Roman Delusions and Customs--Augury--Election to the
Magistracy; Omens relative thereto--Tokens of
Futurity--Dire Misfortunes followed the Contempt of
Augurs--Drawing of Lots--Events foretold by reading
the first passage that turned up on opening a
Book--Lucky and Unlucky Stars--Fortune
Tellers--Dreams--Omens drawn from Appearance of parts
of Animals offered in Sacrifice--Sibylline Books,
Charms, and Incantations--Spirits going about to
observe Men's Actions--Unlucky Days--Dress of a
Bride--Marriage Ceremonies--Anointing Door-posts with
the Fat of Swine or of Wolves, and crossing the
Threshold--Fire and Water--Bridal Feast and Nuptial
Songs--Funeral Rites--Souls of Unburied Persons--The
Expiring Breath--Customs at a Deathbed; the Cypress
exhibited at Houses in which were Dead Bodies and
Funeral Observances--Hobgoblins and Lares--Purifying
with Water and Fire--Ghosts partial to Beans,
etc.--Offerings made to appease the Manes--Persons
reported to be Dead--Dead Bodies used for Magical
purposes.
The old Roman delusions and customs were as extraordinary as those of
any nation with which history has made us acquainted. The augurs
pretended to foretell future events from the flight of birds and the
chirping and feeding of fowls, and also from other appearances.
"Augurium" and "auspicium" were generally used promiscuously.
Auspicium was properly the foretelling of future events from the
inspection of birds; augurium from any omen or prodigy whatever. The
augurs are supposed to have derived tokens of futurity chiefly from
five sources--appearances in the heavens (such as thunder or
lightning), from the singing or flight of birds, from the feeding of
fowls, from the movements of quadrupeds, and from uncommon accidents.
The birds which chiefly gave omens by sound were ravens, crows, owls,
and cocks,--and those by flight, eagles and vultures. Contempt of the
augurs, and neglect of their intimations, were said to be followed by
dire misfortunes. Omens coming from the left were generally supposed
by the Romans to be lucky. Thunder on the left was regarded as a good
sign, and so was the cawing of a crow on the same side; but it was
considered more fortunate to hear the croaking of a raven on the right
than on the left. The Romans, as the Greeks had done before them, took
omens from quadrupeds crossing their path or appearing in unaccustomed
places. The augurs taught the people how to draw conclusions from
sneezing, spilling salt, and other accidents, called dira.
Drawing of lots was frequently resorted to by the Romans wishing to
pry into futurity. The lots were dice, or articles resembling those
instruments of chance. They were thrown into an urn filled with water,
or cast as dice in the ordinary way. If there was any difficulty in
ascertaining the import of the dice throwing, the priests were
employed to interpret. Future events were frequently inquired into by
an inquisitive person cutting the branch of a tree into small pieces,
and distinguishing them by certain marks, and then scattering them at
random on a white cloth. The searcher after knowledge having prayed to
the gods, took up the slips three times, and interpreted according to
the marks. Future events were often inquired into by reading the first
line or passage which happened to turn up on opening a book, or by
observing the stars. It was supposed to be lucky to be born under a
certain star, and unlucky to come into the world under another.
Astrologers were consulted regarding one's natal hour. Fortune-tellers
and books of fate were consulted on the most trivial occasions; and
persons aspiring to the magistracy, after saying their prayers in the
open air, had recourse to augury with the view of ascertaining whether
the gods favoured their cause.
Great attention was paid by the Romans to dreams, and persons of
disordered minds were supposed to possess the faculty of presaging
future events. Omens of futurity were also drawn from the appearance
of the entrails of animals offered in sacrifice to the gods. The flame
and smoke from the altar were noticed, and so were the circumstances
attending the driving, felling, and bleeding of the victim. Sibylline
books were inspected by appointment of the senate at perilous times,
as they were supposed to contain the fate of the Roman Empire. There
was something mysterious about the origin of the sibylline books. It
is reported that a woman called Amalthaea, from a foreign country, came
to Tarquin the Proud to sell nine sibylline books. Upon Tarquin
refusing to give her the price asked, she went away and burned three
of them. Returning soon after, she sought the same price for the
remaining six. Still the price was refused, and she went away and
burned other three books. She again came to the king, and demanded the
same price for the three unconsumed volumes as she had asked for the
nine. Tarquin, who first regarded the woman as a senseless old
creature, became surprised at her strange behaviour, and inquired at
the augurs what he should do. They advised him to give the woman the
price she demanded. The woman delivered the books, and, after desiring
that they should be carefully kept, disappeared, and was never seen
again.
