It may be interesting in this connection to mention the case of an
American equivalent to Nietzsche's philosophy, which so far as I know
has never yet seen publicity.
Some time ago the writer of this little book became acquainted with a
journalist who has worked out for his own satisfaction a new system of
philosophy which he calls "Christian economics," the tendency of which
would be to preach a kind of secret doctrine for the initiated few who
would be clever enough to avail themselves of the good opportunity. He
claims that the only thing worth while in life is the acquisition of
power through the instrumentality of money. He who acquires millions
can direct the destiny of mankind, and this tendency was first
realized in the history of mankind in this Christian nation of ours,
whose ostensible faith is Christianity. Our religion, he argues, is
especially adapted to serve as a foil to protect and conceal the real
issue, and so he calls his world-conception, "Christian economics."
Emperors and kings are mere puppets who are exhibited to general
inspection, and so are presidents and all the magistrates in office.
Political government has to obey the behests of the financiers, and the
most vital life of mankind resides in its economical conditions.
The inventor of this new system of "Christian economics" would allow no
other valuation except that of making money, on the sole ground that
science, art and the pleasures of life are nothing to man unless he is
in control of power which can be had only through the magic charm of
the almighty dollar.
I shall not comment upon his view, but shall leave it to the reader,
and am here satisfied to point out its similarity to Nietzsche's
philosophy. There is one point only which I shall submit here for
criticism and that is the principle of valuation which is a weak point
with both the originator of "Christian economics" and with Friedrich
Nietzsche.
Nietzsche proclaimed with great blast of trumpets, if we may so call
his rhetorical display of phrases, that we need a revaluation of
all values; but the best he could do was to establish a standard of
valuation of his own. Every man in this world attains his mode of
judging values according to his character, which is formed partly by
inherited tendencies, partly by education and is modified by his own
reflections and experiences. There are but few persons in this world
who are clearsighted enough to formulate the ultimately guiding motive
of their conduct. Most people follow their impulses blindly, but in
all of them conduct forms a certain consistent system corresponding to
their own idiosyncrasy. These impulses may sometimes be contradictory,
yet upon the whole they will all agree, just as leaves and blossoms,
roots and branches of the same tree will naturally be formed according
to the secret plan that determines the growth of the whole organism.
Those who work out a specially pronounced system of moral conduct do
not always agree in practical life with their own moral principle,
sometimes because they wilfully misrepresent it and more frequently
because their maxims of morality are such as they themselves would
like to be, while their conduct is such as they actually are. Such are
the conditions of life and we will call that principle which as an
ultimate _raison d'être_ determines the conduct of man, his standard of
valuation. We will see at once that there is a different standard for
each particular character.
A scientist as a rule looks at the world through the spectacles of
the scientist. His estimation of other people depends entirely on
their accomplishments in his own line of science. Artist, musician, or
sculptor does the same. To a professional painter scarcely any other
people exist except his pupils, his master, his rivals and especially
art patrons. The rest of the world is as indifferent as if it did not
exist; it forms the background, an indiscriminate mass upon which all
other values find their setting. All the professions and vocations,
and all the workers along the various lines of life are alike in that
every man has his own standard of valuation.
A Napoleon or a Cæsar might have preached the doctrine that the
sciences, the arts and other accomplishments are of no value if
compared with the acquisition of power, but I feel sure that it would
not have been much heeded by the mass of mankind, for no one would
change his standard of value. A financier might publicly declare that
the only way to judge people is according to the credit they have in
banking, but it would scarcely change the standard of judgment in
society. Beethoven knew as well as any other of his contemporaries the
value of money and the significance of power, and yet he pursued his
own calling, fascinated by his love for music. The same is true not
only of every genius in all the different lines of art and science, but
also of religious reformers and inventors of all classes. Tom, Dick and
Harry in their hankering for pleasure and frivolous amusement are not
less under the influence of the conditions under which they have been
born than the great men whose names are written in the book of fame. It
is difficult for every one of us to create for himself a new standard
of valuation, for what Goethe says of man's destiny in a poem entitled
_Daimon_, is true:[1]
"As on the day which has begotten thee
The sun and planets stood in constellation,
Thus growest and remainest thou to be,
For't is life's start lays down the regulation
How thou must be. Thyself thou canst not flee.
Such sibyl's is and prophet's proclamation.
For truly, neither force nor time dissolveth,
Organic form as, living, it evolveth."
The original reads thus:
"Wie an dem Tag der dich der Welt verliehen,
Die Sonne stand zum Grusse der Planeten,
Bist alsobald and fort und fort gediehen
Nach dem Gesetz, wonach du angetreten.
So musst du sein, dir kannst du nicht entfliehen,
So sagten schon Sibyllen, so Propheten;
Und keine Zeit und keine Macht zerstückelt,
Geprägte Form, die lebend sich entwickelt."
Our attitude in life depends upon our character, and the basic elements
of character are the product of the circumstances that gave birth to
our being. Our character enters unconsciously or consciously in the
formulation of our standards of value which we will find to be the
most significant factors of our destinies. Now the question arises, Is
the standard of value which we set up, each one of us according to his
character, purely subjective or is there any objective criterion of its
worth?
