of which Selym el Assouany speaks, as being the capital of Aloa. In
my manuscript of Masoudy, which I have compared, the name of this
town is spelt Serfeta. The MSS. of Macrizi call it Serketa, Serkya,
and another MS. of Masoudy, belonging to the library of the mosque
of Mohamed Beg at Cairo, has not accentuated the word at all.
(76.) The Merysan wind is still well known in Egypt. The name is
applied to chilly, violent south winds, which take place in Egypt
in the month of Touba, or January; and which in Lower Egypt are
often followed or preceded by showers. The south winds prevailing
from March to June, are called simply, southerly winds (ريح
قبلي), and the name of Merysan wind is exclusively given to
those of Touba, which are always cold, and are much disliked by
the people of Cairo.[204]
(77.) It is probable that the Beni Kenz then first entered Nubia,
where they have closely intermixed with the inhabitants, and adopted
their Merysan language. I have stated in my journal, that the Kenz
of Nubia still assert their origin to be from Arabia, although few,
if any of them, are acquainted with their history. Here it appears
therefore that they belong to the Rabya.
I find in Macrizi’s history, called el Selouk,[205] ad
annum 569, and in a short note of Macrizi’s treatise of the
Kalifs who performed the pilgrimage (رسالته من حج من
الخُلفَا والسلاطين للمقريزي) that in the
year 568-69, A. H. Shams eddyn Touran Shah, a brother of Salah eddyn,
made an incursion into Nubia from Yemen.
(77.)
و ينجد ه ان خانه الدهر او سطا
اناسٌ اذا ما انجد الذل اتهموا
اجار وا فما تحت الكواكب خايفٌ
اجادوا فما فوق السيطه معدم
The second line, literally translated, is “People they are who go
to Tehama, when dishonour (or ignominy) goes to Nedjed.” That is to
say, they retire to the side opposite to dishonour. Nedjed receives
its name from being an elevated country, in opposition to Tehama,
the sea coast of Yemen and Hedjaz. In translating it in this manner,
I am warranted by a verse of Abou Temama el Tāy, in which he says,
وانجد تموا من بعد اتهام دار كم
You have turned to Nedjed after your mansion was in Tehama.
فيا دمع انجد ني علي ساكني نجد
O tears! help me against the inhabitants of Nedjed.
(78.) The author of these verses, which convey the highest praise
that can be given to an Arab, is probably the same Ibn Zebeyr who
is known as the author of a history of Assouan.
(79.) I suppose this attack to be that mentioned by the Egyptian
historians, to have taken place in the time of the before mentioned
Salah eddyn; of which I however know no more particulars, than that
during his reign the King of Nouba fell upon Assouan.
(80.) The Arab tribe of Howara (هوارة) occupy all the villages
on both sides of the Nile from near Siout up to Farshiout and Haou on
the west, and to near Kenne on the east; at least the principal and
most wealthy peasants of these villages belong to that tribe. Until
the time of Mohammed Aly they were very powerful, and a branch of
them, the Oulad Yahya (اولاد يحيي), settled on the east
banks from Badjoura to Kenne (comprising the large villages of
Salmye, Kaszer e’Seyad, Faoun, and Disher), were very conspicuous
for their rebellious behaviour. The province of the Howara is of
all Egypt the richest in horses, and the best breed of Egyptian
horses is reared there. Every wealthy peasant kept his horse, and
a large corps of cavalry could thus be collected at a moment’s
notice.[206] The Hamam, the principal family of the Howara, had
within the last century assumed the whole government of Upper Egypt,
south of Siout, and the Mamelouks had been obliged to cede it to
them by treaty. Their government was certainly more just than that
of the Osmanlis, and although Mamelouks, far from being entitled to
praise. The soil was moderately taxed: one Fedhan at Esne, which
now pays 14 Patacks to Mohammed Aly, then paid only two Patacks;
but extortions were practised upon all merchants, especially at
Kenne, and Farshiout, and Girge; and the numerous relations of the
Hamam governed in their own districts with great oppression and
pride. None had more to suffer from the Howara than the Copts. Such
of these people as were not in the service of the Shikhs Hamam, as
financiers or writers, but who were employed, as many of them still
are, in agriculture or in crafts, especially weaving, were so much
exposed to the extortions of the Hamams and the Howara in general,
who appear to have been very fanatic, that they found no other means
for ensuring repose and protection than by offering themselves in
slavery to their oppressors. It thus happened that in every village
of southern Egypt, where Copts were settled, the latter chose one of
the Howara Shikhs as his master; whom he called “my Bedouin,”
(بدويّ), and was called by the Shikh “my Christian,”
(نصرانيّ). He became now like a member of his master’s
