THE SABINE WAR.
B.C. 750-746
King Acron.--Caenina.--Its distance from Rome.--Acron's hostility to
the new city.--His plans.--Romulus and Acron meet on the
field.--Anticipations of the spectators.--Romulus victorious.--Results
of his victory.--Subsequent policy of the Romans.--The trophy of the
victory.--First Roman triumph.--Annexation of more cities.--Women
summoned.--The address of Romulus.--His promises.--Generous policy
pursued by Romulus.--Enlargement of the city.--Plans of the
Sabines.--They mature their preparations.--Titus Tatius.--Preparations
of the Romans.--Final negotiations.--The Roman herdsmen.--Flocks and
herds called in.--The citadel.--Tarpeia.--The Campus Martius.--Parley
with Tarpeia.--Agreement made with Tarpeia.--The Sabines
admitted.--Tarpeia killed.--The two armies meet on the plain.--A truce
to bury the dead.--Fresh combats.--Romulus in great personal
danger.--The story of Curtius.--The lake.--Distress of the Sabine
women.--Their perplexity.--The plan of Hersilia.--The women admitted to
the senate house.--Arrangements for the intercession of the women.--The
address of Hersilia.--Effect of it.--Conditions and terms of peace.
While the negotiations with the Sabines were still pending, Romulus
became involved in another difficulty, which for a time assumed a very
threatening aspect. This difficulty was a war which broke out,
somewhat suddenly, in consequence of the invasion of the Roman
territories by a neighboring chieftain named Acron. Acron was the
sovereign of a small state, whose capital was a town called Caenina.[F]
This Caenina is supposed to have been only four or five miles distant
from Romulus's city,--a fact which shows very clearly on how small a
scale the deeds and exploits connected with the first foundation of
the great empire, which afterward became so extended and so renowned,
were originally performed, and how intrinsically insignificant they
were, in themselves, though momentous in the extreme in respect to the
consequences that flowed from them.
[Footnote F: See Map of Latium, page 134.]
Acron was a bold, energetic, and determined man, who had already
acquired great fame by his warlike exploits, and who had long been
watching the progress of the new colony with an evil eye. He thought
that if it were allowed to take root, and to grow, it might, at some
future day, become a formidable enemy, both to him, and also to the
other states in that part of Italy. He had been very desirous,
therefore, of finding some pretext for attacking the new city, and
when he heard of the seizure of the Sabine women, he thought that the
time had arrived. He, therefore, urged the Sabines to make war at once
upon the Romans, and promised, if they would do so, to assist them
with all the forces that he could command. The Sabines, however, were
so unwilling to proceed to extremities, and spent so much time in
negotiations and embassies, that Acron's patience was at length wholly
exhausted by the delays, and he resolved to undertake the
extermination of the new colony himself alone.
So he gathered together a rude and half-organized army, and advanced
toward Rome. Romulus, who had been informed of his plans and
preparations, went out to meet him. The two armies came in view of
each other on an open plain, not far from the city. Romulus advanced
at the head of his troops, while Acron appeared likewise in the
fore-front of the invaders. After uttering in the hearing of each
other, and of the assembled armies, various exclamations of challenge
and defiance, it was at length agreed that the question at issue
should be decided by single combat, the two commanders themselves to
be the champions. Romulus and Acron accordingly advanced into the
middle of the field, while their armies drew up around them, forming a
sort of ring within which the combatants were to engage.
The interest which would be naturally felt by such an encounter, was
increased very much by the strong contrast that was observed in the
appearance of the warriors. Romulus was very young, and though tall
and athletic in form, his countenance exhibited still the expression
of softness and delicacy characteristic of youth. Acron, on the other
hand, was a war-worn veteran, rugged, hardy, and stern; and the
throngs of martial spectators that surrounded the field, when they saw
the combatants as they came forward to engage, anticipated a very
unequal contest. Romulus was nevertheless victorious. As he went into
the battle, he made a vow to Jupiter, that if he conquered his foe, he
would ascribe to the god all the glory of the victory, and he would
set up the arms and spoils of Acron at Rome, as a trophy sacred to
Jupiter, in honor of the divine aid through which the conquest should
be achieved. It was in consequence of this vow, as the old historians
say, that Romulus prevailed in the combat. At all events, he did
prevail. Acron was slain, and while Romulus was stripping the fallen
body of its armor on the field, his men were pursuing the army of
Acron, for the soldiers fled in dismay toward their city, as soon as
they saw that the single combat had gone against their king.
