 93
The Winds 93
3. Gods of Birth and Healing—
Asclepius (Æsculapius) 94
Inferior Deities of Birth and Healing 96
4. Deities of Fate—
The Mœræ (Parcæ) 98
Nemesis, Tyche (Fortuna), and Agathodæmon (Bonus Eventus) 98
THE GODS OF THE SEA AND WATERS.
Poseidon (Neptunus) 100
Amphitrite 104
Triton and the Tritons 105
Pontus and his Descendants—
_Nereus and his Daughters_ 105
_Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto_ 106
Proteus 107
Glaucus 107
Ino Leucothea, and Melicertes 108
The Sirens 109
The Race of Oceanus 109
THE GODS OF THE EARTH AND LOWER WORLD.
Gæa (Tellus) 112
Rhea Cybele (Magna Mater Idæa) 113
Dionysus, or Bacchus (Liber) 114
The Nymphs 123
The Satyrs 125
Silenus 126
Greek and Roman Wood-Spirits—
_Pan_ 128
_Silvanus_ 131
_Faunus and Fauna_ 131
Priapus 133
Saturnus and Ops 133
Vertumnus and Pomona 135
Flora 136
Pales 136
Terminus 137
Demeter (Ceres) 137
Persephone (Proserpina) 143
Hades (Pluto) 146
The Lower World 147
The Erinyes (Furiæ) 150
Hecate 153
Sleep and Death 154
ROMAN DEITIES OF THE HOUSE AND FAMILY.
The Penates 156
The Lares 157
The Larvæ, Lemures, and Manes 158
PART III.—THE HEROES.
INTRODUCTORY 159
THE CREATION AND PRIMITIVE CONDITION OF MANKIND 162
PROVINCIAL HEROIC LEGENDS—
The Lapithæ and the Centaurs 165
Theban Legend—
_Cadmus_ 170
_Actæon_ 171
_Amphion and Zethus_ 172
Corinthian Legend—
_Sisyphus_ 179
_Glaucus_ 180
_Bellerophon and the Legend of the Amazons_ 180
Argive Legend—
_Io_ 185
_Danaüs and the Danaïds_ 186
_Prœtus and his Daughters_ 187
_Perseus_ 188
The Dioscuri 194
Heracles (Hercules) 197
_The Birth and Youth of Heracles_ 198
_Heracles in the Service of Eurystheus_ 199
_Deeds of Heracles after his Service_ 206
_Death and Apotheosis_ 211
_Heracles as God_ 212
Attic Legend—
_Cecrops_ 217
_Erechtheus, or Erichthonius_ 218
_Theseus_ 219
Cretan Legend—
_Minos and the Minotaur_ 227
_Talos_ 229
COMBINED UNDERTAKINGS OF THE LATER HEROIC AGE—
The Calydonian Hunt 230
The Argonauts 232
The Theban Cycle 237
The Trojan Cycle 241
The Heroic Races of the Trojan War—
_The Dardanidæ, or Race of Dardanus_ 241
_The Pelopidæ, or Race of Pelops_ 242
_The Æacidæ, or Race of Æacus_ 245
_Nestor, the Locrian Ajax, Diomedes, and Odysseus_ 247
The War 249
The Return 257
MYTHIC SEERS AND BARDS 262
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIG. PAGE
1. Bust of Cronus. Vatican Museum, 20
2. Cameo of Athenion 21
3. Zeus of Otricoli. Vatican Museum, 27
4. Jupiter Verospi. Vatican Museum, 29
5. Coins of Elis with Phidias’ Zeus. (After
Overbeck.) 30
6. Barberini Juno. Vatican Museum, 32
7. Head of Hera, perhaps after Polycletus. Naples, 33
8. Pallas Giustiniani. Vatican, 38
9. Athene Polias. Villa Albani, 39
10. Pallas Athene. Naples, 40
11. Apollo Belvedere. Vatican, 44
12. Head of Apollo Belvedere, 45
13. Apollo Citharœdus. Munich, 47
14. Diana of Versailles, 50
15. Mars Ludovisi, 55
16. Bust of Ares. Sculpture Gallery at Munich, 56
17. Venus of Milo. Louvre, 60
18. Venus Genetrix. Villa Borghese, 61
19. Resting Hermes. Bronze Statue at Naples, 66
20. Statue of Hermes. Capitoline Collection, 67
21. Hephæstus. Bronze Figure in the British Museum, 70
22. Vesta Giustiniani. Torlonia Collection, 74
23. Head of Eros. Vatican, 78
24. Eros trying his Bow. Capitoline Museum, 79
25. Polyhymnia. Berlin Museum, 80
26. Melpomene. Vatican, 81
27. Euterpe. Vatican, 82
28. The Horæ. Relief from the Villa Albani, 85
29. Victoria. United Collections in Munich, 86
30. Hebe. From Antonio Canova, 88
31. Ganymedes and the Eagle. From Thorwaldsen, 89
32. Asclepius. Berlin, 95
33. Head of Asclepius. British Museum, 96
34. Night and the Fates. From Carstens, 97
35. Poseidon. Dolce Gem, 103
36. Dionysus and Lion. From the Monument of
Lysicrates, 116
37. The so-called Sardanapalus in the Vatican, 119
38. Youthful Dionysus. From the Chateau Richelieu, now
