THE IMPERIAL RUSSIAN BALLET
It is now time to pick up the thread of the story of the ballet.
We have seen how a new spirit in dancing came from the West; for the new
spirit in ballet we must look to the East.[2] Many strange and fine
things of the spiritual order have come out of Russia in these latter
times. Our music, our literature, our art, have been profoundly affected
by the spirit of that people which appears to have all the unfathomable
reservoirs of barbaric life to draw upon. But perhaps there has come to
us nothing so supremely excellent, so unsurpassably beautiful, as
Russian dancing.
As with all other peoples who still preserve the traditions of the elder
generations, with the Russians dancing is a natural act. The peasants
learn the graceful national dances, which vary from province to
province, as simply as they learn their mother tongue. In summer, on the
evenings of Sundays and holidays, the gaily-decked youths and maidens
collect in a field or on a bridge near the village and dance to the
music of the twittering _balalaika_ or the monotonous ululations of a
cheap concertina. Unfortunately in Russia, as everywhere else, the old
order is giving place to the new, and for the immemorial national dances
are being substituted foreign quadrilles and lancers. But though the
character of the dance changes, the passion and the natural aptitude for
it remain. In the People’s Palace at St Petersburg the young men and
girls from the factories may be seen dancing the intricate measures of
the mazurka with an ease and abandon which some of the trained dancers
of Western Europe might envy.
To this native spirit, however, the ballet owes little or nothing.
Doubtless it has in a manner fertilised the soil, created a public
interested in the dance and, if heredity counts for anything, provided a
raw material ready for the ballet-master to mould to his will. But the
ballet, as I have said before, is in its origin aristocratic, and
nowhere more so than in Russia. The Russian ballet is entirely the
product of the Court. It was of course originally a foreign importation.
The first ballet was presented in 1675, before the Tsar Alexis, the
second of the Romanovs. Peter the Great, in his efforts to westernise
Russia, introduced the Western modes of dancing, and, as he was his own
shipwright, so he was his own dancing-master. He sets about teaching his
Court, and himself made such “caprioles,” says Bergholz, that any
dancing-master might envy him.
But the institution of the ballet in Russia was due to the Empress Anne.
In 1735 she appointed the Neapolitan composer Francesca Areja to compose
the music and conduct the orchestra, and a Frenchman, Landé, to act as
ballet-master. She commanded an Italian _intermedio_ with a ballet to be
played before her once a week. At first, as there were yet no
professional dancers, the young noblemen of the military cadet schools
were instructed in the dance. Gradually they were superseded by a
specially trained corps. Landé collected a number of boys and girls of
the poorer classes and trained them free of charge. So delighted was the
Empress with their performance that she undertook to defray all the
expenses of their education out of the Imperial exchequer. Landé
received a fee for teaching them, rooms were provided for them in one of
the palaces, and we learn that the children were entrusted to the care
of a widow of one of the Court coachmen. Such were the modest beginnings
of the famous Dramatic School of St Petersburg.
Catherine II. followed in the footsteps of her predecessor. In her reign
the services of the cadets were no longer required. To her initiative
was due the erection of the Grand Theatre, which is now supplanted by
the famous Marianski Theatre. She organised the theatre and brought it
into relation with the bureaucratic regime, appointing a director, with
two committees under his control, one in Moscow and one in St
Petersburg, to superintend theatrical spectacles.
Didelot, who was called to St Petersburg in 1802, raised the ballet to a
level of excellence which was not surpassed even in Milan. As a
ballet-master he was a martinet, almost a fanatic in his passion for his
art. Under him the ballet took that prominent place in Russian life
which it has never since lost. He regarded _plastique_ and _mime_ as
even more important features in the ballet than dancing itself. He
insisted that there was no limit to what the ballet could express, and
to prove his case staged Racine’s tragedy, _Phèdre_, in ballet form with
considerable success. So great became the popularity of the ballet that
even when opera came into fashion it was the custom for the _corps de
ballet_ to repeat in dumb show during the _entr’actes_ the foregoing act
of the opera.
During all this time the Imperial Ballet closely followed the academic
Italian tradition. It was in no way distinctively Russian. Fifty years
ago, and even less, most of the principal dancers in Moscow and St
Petersburg were Italians--a complete reversal of the state of affairs at
the present day, when Preobrajenskaya, one of the greatest dancers at
the Marianski, appears as _prima ballerina_ at La Scala, the home of the
ballet in Milan.