Caenina was not in a condition to make any defense, and it was readily
taken. When the city was thus in the power of Romulus, he called the
inhabitants together, and said to them, that he cherished no hostile
or resentful feelings toward them. On the contrary, he wished to have
them his allies and friends, and he promised them, that if they would
abandon Caenina, and go with him to Rome, they should all be received
as brothers, and be at once incorporated into the Roman state, and
admitted to all the privileges of citizens. The people of Caenina, when
the first feelings of terror and distress which their falling into the
power of their enemies naturally awakened, had been in some measure
allayed, readily acquiesced in this arrangement, and were all
transferred to Rome. Their coming made a great addition not only to
the population and strength of the city, but vastly increased the
celebrity and fame of Romulus in the estimation of the surrounding
nations.
This victory over Acron, and the annexation of his dominions to the
Roman commonwealth, are considered of great historical importance, as
the original type and exemplar of the whole subsequent foreign policy
of the Roman state;--a policy marked by courage and energy in martial
action on the field, and by generosity in dealing with the conquered;
and which was so successful in its results, that it was the means of
extending the Roman power from kingdom to kingdom, and from continent
to continent, until the vast organization almost encircled the world.
Romulus faithfully fulfilled the vow which he had made to Jupiter. On
the return of the army to Rome, the soldiers, by his directions, cut
down a small oak-tree, and trimming the branches at the top, and
shortening them as much as was necessary for the purpose, they hung
the weapons and armor of Acron upon it, and marched with it thus, in
triumph into the city. Romulus walked in the midst of the procession,
a crown of laurel upon his head, and his long hair hanging down upon
his shoulders. Thus the victors entered the city, greeted all the way
by the shouts and acclamations of the people, who had assembled,--men,
women, and children,--at the gates and upon the tops of the houses.
When the long procession had thus passed in, tables for the soldiers
were spread in the streets and public squares, and the whole day was
spent in festivity and rejoicing. This was the first Roman
triumph,--the original model and example of those magnificent and
imposing spectacles which in subsequent ages became the wonder of the
world.
The spoils which had been brought in upon the oak were solemnly set
up, on one of the hills within the city, as a trophy to Jupiter. A
small temple was erected expressly to receive them. This temple was
very small, being but five feet wide and ten feet long.
A short time after these transactions two other cities were
incorporated into the Roman state. The name of these cities were
Crustumenium and Antemnae. Some women from these cities had been seized
at Rome when the Sabine women were taken, and the inhabitants had been
ever since that period meditating plans of revenge. They were not
strong enough to wage open war against Romulus, but they began at last
to make hostile incursions into the Roman territories by means of such
small bands of armed men as they had the means of raising. Romulus
immediately organized bodies of troops sufficient for the purpose, and
then suddenly, and, as it would seem, without giving the kings of
these cities any previous warning, he appeared before the walls and
captured the cities before the inhabitants had time to recover from
their consternation.
He then sent to all the women in Rome who had formerly belonged to
these cities, summoning them to appear before him at his public place
of audience in the city, and in the presence of the Roman Senate. The
women were exceedingly terrified at receiving this summons. They
supposed that death or some other terrible punishment, was to be
inflicted upon them in retribution for the offenses committed by their
countrymen, and they came into the senate-house, hiding their faces in
their robes, and crying out with grief and terror. Romulus bid them
calm their fears, assuring them that he intended them no injury. "Your
countrymen," said he, "preferred war to the peaceful alternative of
friendship and alliance which we offered them; and the fortune of war
to which they thus chose to appeal, has decided against them. They
have now fallen into our hands, and are wholly at our mercy. We do
not, however, mean to do them any harm. We spare and forgive them for
your sakes. We intend to invite them to come and live with us and with
you at Rome, so that you can once more experience the happiness of
being joined to your fathers and brothers as well as your husbands. We
shall not destroy or even injure their cities; but shall send some of
our own citizens to people them, so that they may become fully
incorporated into the Roman commonwealth. Thus, your fathers and
brothers, and all your countrymen, receive the boon of life, liberty,
and happiness through you; and all that we ask of you in return, is
that you will continue your conjugal affection and fidelity to your
Roman husbands, and seek to promote the harmony and happiness of the
city by every means in your power."
Of course such transactions as these attracted great attention
throughout the country, and both the valor with which Romulus
encountered his enemies while they resisted and opposed him, and the
generosity with which he admitted them to an honorable alliance with
him when they were reduced to submission, were universally applauded.
