Typical mirrors appear on Plates XXX., XXXIII., and XXXV. The full
drawing on Plate XXXV. is the earliest, being an example of late Louis
XIV. It is surrounded with an ornate border of carved and gilt wood,
showing leaves, branches, stems and an indented fronton, surmounted by
shells. It is interesting to compare this mirror with Chippendale’s on
Plate XLII., which also has panels of glass. Nos. 1 and 2 on Plate
XXXIII. come next in chronological order. These are by the German,
Decker, to whom reference has been made on page 199. Both are dated
1700. The lower one has the mascaron, shell and _chute_ of leaves, or
husks, for its chief ornaments, while the scroll somewhat timidly,
although strongly, asserts itself. This has no sconces. On the one above
it the scroll is more assertive. The mascaron surmounts it, and the
_chute_ of leaves is much heavier and shorter. The three sconces, two of
which only are visible, spring from the shell, but they have not become
as yet very branched. The sconces really belong to the whole design in
the example No. 1 on Plate XXXV., the chief decorations of which are the
mascaron, the shell and the scroll. A still more elaborate specimen, by
Pinaud, appears on Plate XXX., No. 2. The curve here is delightfully
exhibited, almost as if the presiding genius in the winged helmet had
taken a mischievous pleasure in its convolutions. Here we have not only
the leafy scroll playfully twined, but the old ear-motive known to the
decorators of the Louis XIII. age (see page 5) appears, through which a
winged serpent, or dragon, twists,—himself a series of curves. Below the
head of Mercury is carved his emblem,—the Caduceus. Another “illuminary”
appears on Plate XXXVI., No. 2. No. 3 on Plate XXX. represents the frame
of a large toilet mirror by P. Germain.
Another finely carved and gilded frame is that of the screen on Plate
XXX., which dates from the Regency. It is composed of shells and
scrolls, and a monkey sits on the top of each upright. Unfortunately,
the feet have been lost, and the screen is supported on ordinary blocks
of wood. The covering is of the same period as the frame. It is brocaded
silk, with flowers, leaves and peacock feathers.
The mirror was not the only ornamental wall-decoration that was made use
of to carry candles. Sometimes the bracket that held a china ornament,
or ornaments, was pressed into this service. The “console for
porcelain,” by Pinaud (No. 4, Plate XXX.), is furnished with a
sconce-arm on either side of the pedestal that supports the handsome
piece of china, or vase. Another “console for porcelain,” also by
Pinaud, appears on the same plate as No. 6. This is purely for
decoration and has no branches for illumination. Upon it stand a beaker
and two small cups. The chief decorations are the mascaron, which here
seems to have horns, and a snake, which twists himself around the two
scrolls, placed back to back, and threatens the mascaron with open jaws.
Another beautiful frame for a rich piece of porcelain is shown on Plate
XXX., No. 5. This is a species of pier-table and is a fine example of
Meissonier’s Regency work. The straining-rails form a kind of bracket
for a china vase, while the shelves above afford opportunity for the
exhibition of smaller treasures.
Another handsome piece of furniture for the display of porcelain is the
_encoignure_ (No. 9, Plate XXXVI.), made to stand in the corner.
The tall _torchère_, or standing-candlestand, on Plate XXXI., No. 3,
shows a well-balanced combination of the mascaron, scroll, shell and
leaf.
Two superb examples of console-tables occur on Plate XXXIV. These are of
carved and gilded wood. The full drawing is one of Cuvilliés’s designs,
and shows a bewildering combination of scrolls as a background for the
beautiful carving of flowers and leaves. In the foreground a dog attacks
a very savage dragon, whose wings bristle with anger and who darts forth
his forked tongue. The other frame, No. 1, is by Pinaud, and though far
simpler, is quite as effective. The scroll is most gracefully combined
with the shell, and here again we have the ear (see page 210), through
which a winged dragon, with a most expressive face, has slipped himself.
An early console support is shown on Plate XXXVI., No. 6.
The bureau, or desk, assumed great importance in the reign of Louis XV.