in the Louvre, 120
39. Marble Head of Youthful Dionysus at Leyden, 121
40. Sleeping Ariadne. Vatican, 122
41. Dannecker’s Ariadne. Frankfort-on-the-Main, 123
42. Head of Satyr. Munich Sculpture Gallery, 126
43. Pan. From a Mural Painting at Herculaneum, 130
44. Demeter Enthroned. Painting from Pompeii. Naples, 142
45. Persephone Enthroned. Painting from Pompeii.
Naples, 145
46. Head of Hades. Palazzo Chigi. Rome, 147
47. Three-formed Hecate. Capitoline Museum, 154
48. Metope of the Parthenon, 166
49. From the Frieze of the Temple at Bassæ 167
50. Centaur teaching a boy to play upon the Pipe.
Relief by Kundmann, 169
51. Actæon. Group. British Museum, 172
52. Farnese Bull. Naples, 174
53. Head of Niobe. Florence, _Frontispiece_.
54. Niobe. Florence, 178
55. Amazon. Berlin, 183
56. Perseus and Andromeda. Marble Relief in the Museum
at Naples, 192
57. Rondanini Medusa. Munich, 193
58. Farnese Hercules, 215
59. Elgin Theseus. British Museum, 225
60. Theseus Lifting the Rock. Relief in the Villa
Albani, 226
61. Laocoön. Group, 255
62. Priam before Achilles. Relief by Thorwaldsen, 260
63. Rape of Helen. Campana Collection. Paris, 261
64. Orpheus and Eurydice. Marble Relief in the Villa
Albani, 263
[Illustration]
GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY.
INTRODUCTION.
I.—SUBJECTS OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY.
Myths may be described as poetic narratives of the birth, life, and
actions of the old heathen gods and heroes or demigods. Both myth and
legend[1] are distinguished from the “Mährchen,” or popular tale, by not
being, like the latter, a mere product of the imagination, but always
being founded on some preceding reality, whether that be an
oft-recurring phase of nature, or a distinct and real occurrence. It is
often most difficult to recognise with any precision the true germ of a
myth, on account of the numerous additions and alterations made by the
poets. And therefore the question, whether a particular tradition be a
myth or not, is very hard to answer: on one side we are tempted to view,
in the god or demigod, the hero of a tribe magnified to superhuman
proportions by the admiration of posterity; and, on the other side,
comparison of the legends of different families of nations points us to
the operations of nature, not only in the demigod or the hero, but in
the animals of fable and the traditions of the nursery.
Footnote 1:
The German word “sage” (legend) is really only a translation of the
Greek word “mythos,” and is often used in that sense. But lately the
custom has tacitly sprung up of employing the term “mythos” when
speaking of the life or actions of the gods, and “sage” when speaking
of those of heroes.
A large proportion of these myths are due to men’s observations of
Nature, and her various active and creative forces, which appeared to
their lively Southern fancy as manifestations of single supernatural
beings. These were regarded, now as friendly, now as hostile, to man;
and men therefore strove as eagerly to gain their favour as to appease
their wrath. Of the appearance of the deities who thus manifested
themselves in the workings of nature, men necessarily formed at first
very crude and fantastic ideas. But later, when men emerged from the
simple conditions of the early patriarchal epoch, and began to dwell in
regular political communities, they gradually ceased to regard the gods
as mere personifications of natural forces. They began to regard them as
beings acting in accordance with unchangeable moral laws, and endowed
with forms similar to those of men (Anthropomorphism). They brought the
gods into connection with each other by means of genealogies in a great
measure artificial, and built up a vast political system, which has its
centre in Zeus, the “father of gods and men.”