In fact, there began to be formed a strong public sentiment in favor
of the new colony, and the influx to it of individual adventurers,
from all parts of the country, rapidly increased. In one instance a
famous chieftain named Caelius, a general of the Etrurians who lived
north of the Tiber, brought over the whole army under his command in a
body, to join the new colony. New and special arrangements were
necessary to be made at Rome for receiving so sudden and so large an
accession to the numbers of the people, and accordingly a new
eminence, one which had been hitherto without the city, was now
inclosed, and brought within the poemerium. This hill received the
name of Caelius, from the general whose army occupied it. The city was
extended too at the same time on the other side toward the Tiber. The
walls were continued down to the very bank of the river, and thence
carried along the bank so as to present a continued defense on that
side, except at one place where there was a great gate leading to the
water.
During all this time, however, the Sabines still cherished the spirit
of resentment and hostility, and instead of being conciliated by the
forbearance and generosity of the Romans, were only excited to greater
jealousy and ill-will at witnessing the proofs of their increasing
influence and power. They employed themselves in maturing their plans
for a grand onset against the new colony, and with the intention to
make the blow which they were about to strike effectual and final they
took time to arrange their preparations on the most extensive scale,
and to mature them in the most deliberate and thorough manner. They
enlisted troops; they collected stores of provisions and munitions of
war; they formed alliances with such states lying beyond them as they
could draw into their quarrel; and finally, when all things were
ready, they assembled their forces upon the frontier, and prepared for
the onset. The name of the general who was placed in command of this
mighty host was Titus Tatius.
In the mean time, Romulus and the people of the city were equally busy
in making preparations for defense. They procured and laid up in
magazines, great stores of provisions for the use of the city. They
strengthened and extended the walls, and built new ramparts and towers
wherever they were needed. Numitor rendered very essential aid to his
grandson in these preparations. He sent supplies of weapons to him for
the use of the men, and furnished various military engines, such as
were used in those times in the attack and defense of besieged cities.
In fact, the preparations on both sides were of the most extensive
character, and seemed to portend a very resolute and determined
contest.
When all things were thus ready, the Sabines, before actually striking
the blow for which they had been so long and so deliberately
preparing, concluded to send one more final embassy to Romulus, to
demand the surrender of the women. This was of course only a matter of
form, as they must have known well from what had already passed that
Romulus would not now yield to such a proposal. He did not yield. He
sent back word in answer to their demand, that the Sabine women were
all well settled in Rome, and were contented and happy there with
their husbands and friends, and that he could not think now of
disturbing them. This answer having been received, the Sabines
prepared for the onset.
There was a certain tract of country surrounding Rome which belonged
to the people of the city, and was cultivated by them. This land was
used partly for tillage and partly for the pasturage of cattle, but
principally for the latter, as the rearing of flocks and herds was,
for various reasons, a more advantageous mode of procuring food for
man in those ancient days than the culture of the ground. The rural
population, therefore, of the Roman territory consisted chiefly of
herdsmen; and when the approaching danger from the Sabines became
imminent, Romulus called all these herdsmen in, and required the
flocks of sheep and the herds of cattle to be driven to the rear of
the city, and shut up in an inclosure there, where they could be more
easily defended. Thus the Sabine army found, when they were ready to
cross the frontier, that the Roman territory, on that side, was
deserted and solitary; and that there was nothing to oppose them in
advancing across it almost to the very gates of Rome.
They advanced accordingly, and when they came near to the city they
found that Romulus had taken possession of two hills without the
walls, where he had entrenched himself in great force. These two hills
were named the Esquiline and Quirinal hills. The city itself included
two other hills, namely, the Palatine and the Capitoline. The
Capitoline hill was the one on which the asylum had formerly been
built, and it was now the citadel. The citadel was surrounded on all
parts with ramparts and towers which overlooked and commanded all the
neighboring country. The command of this fortress was given to
Tarpeius, a noble Roman. He had a daughter named Tarpeia, whose name
afterward became greatly celebrated in history, on account of the
part which she took in the events of this siege, as will presently
appear.
At the foot of the Capitoline hill, and on the western side of it,
that is, the side away from the city, there was a spacious plain which
was afterward included within the limits of the city, and used as a
parade-ground, under the name of Campus Martius, which words mean the
"War Field." This field was now, however, an open plain, and the
Sabine army advancing to it, encamped upon it. The Sabine forces were
much more numerous than those of the Romans, but the latter were so
well guarded and protected by their walls and fortifications, that
Titus Tatius saw no feasible way of attacking them with any prospect
of success. At last, one day as some of his officers were walking
around the Capitoline hill, looking at the walls of the citadel,
Tarpeia came to one of the gates, which was in a retired and solitary
position, and entered into a parley with the men. The story of what
followed is variously related by different historians, and it is now
difficult to ascertain the actual truth respecting it. The account
generally received is this:--
[Illustration: PROMISING THE BRACELETS.]