The long bureau-table was still made, and sometimes at one end of it was
placed a tier of ornamental shelves and pigeon-holes that was known as
_serre-papiers_. Also in this reign the cylinder-bureau, with a roll
top, came in to favour. It is sometimes said to have been invented by
Prince Kaunitz. In contemporary writings, this special form of desk is
frequently called “_bureau à la Kaunitz_.” The most famous desk of this
period, however, is the “_grand bureau secrétaire du roi Louis XV._”
that was made for the King from the design of Œben, who died before it
was finished. It was completed by Œben’s successor, Riesener, who had
been his apprentice. This appears on Plate XXXI.
It is made of rosewood and amaranth and richly decorated with marquetry
representing flowers, leaves and the attributes of royalty and poetry.
Above the cylinder top that hides the pigeon-holes, is placed a
horizontal ornament composed of rods twined with ribbons, and above this
is an open-worked gallery, broken by figures of Cupids playing above a
little clock. On each side of the cylinder, a figure of gilt bronze
holds a girandole of two branches, each terminating in a floral cup for
the candle, something like the _bras de lumière_ on Plate XXXII. One
figure is Apollo and the other, Calliope. The bronzes were modelled by
Duplessis and Winant, and chiselled by Hervieux; and in addition to the
ornaments already described, there are swags of leaves, knots of ribbon
and decorations on the legs and feet,—all of _or moulu_. For many years
these bronzes were attributed to Caffieri. This work is signed “Risener
fa, 1769.”
A very interesting example of a low glass book-case and _serre-papiers_
appears as No. 2 on Plate XXXI. The _serre-papiers_, surmounted by a
clock, stands upon a very characteristic table. On either side of it is
placed a low bookcase with glass doors, the top moulding of which
suggests the shape of a wing, or bow. This is flanked by a panel, above
which is another panel. The wall space above the bookcase and behind the
_serre-papiers_ is intended to be hung with tapestry, or damask.
A table, similar in general form to the one on which the _serre-papiers_
just described stands, appears on Plate XXXI. This is a Regency piece,
with its slightly curving legs, hinds’ feet, and _or moulu_ ornaments.
The arrangement of scrolls in the centre of the drawer is very
characteristic. No. 1 on the same plate gives details of the
ornamentation at the sides under the slab.
There were many varieties of desks, cabinets, jewel-cases, etc.,
designed especially for the boudoir. Some of these have already been
described. A “_petit-bureau_,” however, is shown on Plate XXXIII. This
is known as “_bonheur du jour_,” and is made of sycamore, ornamented
with chiselled copper _appliques_ and plaques of Sèvres porcelain. The
foot is decorated with “leaf-shoe” of gilded metal, also characteristic
of the age.
One of the many varieties of card-tables appears on Plate XXXVI., No.
10. This has the hollows for counters and candlesticks.
Nothing more impressively decorative in its proper surroundings can be
imagined than the tall clock of the Regency and Louis XV. period. In
houses of the present day, a tall clock is set up in some corner
entirely irrespective of the wall-decoration of the hall, or room. The
Regency clock was strictly in keeping with the general decoration, and
deserves something better as a background than poor panelling, or vulgar
printed paper. It requires a wainscot with solid mouldings, severe and
well studied lines, and a high ceiling. A somewhat plain specimen of the
period, in carved oak, is shown on Plate XXXII.
Two other clocks appear on Plate XXX. The full drawing is a _pendule
d’applique_, the frame of which is most ornate. It stands on a console
of carved and gilded copper. The detail No. 1 on the same plate is a
clock appropriate to stand on a bracket, chimney-piece or table. Its
frame consists of bold sweeps with a fine display of scrolls, leaves and
shells.
The Duc de Bourgogne owned a very fine clock of black marquetry and
copper, with ornaments of bronze in colour. On the top of the case, a
satyr was seated on a rock, holding a pipe in his left hand. The base
ended in rock-work, brightened with coloured copper ornaments. The dial
was of copper, the hours were enamelled, and the clock struck the hour
and half hour, and ran fifteen days. It was 2 feet, 11 inches high, and
the dimensions of the foot were 9½ inches high by 13 inches wide. Juhel
was the maker at Versailles.