The excellence of the Russian ballet is the direct outcome of the system
of State maintenance and control, which has been in vogue for a century
and a half. The large expenditure necessary for its upkeep is met by the
funds annually set apart for the Minister of the Court. The Imperial
Ballet provides all the dancers for the operas given throughout the
season at the Marie Theatre in St Petersburg and at the Opera House in
Moscow. On two evenings a week, Wednesday and Sunday, it gives a special
performance devoted entirely to the ballet. Moreover, some of the less
distinguished dancers perform from time to time at the People’s Palace
in St Petersburg. The country, therefore, may be said to get good value
for its money.
Attached to the great theatres, primarily reserved as homes of ballet,
is the Imperial School of Dancing, which is of course supported by the
State. The pupil--boy or girl--is entered at the age of about nine or
ten. After the necessary nomination has been secured, a stringent
examination with regard to health, intelligence, beauty of form and
natural gracefulness has to be passed before the child is finally
accepted. Mr Rothay Reynolds, who has an intimate knowledge of Russian
life, gives an interesting account of the training:
“The school contains a great room for dancing, with a floor sloped at
the same angle as that of the stage at the Marinsky Theatre. Here one
may see a class of merry boys instructed in their art. A master, usually
one of the best dancers in the theatre, shows them the steps and
movements to be learnt, and half-a-dozen do their best to copy him.
After ten minutes they go and rest, and a second batch comes forward.
The boys seem to enjoy the work, and even when they are supposed to be
resting some of them will continue to practise and give each other
friendly hints. In another and similar room is the girls’ class, where
the method is the same. Then there is a room with many toilet-tables on
which grease-paints are set out and with mirrors and electric lights
arranged exactly as at the theatre. Here the pupils assemble for lessons
in make-up. A boy has to learn to transform himself into a Chinese or an
old man or a beautiful young Greek, and he has to pass examinations at
different points of his school career in this art. I remember once
meeting a young man in the waiting-room of a Polish dentist” (he goes on
to relate). “He told me he had toothache and a nervous break-down,
brought on he believed by the strain of a difficult examination. I asked
what were the subjects of the examination. ‘French,’ he said, ‘because
we must be cultured, dancing, the history of dancing, and painting my
face.’ I had the curiosity to ask where this unusual curriculum was
followed. ‘At the Imperial School of Ballet,’ he said, mentioned his
name with the air of one who felt that he ought to have been recognised,
and added: ‘Thank heaven I’ve passed, and now I am a _premier danseur_.
It is a delightful life, and when I am too old to dance the State will
give me a pension.’”
[Illustration: THE RUSSIAN BALLET
AN UNDRESS REHEARSAL]
The pupil at the Imperial Ballet School receives in fact a sound
secondary education. Four hours a day are devoted to dancing during the
eight years he is at school. While still at school the children
occasionally appear on the stage in special _ballets d’enfants_. They
also take part in “crowds” in operas where children are needed, as in
the first act of Tchaikovsky’s _Dame de Pique_. At seventeen they begin
their career as members of the _corps de ballet_, from which the most
proficient rise upwards, through the various grades of _coryphée_,
_second sujet_, _premier sujet_, _première danseuse_ or _ballerina_, and
_ballerina assoluta_. The dancer retires, after eighteen years’ service,
at thirty-five--only artists of exceptional merit are permitted to
continue after that age--and receives a pension of from one hundred and
twenty pounds to two hundred and sixty pounds a year.
The fine quality of the performances of the Russian ballet is
undoubtedly due in the first place to the prolonged and thorough
training, not only of the principal dancers but of each individual
performer. An average of five or six hours’ dancing a day is the rule
rather than the exception; for a ballet that is to be performed at night
is always rehearsed during the day, however many times it may have been
given before. The counsel of Carlo-Blasis, the eighteenth-century
ballet-master is fulfilled to the letter: “Il faut encore étudier,” he
wrote, “lors même qu’on sera tout-à-fait formé.... Dans la musique, dans
la peinture, etc., l’on n’a pas besoin d’un travail aussi opiniâtre pour
conserver ce que l’on sait. L’art du danseur, comme tous ceux
d’exercice, ne jouit pas de cet avantage.” In the Russian ballet there
is a perfect co-operation between the performers and an all-round
technical excellence quite unlike anything that has ever been seen in
this country.