The use of charms and incantations originated in the worship of the
heathen gods. As people in this country believe that spirits, good and
bad, go about at night, so did the Romans suppose that their gods went
up and down the earth during the night to observe the actions of men.
The priests and others, when engaged in acts of piety or important
business, took care, when turning, to move to the right. Every Roman
avoided repeating words of bad omen. Certain days were reckoned
unfortunate for the celebration of marriages. The month of May was
thought an unlucky time for marriages being solemnized. The most
fortunate time for weddings taking place was in the middle of June.
The dress of a bride on her marriage day was a long white robe and her
face was covered with a veil, in token of her modesty; her hair was
divided with the point of a spear into six locks, and she was crowned
with flowers. No marriage was celebrated before recourse to auspices.
The nuptial ceremony was performed in the bride's father's house, or
in the residence of the nearest relation. In the evening the bride was
conducted to her husband's house, taken thither apparently by force
from the arms of her mother or other relative, in memory of the
violence used to the Sabine women. Three boys, whose parents were
alive, attended her; two of them supported her by the arms, while the
third walked before, bearing a flambeau of pine or thorn.
Maid-servants followed with a distaff and wool, intimating that she
was to spin as matrons formerly did. Many relations and friends
attended the nuptial procession. The young men repeated jests and made
sport as she passed along. The bride bound the door-posts of her new
home with woollen fillets, and anointed them with the fat of swine or
wolves, to prevent enchantments. She was lifted over the threshold, or
lightly leaped over it, as it was thought ominous to put her foot upon
it, because the threshold was sacred to Vesta, the goddess of virgins.
Both she and her husband touched fire and water, as all things were
supposed to be produced from these two elements. With the water their
feet were bathed. The husband gave a feast, and musicians attended and
sang the nuptial song. After supper the bride was conducted to her
bed-chamber by matrons who had been only once married, and laid on her
couch, which was covered with flowers; songs were then sung by young
women before the chamber door till midnight. Next day another
entertainment was given by the husband, when presents were sent to the
bride by her friends and relations; and she began her family duties by
performing sacred rites.
Great attention was paid to funeral ceremonies. Many people believed
that the souls of the unburied were not admitted into the abodes of
the dead before they had wandered about the Styx at least a hundred
years. If one happened to discover an unburied body and did not throw
earth on it, he was compelled to expiate his crime by sacrificing a
hog to Ceres. When persons were at the point of death, their nearest
relation present endeavoured to catch the expiring breath with their
mouth, as they believed the soul or living principle went out by the
mouth. The nearest relation among the Romans closed the eyes and mouth
of the deceased, after putting money into the mouth for the ferryman
who was to take the soul of the dead over the lake it had to cross. A
branch of cypress placed at the door where the deceased lay, indicated
that there was a dead body within. People were invited to public
funerals by a herald. Magistrates and priests were supposed to be
violated by seeing a corpse, and therefore the dead were generally
buried at night with torch-light. At funeral processions pipers and
other musicians attended, and women sang the funeral song or the
praises of the deceased to the sound of the flute. By the law of the
twelve tables, the number of flute players was restricted to ten. Next
followed actors and buffoons, who danced and sang, while one of them
imitated the deceased's words and actions when alive. Before the
corpse there were carried the images of the deceased and of his
ancestors. The ancients buried their dead at their own houses, whence
arose the fear of hobgoblins, and a belief in lares, supposed to be
the souls of the deceased.
When the body was laid in the tomb, the people present were sprinkled
three times with pure water by the priest, and when the friends
returned home they were again sprinkled. Beans, lettuces, bread, eggs,
etc. were laid in the tombs, in the belief that the ghosts would come
and eat them. Offerings were made to appease the manes. If a person,
falsely reported to have been dead, returned home, he did not enter
his house by the door, but went into it through the roof. Dead bodies
were often violated for magical purposes, by stripping them of
valuable articles, or cutting off fingers, toes, or arms. Wax images
of deceased persons were made, and, after a variety of ridiculous
ceremonies, burned on piles, from the tops of which eagles were let
loose to convey to heaven the souls set free from the body.