Madame Henriette owned a clock in 1746 that was made by Jean-Baptiste
Baillon. It was 1 foot high and 6 inches wide. The case was of bronze
gilt _or moulu_ and carved with leaves and ornaments. Among the latter
were a lion’s head and a Cupid. The feet were of the console form. The
dial was enamelled.
Another, by the same maker, is described in 1745 as “a beautiful gilt
clock _or moulu_, the frame of which is enamelled and the hands of
bronze gilt, standing on two consoles, ornamented with palms, in the
centre of which is a woman’s masque. Mosaic ornaments decorate the
sides, as well as two bouquets of flowers. The top is surmounted by a
Cupid holding a scythe in his left hand. The foot is gilt bronze of
_rocaille_ work, flowers, plumes, two dragons and the head of Boreas.
Including the foot, it is 4 feet high and 14 inches wide.”
About this time, two of the King’s daughters bought a clock of bronze
gilt and porcelain, 21 inches high, made by Godin. On the front was a
shepherd with his dog, and a parrot perched on a gold tree, from which
hung several cherries. The base was an irregularly shaped cartouche
framed in leaves. The dial was enamelled and surmounted by a little
carved Bacchus.
The list of new furniture of Versailles for 1752 mentions a clock “in
the form of a lyre of bronze gilt _or moulu_, the lyre surmounted by a
sun and flanked on each side by two terms of women, ending in scrolls
that united at the base to form a sort of shield or cartouche of
_rocaille_, with festoons of leaves; the dial enamelled on copper gilt;
2 feet, 10 inches high, and 17 inches wide.”
In 1763, the King owned two splendid clocks, the cases of which were
violet-wood and rosewood veneered. One of the clocks was solar,
ornamented with attributes of Apollo in _or moulu_ and surmounted by a
perfume-box and ornamented with garlands. The other was lunar, with
symbols of Diana. It was also surmounted by a perfume-box, and was
ornamented by a star. Each clock was 7½ feet high and 21 inches wide.
In 1774, in Madame Sophie’s sleeping-room was a clock by Tolleverk of
Paris, which could run for 15 days and which struck hours, and half
hours, besides containing a chime of bells that played thirteen airs.
The dial was 4½ inches in diameter and the hands were of gold. The case
was surrounded by garlands of laurel held at the top by ribbon. On the
right of the base was a celestial globe and the figure of a woman whose
head was encircled by stars. She held a trumpet in her right hand, while
her left rested on the clock; on the left, was a T-square, a compass,
and other mathematical and scientific instruments, and three volumes
besides. The whole was of bronze gilt _or moulu_ and measured 16 inches
in height, 16 in length, and 17 in depth.
-----
Footnote 16:
A street where Eastern goods were specially on sale.
Footnote 17:
This was a _bergère_ (see pages 207–208).
Footnote 18:
“_Camayeu_ is a kind of painting of a single colour where light and
shadow are seen on a background of gold or azure. A _camaieu_ in grey
is called _grisaille_, that in yellow is _cirage_. The richest
_camaïeux_ are brightened with gold or bronze.... It is what Pliny
calls _Monochrome_.” (D’Aviler, 1755.)
THE CHIPPENDALE PERIOD
[Illustration]
THE CHIPPENDALE PERIOD
All lovers of antique furniture are sufficiently familiar with the name
of Thomas Chippendale, but this name has been of late years used so
carelessly that it has become a generic term for all the mahogany
furniture of the first half of the Eighteenth Century, and the
“Chippendale chair” that is recognized as typical is the one with a
pierced and carved back and claw-and-ball foot. This is an erroneous
interpretation of the Chippendale style. Chippendale was a
cabinet-maker, and doubtless made furniture for his patrons in the old
style that had been in vogue since 1714; but the tastes for the Chinese
and Gothic, as well as the Louis XV. rock-and-shell work had already
been formed, and Chippendale claims more originality than he is entitled
to when he says: “In executing many of the Drawings, my Pencil has but
faintly copied out those Images that my Fancy suggested.”