Strange to say, however, it was only among the Greeks that this system
of development prevailed. The nations of Italy still continued to regard
their gods as mere natural forces—that looked down on them in a cold,
strange fashion—of whose form and mode of life they had no clear idea.
It was only later, when the Romans came into intellectual contact with
their Greek neighbours, and began to study their language and
literature, that they adopted the popular Greek conceptions concerning
the gods. They now transferred existing myths, and fathered them on
those of their own gods and goddesses who bore the closest resemblance
to the Greek divinities, and harmonised best with their natural
interpretation. Thus it was that the Roman Jupiter was identified with
the Greek Zeus, Juno with Hera, Minerva with Athene; though for peculiar
deities, such as Janus, they could find no Greek prototype.
II.—POPULAR IDEAS CONCERNING THE GODS.
We learn most concerning the conceptions the ancients formed of their
gods from the numerous Greek and Roman poets whose works have come down
to us, and who contributed so largely to the construction of the myths.
First, both in antiquity and importance, are the poems attributed to
Homer, in which we find the whole political system of Olympus, with Zeus
at its head, already constructed.
Henceforth the gods, in outward appearance at least, are endowed with
forms entirely human; more grand and beautiful and majestic, but still
not verging on the monstrous or fantastic.
Not only in beauty and grandeur, but also in strength and vigour, do the
gods surpass men. Let but Zeus shake his ambrosial locks, and the whole
of Olympus trembles. The other deities are also endowed in proportion
with great strength. As corporeal, indeed, they are limited in regard to
space, and cannot therefore be omnipresent; but this restriction affects
them far less than mortals, for they can compass the greatest distances
at lightning speed. In a moment Athene drops from the heights of Olympus
down to Ithaca; and Poseidon, the ocean-god, passes in three or four
steps from Samothrace to Ægæ in Eubœa. Moreover, the gods can see and
hear at a much greater distance than men. In regard to hearing, indeed,
they seem to have unlimited powers. Prayers ascend to them from every
place, irrespective of their personal presence. In the same manner Zeus,
from his high throne in Olympus, sees all that passes among men, and,
sitting on the highest summit of Mount Ida, he can follow all the events
of the battle that rages before Troy.
On the other hand, the gods are subject to the same bodily wants as men.
They refresh themselves in the same way with sleep, and have to support
themselves with food and drink. Here again, however, they are far less
fettered than mortals, for they can hold out much longer without
satisfying these wants. Nor is their food so coarse as that of men; they
live on ambrosia and nectar. Another natural necessity is clothing, on
the tasteful ordering of which the goddesses even bestow extraordinary
care, and in this, as in many other respects, greatly resemble the
daughters of Eve. Although later art delights in representing some of
the deities either slightly clothed or quite naked, yet we cannot justly
conclude from this that the popular belief of the ancients conceived
thus of those gods.
Gods endowed with frames like those of mortals must necessarily be born
in the same way, and develope gradually both in mind and body. But here,
again, everything proceeds with the utmost rapidity. For instance, the
new-born Hermes rises from his cradle to steal the cattle of Apollo,
and, coming into the world in the morning, he is found in the afternoon
playing on the lyre, which he has himself invented. The most important
point, however, in which they surpass mortals is that, when once in full
possession of bodily and intellectual powers, they never grow old, but
remain ever young and beautiful, ever free from disease and death.
Compared with the race of men, who are subject to need and pain, they
are the “happy,” “blessed” gods, the gods “who live at ease,” who can
readily gratify every desire. But this does not by any means prevent
their suffering occasionally from the pangs of sorrow and grief; they
are vulnerable alike in body and soul, and exposed to every kind of
painful sensation. So completely did the Greeks subject their gods to
human passions.
As regards mental qualifications they are naturally far superior to men.
In the first place, they stand higher morally; they shun all that is
evil, impure, and unjust, and visit with punishment the impiety and
injustice of man. This, again, does not prevent their giving way to
every description of vice and folly, such as deceit, lying, hatred,
cruelty, jealousy, &c. They are far from holy, therefore, in the sense
in which we speak of the Supreme Being. Still less are they conceived as
omniscient or omnipotent. Their powers indeed are great, and so is their
knowledge. They are able to interrupt the course of nature—to send
sudden storms, pestilences, and other evils—to endow themselves or
others with any forms they like, and to do many other things, of which
we read in fairy tales. But even Zeus, to whom a far greater measure of
power is accorded than to other gods, and on whose will the government
of the universe depends, is himself subjected to the immutable decrees
of fate; whilst the possibility of deceiving and duping him is by no
means excluded.