family; if he was poor, the latter sent to his house provisions of
corn and butter, and gave him a dress every year; but in return,
he was obliged to be constantly attending to his master’s orders;
assisting him in his field labours, doing all kind of work for him,
and accompanying him on an ass like a servant, whenever the Shikh
rode out to meet his equals or superiors. If the Copt happened to be
in good circumstances, he was obliged to make occasional presents
to his master, who exempted him on that account from hard work,
and protected him from the oppressions of any other Shikh. If the
daughter of the serf was to be married, the master entered her
house on the wedding night; and put an iron chain round her ankles,
which he secured with a padlock, and the bridegroom was obliged to
make him a present in order to have the padlock opened, and the
girl restored to liberty. The possession of these Christians was
transmitted by the Shikhs to their descendants, who seldom parted
with them, unless they were themselves reduced to poverty, when
they sometimes sold them to the protection of other Shikhs. In 1812
a Christian family residing on the east bank, opposite to Siout,
was thus sold for two Erdeybs of corn. I am ignorant of the exact
time in which this custom took its origin, but I believe it has
subsisted only since the establishment of the Hamam. It is still
in usage in Upper Egypt, in many parts of the open country, and
especially in the most southern districts, where the peasants,
although quite in subjection to the Pasha, are left in their own
villages to act at pleasure, the government caring little for the
impositions practised by the village Shikh upon poor individuals,
provided the land tax be regularly paid. During my stay at Esne,
I was well acquainted with several Christians who were thus the
hereditary slaves or servants of great Shikhs, and I have myself
assisted at the ceremony of tying the chain at the wedding. The
Hamams were not quiet possessors of Upper Egypt even after the
Mamelouks had made peace with them. They were exposed on the northern
side to continual attacks from the Libyan Bedouin tribes of Tarhoun,
Amaym, Djahame, Rabaya, and others, who dwell in the desert west
of Siout and in the plain towards Beni Ady, and many accounts of
battles fought between them and the Howara are still related. On
the south, the tribe of Kaszas (قصاص) who people the country
on the west banks from Thebes to near Esne, and to whom belong the
inhabitants of Gourne, Orment, and Reheygat (all celebrated for
their bold plundering enterprises) were their determined enemies;
although both these and the Howara report that they have the same
origin from Barbary. When, after Aly Beg, the Mamelouk power had
increased in Egypt, the Hamams were attacked by them, and defeated
in several bloody encounters, and the chief Hamam being wounded,
fled to Esne, where he died. He was buried at Nagady opposite
Kous. The treasure, in cash, which he had accumulated was in vain
searched for; his people put to the torture, confessed that he had
buried it in the mountains behind Haou; but nothing could be found,
although to this day many a ruined peasant or pedlar, or necromancer
wanders in that direction in the hopes of finding it. The power
of the Hamams was thus destroyed, but that of the Howara remained,
and the Mamelouk Begs, though often at war with them, could never
break their strength. A part of them, the Oulad Yahya, for instance,
were often entirely independent, and the village Shikhs themselves
received the land tax from the peasants.[207] When Mohammed Aly had
succeeded in driving away the Mamelouks, he was several years before
he could reduce the Howara. His governors in Upper Egypt, Abdim Beg,
Saleh Aga, Hassan Pasha, sacked many of their villages, but it was
his own son, Ibrahim Pasha, who firmly settled his authority by
acts of great rigour and severity, having killed by the sword or the
executioner at least 2000 Howara. He changed the Shikhs of villages,
in the same manner as the Wahabi chief had changed the Shikhs of
the Arabian tribes; he disunited the villages among themselves,
and punished with celerity and without any mercy all those who
opposed the smallest obstacles to his authority. The last village
sacked by Ibrahim Pasha in Upper Egypt was Orment, the chief place
of the Kaszas, who had withheld their tribute. In the autumn of
1813, he fell by night upon that village, killed about 30 of the
principal people and plundered all. Since that time Upper Egypt is
completely reduced to submission. The Howara have now been obliged
to abandon their horses, none but the Shikhs of villages dare keep
any, and their dreaded cavalry is thus completely reduced. The
descendants of Hamam, the chief, still remain; I knew a nephew
of his at Farshiout and another at Esne; the latter had several
Christians belonging to his family as serfs.