We must understand that to a great extent our choice of a profession
and other preferences in our occupations or valuations are naturally
different according to conditions; some men are fit to be musicians,
or scholars, or traders, or farmers, or manufacturers, and others
are not. The same profession would not be appropriate for every one.
But there is a field common to all occupations which deals with man's
attitude toward his fellow beings and, in fact, toward the whole
universe in general. This it is with which we are mainly concerned
in our discussion of a criterion of value because it is the field
occupied by religion, philosophy and ethics. Tradition has sanctioned
definite views on this very subject which have been codified in certain
rules of conduct different in many details in different countries
according to religion, national and climatic conditions, and the type
of civilization; yet, after all, they agree in most remarkable and
surprising coincidences in all essential points.
Nietzsche, the most radical of radicals, sets up a standard of
valuation of his own, placing it in the acquisition of power, and he
claims that it alone is entitled to serve as a measure for judging
worth because, says he, it alone deals with that which is real in the
world; yet at the same time he disdains to recognize the existence of
any objective criterion of the several standards of value. If he were
consistent, he ought to give the palm of highest morality to the man
who succeeds best in trampling under foot his fellowmen, and he does
so by calling him the overman, but he does not call him moral. To be
sure this would be a novel conception of morality and would sanction
what is commonly execrated as one of the most devilish forms of
immorality. Nietzsche takes morality in its accepted meaning, and so
in contradiction to himself denies its justification in general.
Considering that every one carries a standard of valuation in himself
we propose the question, "Is there no objective criterion of valuation,
or are all valuations purely subjective?" This question means whether
the constitution of the objective world in which we all live, is such
as to favor a definite mode of action determined by some definite
criterion of value.
We answer that subjective standards of valuation may be regarded as
endorsed through experience by the course of events in the world
whenever they meet with success, and thus subjective judgments become
objectively justified. They are seen to be in agreement with the
natural course of the world, and those who adhere to them will in the
long run be rewarded by survival. Such an endorsement of standards can
be determined by experience and has resulted in what is commonly called
"morality." We may here take for granted that the moral valuation is a
product of many millenniums and has been established, not only in one
country and by one religion, nor in one kind of human society, but in
perfect independence in many different countries, under the most varied
conditions, and finds expression in the symbolism of the most divergent
creeds. The beliefs of a Christian, of a Buddhist, of a Mussulman in
Turkey, or a Taoist in the Celestial Empire, of a Parsee in Bombay, or
Japanese Shintoist, are all as unlike as they can be, but all agree
as to the excellency of moral behavior which has been formulated in
these different religions in sayings incorporated in their literature.
We find very little if anything contradictory in their standards of
valuation, and if there is any objective norm for the subjective
valuation of man it is this moral consensus in which all the great
religious prophets and reformers of mankind agree.
A transvaluation of all values is certainly needed, and it is taking
place now. In fact it has always taken place whenever and wherever
mankind grows or progresses or changes the current world-conception.
The old morality has been negative and we feel the need of positive
ideals. The old doctrines are formulated in rules which forbid certain
actions and our commandments begin with the words "Thou shalt not...."
Those folk are esteemed moral who obey these restrictions or at least
do not ostensibly infringe upon them, and this practically limits
morality to mediocrity. How often have great and noble people been
condemned as immoral because some irregularities would not fit the
Procrustean bed of customary respectability! Think only of George Eliot
who had to suffer under the prejudices of Sunday-School morality! We
need a higher standard in which we may set aside the paltry views
of the old morality without losing our ideals. We need a positive
norm, the norm which counts in the actual world and in history, where
man is measured not by his sins of omission but by his positive
accomplishments; not by the errors he has or has not committed, but by
his deeds, by the work with which he has benefited mankind. Therefore
the new morality does not waste much time with the several injunctions,
"Thou shalt not ..." but impresses the growing generation with the
demand: "Do something useful; show thyself efficient; be superior to
others in nobility, in generosity, in energy; excel in one way or
another"; and in this sense a transvaluation of the old values is being
worked out at present.
We will grant that Nietzsche's demand of a transvaluation of all values
may mean to criticize the narrow doctrines and views of the religion
of his surroundings. But as he expresses himself and according to his
philosophical principle he goes so far as to condemn not only the husk
of all these religious movements, but also their spirit. In spite of
his subjectivism which denies the existence of anything ideal, and
goes so far as to deny the right even of truth to have an objective
value, Nietzsche establishes a new objectivism, and proposes his own,
and indeed very crude, subjective standard of valuation as the only
objective one worthy of consideration for the transvaluation of all
values.
Nietzsche's real world, or rather what he deemed to be the real world,
is a dream, the dream of a sick man, to whom nothing possesses value
save the boons denied him, physical health, strength, power to dare and
to do.
The transvaluation of all values which Nietzsche so confidently
prophesied, will not take place, at least not in the sense that
Nietzsche believed. There is no reason to doubt that in the future
as in the past history will follow the old conservative line of
development in which different people according to their different
characters will adopt their own subjective standards, and nature, by a
survival of the fittest will select those for preservation who are most
in agreement with this real world in which we live, a world from which
Nietzsche, according to the sickly condition of his constitution, was
separated by a wide gulf. He thirsted for it in vain, and we believe
that he had a wrong conception of the wealth of its possibilities and
viewpoints.
[1] So far as I know, these lines have never been translated before.