Where then are we to seek for the explanation of these apparent
inconsistencies? We have already said that the active and creative
forces of Nature were personified by the imagination of men. Let us take
one of the first conceptions likely to spring up—that of the love of the
heaven for the earth, from which all nature is born. Different names
will be used in different localities; men will at last forget that they
all once meant the same, and out of the simple personification will
spring a series of divine marriages; or if one be recognised by the
whole nation as the wife, the other brides will sink into mistresses.
So with the everlasting war of the sun with the clouds; we shall not
only find several gods of the light in Greece, but almost every tribe
had a particular hero, whose great deeds we shall generally find to be
those of the sun. Yet in the midst of all this confusion, men had a
feeling that there was something above them better and holier than they,
to which that which is good and holy alone was pleasing. This idea was
more and more attached to Zeus himself, as the notion grew that Zeus was
the supreme god, the king of heaven.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
PART I.—COSMOGONY AND THEOGONY.
By Cosmogony, we understand the legends relating to the creation of the
world; by Theogony, those relating to the origin of the gods. On both
points we have to deal with the Greeks alone, since the Romans never
indulged in any researches of this kind. All that their poets have to
say on the subject is, without exception, borrowed from the Greeks.
According to the common account the world was formed out of Chaos. By
this, however, we must not understand a huge and shapeless mass, but
merely dark, unbounded space. The accounts of the poets vary very
materially as to how the world proceeded from Chaos. The most popular
view is that according to which Gæa or Ge (the earth) first issued from
Chaos; whereupon Tartarus (the abyss beneath the earth) immediately
severed itself, and Eros (the love that forms and binds all things)
sprang into existence. Gæa then begot of herself Uranus (heaven), the
mountains, and Pontus (the sea).
The first gods who peopled this new world were begotten of the earth
partly by Uranus and partly by Pontus. From her union with Uranus sprang
the Titans, the Cyclopes, and the Centimanes; from her union with Pontus
various sea-deities.
1. The race of Uranus. According to Hesiod there were twelve Titans: six
males—Oceanus, Cœus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Cronus; and six
females—Thia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phœbe, and Tethys. The
interpretation of these divinities is somewhat difficult, but they
doubtless represented the elementary forces of nature. The Cyclopes were
three in number—Brontes (thunder), Steropes (lightning), and Arges
(sheet-lightning): these, we can clearly see, refer to the phenomena of
the storm. The Centimanes (hundred-handed), again, are three in
number—Cottus, Briareus, and Gyes. These, too, represent destructive
forces of nature—perhaps the earthquake, the tempestuous sea, and the
storm-wind.
2. The race of Pontus. By Pontus Gæa became the mother of the fabulous
sea-deities—Nereus, Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto, and Eurybia. These, again,
had numerous descendants. Nereus represents the sea in its quiet state:
we shall have to speak of him and his daughters later on. Thaumas
represents to us the majesty of the sea. He is the father of Iris (the
rainbow), and of the Harpies (storm-winds). Lastly, Phorcys and Ceto,
from whose union the frightful Gorgons and Grææ proceeded, typify all
the dangers and terrors of the sea.
Many marriages also took place among the Titans themselves. The numerous
sea-nymphs are descended from Oceanus and Tethys; from Hyperion and Thia
come the deities of the light—Helios (sun), Selene (moon), and Eos
(dawn); from Cœus and Phœbe the deities of the night—Leto (dark night)
and Asteria (starry night).
The most important of all the Titans, however, are Cronus and Rhea, who
pave the way for the universal dominion of their son Zeus.
Uranus, fearing lest his last-born sons, the powerful Cyclopes and
Centimanes, might one day seize his power, buried them directly after
birth in the deep abyss beneath the earth. This displeased Gæa, their
mother, who thereupon prompted the Titans to conspire against their
father, and induced Cronus, the youngest and bravest of them, to lay
violent hands on Uranus. Uranus was mutilated, cast into chains, and
compelled by his sons to abdicate his sovereignty, which now passed to
Cronus. But Cronus was not long destined to enjoy the fruits of his
crime. The curse of Uranus, who prophesied that he would suffer a like
fate at the hands of his own son, was fulfilled. So anxious was he to
avert such a catastrophe, that he swallowed his children immediately
after their birth. Five had already suffered this fate—Hestia, Demeter,
Hera, Hades, and Poseidon. But their mother Rhea, grieved at their lot,
determined to rescue her next son, Zeus, by a stratagem. In the place of
her child, she gave to her suspicious and cruel husband a stone wrapped
in swaddling clothes, which he swallowed without further examination.