(81.) This city of Belak no longer remains. In the direction in
which it is placed are several islands, upon which, looking from the
shore, I saw several ruined buildings. It might be supposed that
Belak was upon the Island of Philæ, but in that case there is no
place, one mile in advance of Philæ, where we can place El Kaszer;
and the latter name seems strongly to indicate that magnificent
and ancient buildings stood there. Luxor, or El Akszar at Thebes,
derives its name from the same circumstance.
(82.) The Moggrebyn traveller, Batouta, crossed this desert
repeatedly. The relation he gives of it, when he passed it the first
time, in 725 A. H. is the following: “he embarked on the Nile at
Cairo and ascended the river as far as Edfou. From thence he went
to the village of Adjerna el Fil (اجرنا الفيل), and to the
village El Atoany (عطواني).[208] From the latter village he set
out on his journey through the desert. He travelled with Arabs of
the tribe of Dogheim (دغيم), for 15 days over barren mountains
and plains. In one of their stations they alighted at Hemeytry
(حميتري), where the tomb of the Saint Aby el Hassan el Shadely
(ابي الحسن الشادلي) is shown.[209] He then came
to Aizab. The people of Aizab are Bedjas, of a black colour. They
never let their daughters partake in the inheritance. Two-thirds
of the revenue of Aizab belongs to the King of the Bedjas, called
el Hadraby, and one-third goes to the Sultan of Egypt. The voyage
to Djidda could not take place on account of disturbances that had
broken out between the Bedjas and people of Bornou,[210] and he was
obliged to re-cross the desert to Egypt.” This is all that I find
of this road, in an abridgement which I possess of the great work;
and of which, as I believe it is not known in Europe, I shall give
some farther notices here.
Ibn Batouta is perhaps the greatest land traveller who ever wrote
his travels. When I first rapidly ran over his book, I took him
for no better than Damberger the pseudo African traveller; but a
more careful perusal has convinced me that he had really been in
the places and seen what he describes. His name was Aby Abdallah
Mohammed Ibn Abdallah el Lowaty el Tandjy, surnamed Ibn Batouta. He
was born at Tangier in Barbary, from which place he derives the
name of Tandjy. (ابن عبدالله محمد بن عبدالله
اللواتي الطنجي المعروف با بن بطوطة). He
published his travels after the year 755, A. H. They consist of
a large quarto volume, which is so scarce in Egypt, that I never
saw it; but I know that a copy exists at Cairo, though I was not
able to discover who was the owner. A small abridgment in quarto is
more common, and of that I have two copies.[211] I shall give here
a rapid sketch of his travels, which lasted for 30 years. Being a
learned man he found every where a polite and generous reception
from Moslim chiefs and kings, and he lived as a true derwish,
sometimes in great affluence and sometimes in poverty.
He left Tandja in 725, A. H., and went by Algiers, Tunis, Tripoly,
and from thence by sea, to Alexandria and Cairo. From thence he
proceeded to Upper Egypt and Aizab, with the intention of going
to Mekka, but as we have seen before, he was obliged to return to
Cairo. Without stopping long at Cairo he set out for Syria. In 726
he visited Jerusalem, Akka, Tripoly, Homs, Aleppo, Antioch, the
fortresses of the Ismaylis, Balbek, and Damascus. From thence he
started with the pilgrim caravan to Mekka, where he performed his
first pilgrimage. He returned with the Hadj to Medina, from whence
he travelled across the Nedjed to Meshed Aly, and Bassora. After
an excursion to Shiraz and Ispahan he came back to Koufa, and went
by Kerbela to Bagdad. From hence he visited Tebryz, and by way of
Mosul again returned to Bagdad, from whence he went with the Hadj
caravan across the Arabian desert a second time to Mekka in 729,
where he remained for one year. He then embarked at Djidda for
Yemen, touched at Souakin, which was then under the command of
the Sherif Zeyd Ibn Aby Nema, whose father was Sherif of Mekka. He
touched at all the sea ports of Yemen, as far as Aden. From thence
he visited Zeyla on the African coast, the capital, he says, of the
Barbara, a Negroe nation, turned Moslim, of the sect of the Shafey,
whose territory extends from Zeyla two months journey as far as
Mokdosho.[212] The greater part of the inhabitants of Zeyla are
Rowafid (or sectaries of Aly). He then travelled 15 days by sea to
Mokdosho; then to Mombaza, an island thus called; to Kilo, where he
found the whole coast peopled with the Zendj nation, and every where
Moslims mixed with pagans. From thence he crossed over to Thafar on
the south coast of Yemen, 16 days journey by land from Hadramout,
and one month to Aden, which was a harbour trading with India. Half