Moreover the art of the male dancer, which had almost died out in other
countries, has not only been kept alive in Russia but has been developed
equally with that of the ballerina. The “principal boy” of the English
stage is, as we know, always a girl. A note of character and energy
disappeared from the ballet when it became solely the medium of feminine
dancing. The strength and breadth of the Russian ballet have gained
enormously by the retention and development of male dancing. Indeed its
virility is one of the most striking features. The fierceness of the
warrior dances in _Prince Igor_ and the adroitness of the dance of
buffoons in _Le Pavillon d’Armide_ are among its most memorable
achievements. _Scheherazade_ without Nijinsky would be like _Hamlet_
without the Prince of Denmark. We realise now that without the masculine
element the ballet is as incomplete as an orchestra without the bass.
In Russia the music of the ballet has received the same careful
consideration as the choregraphy. In some cases, music which was not
written specially for the purpose has been adapted to the uses of the
ballet. But latterly it has been the custom of the directors to apply to
the leading composers of the day for ballet music written expressly for
a given subject. In earlier times it was of course the custom for
composers to write the music for the ballets that were interpolated in
the opera. Tchaikovsky was one of the first to compose a ballet
independent of opera and complete in itself. This was _The Sleeping
Beauty_, first presented in 1890, in his own opinion the best thing he
ever did, with the exception of his opera, _Eugène Onegin_. He showed
his recognition of the necessity of an absolute co-ordination among the
collaborators of the ballet by working in accordance with the
suggestions of the choregrapher. The _maître de ballet_, after composing
the design of the dances that were to express the spirit and action of
the piece, sent to the musician a detailed schedule of the music
required; thus:
No. 1. Musique douce, 64 mesures.
No. 2. L’arbre s’éclaire. Musique pétillant de 8 mesures.
No. 3. L’entrée des enfants. Musique bruyante et joyeuse de 24 mesures,
etc.
_Casse-Noisette_, another ballet by the same composer, appeared in 1892.
The original and powerful music of Borodin has been pressed into the
service of the ballet, and entire ballets have been written by
Rimsky-Korsakov, Glazounov and Arensky. In the execution of the music
there is the same specialisation. The leaders of the orchestra qualify
specially for the ballet, having no part in the orchestra at any other
time.
It is clear, therefore, that in Russia the ballet has long been regarded
as a serious art-form. A keen and intelligent criticism and an
enthusiastic public interest provide it with that bracing atmosphere
without which it is difficult for any composite form of art to thrive.
On the nights devoted exclusively to the ballet, the large Marianski
Theatre is so crowded that it is difficult to obtain a seat. Most of the
stalls and boxes are subscribed for, and the people renew their
subscriptions year after year. Mr Rothay Reynolds relates how, when an
elderly gentlemen who for a great number of years had had a seat in the
front row suddenly died, a friend of his rushed to the theatre and
offered the young lady at the box-office twenty guineas if she would
secure him the seat. “Alas!” she said, “I have already received over a
hundred applications.”
When the Russian ballet was being performed for the first time at Covent
Garden, an enthusiast was heard to express his intention of emigrating
to Russia in order to see the ballet in its true home. If he had carried
out his intention it is to be feared that he would have suffered
grievous disappointment. For it is a great misapprehension to suppose
that the Russian ballet as it has been seen in Paris and London is
typical of the official ballet at St Petersburg and Moscow. When the
Diaghilew company first appeared at the Theatre du Châtelet, the
republican convictions of Paris received a shock. Could any good thing
come out of Tsardom? Had autocracy succeeded where the alliance of
liberty, fraternity and equality had failed? Was it then true that
venerable tradition, assisted by a bureaucratic regime, was a kinder
nursing mother to the arts than the revolutionary spirit? Little by
little the truth leaked out. The Russian ballet, which had been welcomed
as the most modern manifestation of theatrical art, was not traditional
but revolutionary. It was not the child of the official art of St
Petersburg but the outcast. Its leaders were dangerous innovators whom
the intransigent conservatives had expelled as hastily as if they had
been political agitators. Paris was reassured.