Zeus, who was thus rescued, was reared by the nymphs in a grotto on
Mount Dicte, in Crete. The she-goat Amalthea served as his nurse, whilst
the bees brought him honey to eat. In order that the cries of the child
might not betray his presence to his suspicious father, the Curetes, or
attendant priests of Rhea, drowned his voice in the clashing of their
weapons. Zeus remained thus hidden until he had become a mighty though
youthful god. He then attacked and overthrew his father Cronus, whom he
also compelled, by means of a device of Gæa, to bring forth the children
that he had devoured. One part of the Titans—Oceanus, Themis, Mnemosyne,
and Hyperion—submitted without hesitation to the dominion of the new
ruler of the world. The others, however, refused allegiance; but Zeus,
after a contest of ten years, overthrew them, with the help of the
Cyclopes and Centimanes. As a punishment, they were cast into Tartarus,
which was then closed by Poseidon with brazen gates. Thessaly, the land
which bears the clearest traces of natural convulsions, was supposed to
have been the scene of this mighty war. Zeus and his adherents fought
from Olympus; the Titans from the opposite mountain of Othrys.
Comparison of the legends of other nations does not show us any such
elaborate genealogy. Zeus has his counterparts almost everywhere, and
Uranus himself appears in India; but Cronus, in the sense of the father
of Zeus, is probably traceable to the common epithet of Zeus, Cronion,
which was assumed in later times to be a patronymic. It was natural to
deduce from the idea that one power of nature sprang from another, the
expression that the god of the first power was the child of the god of
the second; it would perhaps be more correct to say that it was the same
thing to the early races of men. As to the wars, which were so great a
stumbling-block to the Greek philosophers, we may notice that the
supreme god must, of course, have been the son of a supreme god; and
yet, if his predecessor were supreme, must have dispossessed him.
[Illustration: Fig. 1.—Bust of Cronus. Vatican Museum.]
The Titans, not being actually objects of worship, were not
frequently represented in ancient art. Cronus is the only exception,
which may be explained by the fact that the Romans identified him
with their own Saturn, or harvest-god. He is generally depicted with
a severe and gloomy expression of countenance, the back of his head
being veiled, as a symbol of his reserved character. In the Vatican
Museum at Rome there is a bust of this kind in good preservation, an
engraving of which we give (Fig. 1).
After his victory over the Titans, Zeus shared the empire of the world
with his two brothers, Poseidon and Hades. The former he made ruler of
the ocean and waters; the latter he set over the infernal regions;
everything else he retained for himself. This new order of things,
however, was by no means securely established. The resentment of Gæa led
her to produce with Tartarus, her youngest and most powerful son, the
giant Typhoeus, a monster with a hundred fire-breathing dragons’ heads,
whom she sent to overthrow the dominion of Zeus. A great battle took
place, which shook heaven and earth. Zeus, by means of his never-ceasing
thunderbolts, at length overcame Typhoeus, and cast him into Tartarus,
or, according to later writers (Pindar and Virgil), buried him beneath
Mount Ætna in Sicily, whence at times he still breathes out fire and
flames toward heaven.
Some poets tell of another rebellion, that of the Giants, against the
dominion of Zeus. These are said to have sprung from the drops of blood
which fell on the earth from the mutilated body of Uranus. From the
plains of Phlegra, in Thessaly, they sought to storm Olympus by piling
Pelion on Ossa. But after a bloody battle, in which all the gods took
part, the two were conquered, and sent to share the fate of the
vanquished Titans. The dominion of Zeus was now securely established,
and no hostile attack ever after disturbed the peaceful ease of the
inhabitants of Olympus.
[Illustration: Fig. 2.—Cameo of Athenion.]
The early history of Zeus, as well as his contests for the empire of
the universe, commonly called the Giganto-machia, was a favourite
subject with Greek art. In the more ancient of these works the
Giants do not differ, either in form or appearance, from the Gods
and Heroes. In later works they are represented with the bodies of
dragons, only the upper portion of the body being human. They appear
thus on the celebrated cameo of the Naples Museum, where Zeus, in
his chariot drawn by four fiery horses, is in the act of charging
them (Fig. 2).
[Illustration]