a day’s journey from thence is the town of Ahkak, the ancient
residence of the tribe Aad. From thence he coasted the shore to the
chief city of Oman, called Nezoa. He then crossed over to the Persian
coast, visited Hormuz, Khoristan, Lar, Djenhbal, Syraf (or Keys),
Bahreyn, and El Hassa. From Hassa he went with the Hadj caravan in
733 to Mekka, performed his pilgrimage, and by way of Aidab and the
desert again visited Egypt and Cairo. He then proceeded to Syria,
and from thence into Anatolia, which country he visited in all
directions. Taking his road by the Black Sea, he entered the north
of Persia, Khowarezem, and Bokhara. He visited Samarkand, Termah,
Balkh, Herat, El Djam, Tous, Sarkhas, and Nysabour. From Nysabour he
crossed over the snowy mountains called Hindwaksh and Bisha-y, to
Berden, to Ghazna, and Kaboul; then to the mountains of Shishghar,
and across a desert of 15 days journey to the Pandjab, or five
waters. He continued his road to Seboustan, and Lahoa on the river;
went to Bekar, Audjed, and Mulsen; from thence 40 days journey to
Dehly by the road of Abou Hour, Serseta, Hasky and Masoudabad. He
arrived at Dehly in 740, and remained there a while. From thence
he joined an embassy to China, but was afterwards separated from
it. He travelled from Dehly to Byane, Koul (near the town of
Djelaly) to Youhpour, Kanoudj, Meroua, Kalyour, Beroun, Kadjoura,
Tahār (which is 24 days journey from Dehly) Dowletabad, Nezerabad,
and Sagher; then on the river of Sagher, to Combabe, near the sea,
and to Kawa. Here they embarked. Having passed at sea the island
of Byram, the city of Kouka, the island of Sandabour, and the
city of Hanoud, he arrived at Malebar. In that country he visited
Mandjeroun, Heyly, Darkonna, and Calicut. From thence he visited the
islands called Zobyt el Mahal (2000 small islands—no doubt the
Maldives), where he met with curious adventures, and married in a
Moslim family. The chiefs and kings of Malebar had been particularly
generous towards him. He now set out for China. He landed at Sylan,
where the Djebel Serendyb is, and where he visited Kankar, the
residence of the king of Sylan, as well as the towns of Columbo
and Batala. From hence he sailed for the country of Mabar, where
he reached the king’s residence at Matrat. He now found himself
obliged by wayward circumstances, to return to Kolam in Malebar,
and to Calicut. He again started from thence by sea to Bendjala,
where he alighted in the town of Sedka. Fakker eddyn was Sultan of
Bendjala. He made from thence a long excursion to the mountains
of Kamero, which join the mountains of Tibt. He reached the town
of Habnak, situated on the river Azrak, which flows down from the
mountains of Kamero towards Bendjala; passed the town of Seter
kawan, from whence he travelled to the country of Ber hankar, on
the sea shore, where he embarked for the Jawa (or Malay) country,
on his way to China. He reached the island of Jawa, passed by the
town of Meldjaza, the harbour of Kakouly, and from thence had a 34
days voyage to the sea of Kahel, where calms reign. He then touched
at the town of Toualysy, and from thence sailed 27 days to the first
town of China, called Kaoupoazyne. Wishing to see the interior of
the country he travelled to the province of Kylan, upon a river. He
visited the large town of Zeytoun, where the great river Ab-hya
empties itself into the sea, and the cities of Kondjonfor and Khonsa,
from whence he went back to Zeytoun. He found in almost every town
of China, Moslims who received him with hospitality. From China he
returned back to Java, Kolam, and Calicut; from thence to Yemen,
to Maskat, Hormus, Khoristan, Shiraz, Ispahan, Bassora, and Bagdad,
where he arrived in 748. He joined here a caravan going to Damascus,
which passed by Anak and Tedmor, and from Damascus he returned
to Cairo. In order to perform one more pilgrimage, he set out to
Mekka by way of Upper Egypt and the desert to Aizab, and in 749
he was present at the Hadj of Arafat; he then visited Medina, and
returned from thence by Cairo and Alexandria to Barbary, and his
native town of Tandja. After a short excursion into Spain, where he
visited Djebel Tarek (Gibraltar), Malaga, and Garnata, he recrossed
the sea into the dominions of Morocco, and visited the capital,
and Sedjelmessa. The vicinity of the Soudan kingdom now tempted
this indefatigable traveller. In 753 he crossed the desert with
the slave traders to Theghary, 25 days journey from Sedjelmessa,
a village, the houses of which are built of salt stone, and are
covered with camel skins; it is without any trees, in a sandy plain,
and inhabited by slaves who dig up the salt in the neighbourhood, and
sell it to the people of Soudan. From thence there was a waterless
road of 10 days journey to a station where caravans alight and