The truth is that the excellence of the Imperial School of Ballet of
which I have spoken is an excellence of method and technique rather than
of spirit and conception. In ideals the Imperial Ballet has not
travelled far from those of Milan in the earlier part of the nineteenth
century. It has elaborated and refined, but it has not greatly widened
them. The visitor at the St Petersburg Opera House would discover that
the unmeaning and unbeautiful acrobatics of an earlier day have not yet
altogether disappeared. He would find that the ballet in _Aida_, for
example, does not differ in many material points, excepting always the
accomplishment of the performers, from what he has been accustomed to
see in Milan or Vienna. It was in Russia that the spirit of criticism
gave rise to new ideas, but the exponents of these new ideas came into
sharp collision with the authorities at the Imperial theatres of St
Petersburg and Moscow.
The spectacles which have been seen in London and Paris--some of which
have never been produced in Russia--are the production of a group of
daring and subversive artists, whom M. Serge de Diaghilew, the organiser
of the ballets, has gathered round him--notably M. Fokine, the
choregraphic director, MM. Leon Bakst and Benois, the designers of the
scenery and costume, M. Tcherepnin, the musical composer and conductor,
and of course M. Nijinsky and Mme Karsavina. M. Fokine, it is true, is
the assistant ballet-master at the St Petersburg Opera, but he is said
to be in command there only at the rarest intervals. M. Bakst has not
worked for the Imperial theatres, and M. Tcherepnin comes, not from the
St Petersburg Opera, but from the Conservatorium, where he is in charge
of the orchestral class. They are able, of course, to avail themselves
of the marvellous technical powers of the dancers who have joined them,
practically all of whom were trained at the Imperial School of Ballet;
but few of these are now regular members of the corps, and Nijinsky, the
greatest genius of them all, recently received his formal discharge at
the hands of the St Petersburg authorities. Long tradition, careful
science and State patronage helped to make of the Imperial Ballet an
elaborate, smoothly-working and faultless piece of theatrical mechanism;
it only wanted the breath of genius to give it artistic life.
What then are the essential characteristics which differentiate the
“revolutionary” Russian ballet from the traditional ballet as
[Illustration: TROUHANOWA
IN AN ORIENTAL BALLET
_Photograph: Gersche_]
it has hitherto been known both in Russia and elsewhere? The essential
difference is to be found, not in technique, but in idea. The ballet has
been brought into relation with life. Dancing, which had its origin in
the most elemental emotions, gradually strayed further and further from
its source, until in the ballet it lost its last remnant of vital
significance. The ballet was relegated to a kind of barren limbo of the
imagination; it was the _mise en scène_ of the fairy tale; none of the
echoes of the real world ever disturbed its enchanted silence; no
excitement, no passion, no humour, was permitted to relax the fixity of
its unmeaning smile. It was supposed to be structurally incapable of
supporting anything more weighty than merely gossamer fancies, eternal
variations upon the themes of coquetry--invitation and refusal, pursuit
and evasion. Such inconsequential argument as there was served only to
introduce a series of independent dances which were quite unrelated to
any central inward idea. The ballet’s complete sterility of idea was
acquiesced in as a necessary condition of its existence. It was an
artificial and somewhat withered paradise from which the river of life
was carefully diverted. The work of the revolutionaries was to open the
sluice-gates and let in the fertilising flood of vital emotion. The
ineffectual rhythms of the dance were suddenly caught up into the
masterful rhythms of life itself. What is revolutionary in the new
ballet is the power to rouse and trouble the imagination. The innovators
have extended the range of the ballet, a range as wide as that of the
drama--one is tempted to say wider, for not only does it express a
minute grace as choice as the grouping of the petals of a rose, but at
times its huge leaping rhythms throb with an unconstrained and elemental
violence, all too shattering for the formal mould of speech.