Tarpeia had observed the soldiers from the walls, and her attention
had been attracted by the bracelets and rings which they wore; and she
finally made an agreement with the Sabines that she would open the
postern gate in the night, and let them in, if they would give her
what they wore upon their arms, meaning the ornaments which had
attracted her attention. The Sabines bound themselves to do this and
then went away. Titus Tatius, accordingly, when informed of this
arrangement, detailed a strong detachment of troops, and gave them
orders to repair at night in a very silent and secret manner to the
gate which had been designated as the place where they were to be let
in. It is asserted, however, by some writers, that this apparent
treachery on the part of Tarpeia was only a deep-laid stratagem on her
part to draw the Sabines into a snare; and that she sent word to
Romulus, informing him of the agreement which she had made, in order
that he might secretly dispatch a strong force to take their position
at the gate, and intercept and capture the Sabine party as soon as
they should come in. But if this was Tarpeia's design, it totally
failed. The Sabines, when they came at midnight to the postern gate
which Tarpeia opened for them, came in sufficient force to bear down
all opposition; and in fulfillment of their promise to give Tarpeia
what they wore upon their arms they threw their heavy bucklers upon
her until she was crushed down beneath the weight of them and killed.
A steep rock which forms that side of the Capitoline hill is called
the Tarpeian rock, in memory of this maiden, to the present day.
In this way the Sabines gained possession of the citadel, though
Romulus still held the main city. The Romans were of course extremely
disconcerted at the loss of the citadel, and Romulus, finding that the
danger was now extremely imminent, resolved no longer to stand on the
defensive, but to come out upon the plain and offer the Sabines
battle. He accordingly brought his forces out of the city and took up
a strong position with them, between the Capitoline and Palatine
hills, with his front toward the Campus Martius, where the main body
of the Sabines were posted. Thus the armies were confronted against
each other on the plain, the Romans holding the city and the Palatine
hill as a stronghold to retreat to in case of necessity, while the
Sabines in the same manner could seek refuge on the Capitoline hill
and in the citadel.
Things being in this state a series of desperate but partial contests
ensued, which were continued for several days, when at length a
general battle came on. During all this time the walls of the city and
of the citadel were lined with spectators who had ascended to witness
the combats; for from these walls and from the declivities of the
hills, the whole plain could be looked down upon as if it were a map.
The battle continued all day. At night both parties were exhausted,
and the field was covered with the dead and dying, but neither side
had gained a victory. The next day by common consent they suspended
the combat in order to take care of the wounded, and to bury the
bodies of the dead.
After the interval of a day, which was spent, on both sides, in
removing the horrid relics of the previous combats, and in gathering
fresh strength and fresh desperation and rage for the conflicts yet to
come, the struggle was renewed. The soldiers fought now, on this
renewal of the battle, with more dreadful and deadly ferocity than
ever. Various incidents occurred during the day to give one party or
the other a local or temporary advantage, but neither side wholly
prevailed. At one time Romulus himself was exposed to the most
imminent personal danger, and for a time it was thought that he was
actually killed. The Romans had gained some great advantage over a
party of the Sabines, and the latter were rushing in a headlong flight
to the citadel, the Romans pursuing them and hoping to follow them in,
in the confusion, and thus regain possession of the fortress. To
prevent this the Sabines within the citadel and on the rocks above
threw stones down upon the Romans. One of these stones struck Romulus
on the head, and he fell down stunned and senseless under the blow.
His men were extremely terrified at this disaster, and abandoning the
pursuit of their enemies they took up the body of Romulus and carried
it into the city. It was found, however, that he was not seriously
injured. He soon recovered from the effects of the blow and returned
into the battle.
Another incident which occurred in the course of these battles has
been commemorated in history, by having been the means of giving a
name to a small lake or pool which was afterward brought within the
limits of the city. A Sabine general named Curtius happened at one
time to encounter Romulus in a certain part of the field, and a long
and desperate combat ensued between the two champions. Other soldiers
gradually came up and mingled in the fray, until at length Curtius,
finding himself wounded and bleeding, and surrounded by enemies, fled
for his life. Romulus pursued him for a short distance, but Curtius
at length came suddenly upon a small swampy pool, which was formed of
water that had been left by the inundations of the river in some old
deserted channel, and which was now covered and almost concealed by
some sort of mossy and floating vegetation. Curtius running headlong,
and paying little heed to his steps fell into this hole, and sank in
the water. Romulus supposed of course that he would be drowned there,
and so turned away and went to find some other enemy. Curtius,
however, succeeded in crawling out of the pond into which he had
fallen; and in commemoration of the incident the pond was named Lake
Curtius, which name it retained for centuries afterward, when, not
only had all the water disappeared, but the place itself had been
filled up, and had been covered with streets and houses.