repose for 3 days, called Tashala. Farther on he crossed a sandy
glittering plain, without water, or birds, or trees, but composed
entirely of sand, which the wind moves, and where no footsteps
remain. This desert is also 10 days across, after which he reached
Abou Laten, the first place of Soudan. Here are a few date trees,
and water melons; the people dress in clothes brought to them from
Egypt; most of them are traders. Their women are beautiful, and
are more honoured than the men, who are not jealous of them. They
count the lineage from the uncle, and not from the father; the son
of the sister inherits to the exclusion of the true son; a custom,
says Batouta, which he saw no where else except among the pagan
Hindoos of Malebar. These Negroes are Moslims. From Abou Laten he
travelled to Maly. The road is full of large trees, a single one
of which affords shade for a whole caravan. In the (hollow) trunk
of one of these trees the traveller saw a weaver working at his
loom. Among them are the trees Istaset, the interior of which is
filled with water, and affords drink to the passengers. In other
trees live bees, and they are full of honey. Gourds grow here to
a very large size. They cut them in two, and thus make two large
bowls out of one gourd. Almost all their vessels are of gourds. Ten
days from Abou Laten, he passed the city of Zaghary (زغاري),
an extensive place inhabited by Negroe traders, and some white people
of the heretic creed of Byadha. Leaving this,[213] he came to a very
large river, which is the Nile. Here is the village of Kar Sendjou,
from whence the Nile flows down to Kabera, and from thence to Zagha
(زاغه), the inhabitants of which are Moslims of old, and strong
in their faith. From Zagha the Nile flows down to Timbuctou, then
to Kuku, to Mouly, the last place of the country of Maly, to Bowy,
which is one of the largest cities of Soudan, and the Sultan one of
the most powerful of that country; no white man enters it, for he
would be killed before his arrival. From thence the Nile descends
into the country of Nouba, where the people are Christians, and
passes by Dóngola, the largest town of Nouba, the king of which is
at present called Ibn Kenz eddyn, who turned Moslim in the time of El
Melek el Naszer (of Egypt). From thence the Nile flows down to the
cataract. From Karsendjou (or Karsendjer) the traveller proceeded
to the river called Sansera(صنصره), about 10 miles from Maly,
and then entered Maly, where he remained two months, and received
presents from the Sultan, Mousy Soleyman, an avaricious but very
just king. The women in this country never cover their nakedness
until after marriage. In 754 he left Maly, and came to a branch
or canal of the Nile, where he saw a great number of hippopotami,
and from whence, after many days, he reached Timbuctou. Most of its
inhabitants are traders; it is a town of the kingdom of Maly, and a
black governor, named by the Sultan of Maly, resides there. He then
proceeded to Kuku, a large city, one of the finest in Soudan. Here
as well as in Maly they use shells as currency. From Kuku he reached
the town of Berdamma, the inhabitants of which are the guardians
of the caravans; their women are beautiful. Farther, he arrived at
the town of Nekda, built of red stones. The water (with which it is
supplied) runs over copper mines, and assumes a red colour, whence
it is called Bahr-el-Ahmar. The people have no employment excepting
trade and the copper mines on the outside of Nekda (or Tekda), where
slaves work. The copper is melted into long pieces, which are carried
to the pagan Negroes for sale, and to other places. The Sultan of
Nekda was of the Berber nation. From hence the traveller returned
in 754 to Barbary. He passed the district of Hekar of the Berbers,
Sedjelmessa, and arrived at Faz, where his travels are concluded.
This slight sketch is sufficient to show the importance of the
travels of Ibn Batouta, and to warrant the opinion, that he was the
greatest known traveller of any age, as far at least, as relates
to the quantity of ground travelled over. The information contained
in his complete work, regarding the north of Persia, India, China,
and the interior of Africa, must be invaluable, and as he saw more
of Africa than most travellers, I thought it not irrelevant to give
the reader the result of my examination of his abridged work.
* * * * *
The desert, (the notice of which by Ibn Batouta gave rise to my
digression upon his travels in general) was visited in the autumn
of 1816, by Mr. Cailleau, a Frenchman, sent by Mohammed Aly Pasha to
discover the renowned emerald mines in these mountains. His journey
was facilitated by all the means which the government of Egypt can
afford, and was successful. He returned in January, 1817, to Cairo,
and his discoveries are very interesting.