If the aim of the new movement is the strict subjection of the ballet to
an artistic idea which shall express a high emotional impulse, the means
by which it is attained is no less novel and characteristic. The ballet
is a composite form of art, at once plastic, decorative and musical. Its
success therefore depends upon an intimate collaboration between its
composers, the choregraphic designer, the painter and the musician. An
obviously necessary condition?--yes, but one which until the advent of
the revolutionary ballet had been considerably neglected. Its neglect
had resulted in the production of a mosaic of more or less artistic
effects, jarring and warring among themselves. Too often the dance did
not concur with the action. The steps were considered not as a means of
expression, a language, but only as a brilliant exercise, without more
signification than an acrobatic performance. Occasionally, as in the
production of Tchaikovsky’s _Sleeping Beauty_, the musician and the
ballet-master worked in accord, but more often independently. The
scene-painter produced a finished and usually photographic picture
without any thought of the placing of the performers in the scene. The
costumier, again, was accorded his own sweet will, and added his private
inharmonious notes to the general discord. The new composers worked on
the principle that there was not one design of the dance, another of the
music and a third of the _décor_, but one design, one rhythm, one
dominating impulse of the whole. In their ballets, the lines, the
colours and the movements together interpret the spirit and the action,
mutually reinforcing one another and producing a cumulative effect of
strength and beauty, which at once grips and delights us.
If one of the collaborators of the revolutionary ballet has impressed
upon it his personality more strongly than another it is M. Leon Bakst.
He belongs to the new romantic school of painting, though he himself
prefers to call it the new classical school, which is in full revolt
against the illusion that the realists have set up as the final aim of
art. He is a member of the Salon d’Automme, a pioneer and leader of the
art movement which seeks to apply the principles of “post-Impressionism”
to the decoration of the stage. The importance, not to say the
pre-eminence, of the place which he claims in the theatre for the
decorator, is best stated in his own words. “I believe,” he says, “the
time for the conventional producer to arrange the sunshine and shadow of
the ‘scene’ has passed for ever. The peculiar form of ‘mental’
intelligence which has dominated the theatre for so many years is about
to be replaced by the plastic intelligence, and the tone of the ensemble
will be determined by the painter. The evolution of the
[Illustration: DANSE ORIENTALE
AFTER A DESIGN BY LÉON BAKST]
theatre is towards a plastic ideal, and the action of a piece, sometimes
full of invention, is weak and ineffective if it has not been conceived
according to an artistic vision; just as an exaggerated ‘literary’
picture repels a true connoisseur. So give place to the painter in the
theatre--and a leading place. It is the painter who should now (taking
the place of the erudite director) create everything, know everything,
foresee everything and organise everything. It is the painter who must
be master of the situation, understand its finesse and decide the style
of the piece. To his plastic judgment and taste must be subordinated the
thousand details which compass the imposing ensemble of a fine work of
the theatre.”
How thoroughly M. Bakst’s personality enters into the least details of
the scene is evident in the two ballets which he has staged most
brilliantly--_Cléopâtre_ and _Scheherazade_. He introduces the
“leitmotiv” into the scene and uses it as effectively as the musician.
Rimsky-Korsakov’s overture in _Scheherazade_ does not more vividly
suggest the sultry, sensual, Oriental atmosphere with its lurking
brutalities than do the voluptuous lines and sinister colours of the
artist. The feeling is continued in the costumes, which are not only
fitly adjusted to the languorous movements of the dancers but also serve
to carry out the colour-scheme of the scene. Each dress is a note of
colour, chosen as carefully as an artist forms his tone upon the
palette, and placed in its proper relation to the whole.
But the keynote of M. Bakst’s art is simplicity and severity. “The
painter of the future demands a severe style,” he says, “because the
excess of detail has become intolerable to him.” Realism he abhors no
less than pedantry of detail. He seeks to suggest the mood and not to
photograph the event. His most gorgeous effects are obtained by an
economy of material, which in comparison with one of the modern
successful, over-propertied Shakespearian productions might seem
positively parsimonious. And what he can achieve when he limits himself
to the minimum of material may be seen in _Le Carnaval_, in which the
two roguish sofas are probably the most eloquent and expressive
properties ever placed upon the stage. Simplicity, suggestion,
style--these are the qualities of M. Bakst’s work in the theatre, and,
above all, that all-embracing rhythm which, uniting with the rhythm of
the music and the dance, helps to create one unity of colour, sound and
movement.
Perhaps this is not the place to speak of the wide-reaching effect of
the revolutionary ballet upon the general world of art. The colour and
design of Leon Bakst’s scenes, the provocative gestures of Nijinsky’s
dancing, the strange and startling patterns of the dancers, have
suggested to artists a new source of inspiration, which in Paris at all
events has already not been without its influence on their work. The
ballet is in the van of the artistic movement of the day, and the dance,
through the ballet, has attained a position which it has never held
since the days of ancient Greece--being once more received into its
proper and inseverable fellowship with music and the plastic arts.