The combats between the Romans and the Sabines were continued for
several days, during all which time the Sabine women, on whose account
it was that this dreadful quarrel had arisen, were suffering the
greatest anxiety and distress. They loved their fathers and brothers,
but then they loved their husbands too; and they were overwhelmed
with anguish at the thought that day after day those who were equally
dear to them were engaged in fighting and destroying one another, and
that they could do nothing to arrest so unnatural a hostility.
At length, however, after suffering extreme distress for many days, a
crisis arrived when they found that they could interpose. Both parties
had become somewhat weary of the contest. Neither could prevail over
the other, and yet neither was willing to yield. The Sabines could not
bring themselves to submit to so humiliating an alternative as to
withdraw from Rome and leave their daughters and sisters in the
captors' hands, after all the grand preparations which they had made
for retaking them. And on the other hand the Romans could not take
those, who, whatever had been their previous history, were now living
happily as wives and mothers, each in her own house in the city, and
give them up to an army of invaders, demanding them with threats and
violence, without deep dishonor. Thus, though there was a pause in the
conflict, and both parties were weary of it, neither was willing to
yield, and both were preparing to return to the struggle with new
determination and vigor.
The Sabine women thought that they might now interpose. A lady named
Hersilia, who is often mentioned as one of the most prominent among
the number, proposed this measure and made the arrangements for
carrying it into effect. She assembled her countrywomen and explained
to them her plan, which was that they should go in a body to the Roman
Senate, and ask permission to intercede between the contending
nations, and plead for peace.
The company of women, taking their children with them, all of whom
were yet very young, went accordingly in a body to the senate-chamber,
and asked to be admitted. The doors were opened to them, and they went
in. They all appeared to be in great distress and agitation. The grief
and anxiety which they had suffered during the progress of the war
still continued, and they begged the Senate to let them go out to the
camp of the Sabines, and endeavor to persuade them to make peace. The
Senate were disposed to consent. The women wished to take their
children with them, but some of the Romans imagined that there might,
perhaps, be danger, that under pretense of interceding for peace, they
were really intending to make their escape from Rome altogether. So it
was insisted that they should leave their children behind them as
hostages for their return, excepting that such as had two children
were allowed to take one, which plan it was thought would aid them in
moving the compassion of their Sabine relatives.
The women, accordingly, left the senate-chamber, and with their
children in their arms, their hair disheveled, their robes disordered,
and their countenances wan with grief, went in mournful procession out
through the gate of the city. They passed across the plain and
advanced toward the citadel. They were admitted, and after some delay,
were ushered into the council of the Sabines. Here their tears and
exclamations of grief broke forth anew. When silence was in some
measure restored, Hersilia addressed the Sabine chieftains, saying,
that she and her companions had come to beg their countrymen to put an
end to the war. "We know," said she, "that you are waging it on our
account, and we see in all that you have done proofs of your love for
us. In fact, it was our supposed interests which led you to commence
it, but now our real interests require that it should be ended. It is
true that when we were first seized by the Romans we felt greatly
wronged, but having submitted to our fate, we have now become settled
in our new homes, and are contented and happy in them. We love our
husbands and love our children; and we are treated with the utmost
kindness and respect by all. Do not then, under a mistaken kindness
for us, attempt to tear us away again, or continue this dreadful war,
which, though ostensibly on our account, and for our benefit, is
really making us inexpressibly miserable."
This intercession produced the effect which might have been expected
from it. The Sabines and Romans immediately entered upon negotiations
for peace, and peace is easily made where both parties are honestly
desirous of making it. In fact, a great reaction took place, so that
from the reckless and desperate hostility which the two nations had
felt for each other, there succeeded so friendly a sentiment, that in
the end a treaty of union was made between the two nations. It was
agreed that the two nations should be merged into one. The Sabine
territory was to be annexed to that of Rome, and Titus Tatius, with
the principal Sabine chieftains, were to remove to Rome, which was
thenceforth to be the capital of the new kingdom. In a word never was
a reconciliation between two belligerent nations so sudden and so
complete.