It is clear then that the only way to understand and define Chippendale
is to go directly to his book, there to learn what kind of furniture he
made and wanted to make. The first edition of _The Gentleman and
Cabinet-Maker’s Director_ was published in 1754. A third edition
appeared in 1762, when some of the patterns of the first book were
dropped and many new plates were added. The title-page of the latter
shows very plainly that Chippendale had turned his attention to almost
every object for household use.
“The Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker’s Director being a large collection of
the most elegant and useful designs of Household Furniture in the most
Fashionable Taste, including a great variety of Chairs, Sofas, Beds and
Couches; China-Tables, Dressing-Tables, Shaving-Tables, Bason-Stands and
Tea-Kettle Stands; Frames for Marble Slabs, Bureau-Dressing-Tables and
Commodes; Writing-Tables and Library-Tables; Library Book-Cases, Organ
Cases for private Rooms or Churches, Desks and Bookcases; Dressing and
Writing Tables with Book-Cases, Toilets, Cabinets and Cloaths-Presses;
China Cases, China-Shelves, and Book-Shelves; Candle-Stands, Terms for
Busts, Stands for China Jars and Pedestals; Cisterns for Water,
Lanthorns and Chandeliers; Fire-Screens, Brackets, and Clock-cases;
Pier-glasses and Table-Frames; Girandoles, Chimney-Pieces, and Picture
Frames; Stove-Grates, Boarders, Frets, Chinese-Railing and Brass-Work
for Furniture, and other Ornaments.... The whole comprehended in Two
Hundred Copper Plates, neatly engraved, calculated to improve and refine
the present taste, and suited to the Fancy and Circumstances of Persons
in all degrees of Life.” He ends his Preface to both editions as
follows: “Upon the whole, I have given no Design but what may be
executed with Advantage by the Hands of a skilful Workman, though some
of the Profession have been diligent enough to represent them
(especially those after the Gothick and Chinese manner) as so many
specious Drawings, impossible to be worked off by any mechanick
whatsoever. I will not scruple to attribute this to Malice, Ignorance
and Inability; and I am confident I can convince all Noblemen,
Gentlemen, or others, who will honour me with their Commands, that every
Design in the Book can be improved, both as to Beauty and Enrichment, in
the Execution of it, by Their Most Obedient Servant, Thomas
Chippendale.”
Our accurate knowledge of Chippendale and of his work outside his own
book is very meagre. He was evidently at work during the reign of George
I. and was probably busiest when he published his book of designs in
1754. An examination of the plates contained in this collection of
drawings shows that Chippendale cared more about the carving and
ornaments than the forms themselves. He does not seem to have been an
inventor of a style. Sheraton shares this view. The latter writes in
1791:
“I have seen one (book of design) which seems to have been published
before Chippendale’s. I infer this from the antique appearance of the
furniture, for there is no date to it; but the title informs us that it
was composed by a society of Cabinet-makers in London.
“Chippendale’s book seems to be next in order to this, but the former is
without comparison to it, either as to size or real merit. Chippendale’s
book has, it is true, given us the proportions of the Five Orders, and
lines for two or three cases, which is all it pretends to relative to
rules for drawing; and, as for the designs, themselves, they are now
wholly antiquated and laid aside, though possessed of great merit,
according to the times in which they were executed. After Chippendale’s
work, there appeared, in the year sixty-five, a book of designs for
chairs only, though it is called _The Cabinet-Maker’s real Friend and
Companion_, as well as the Chair-maker’s. The succeeding publication to
this seems to be Ince and Mayhew’s _Book of Designs in Cabinet and Chair
Work_, with three plates containing some examples of foliage ornaments,
intended for the young designer to copy from, but which can be of no
service to any learner now, as they are such kind of ornaments as are
wholly laid aside in the cabinet-branch, according to the present taste.
The designs in cabinets and chairs are, of course, of the same cast, and
therefore have suffered the same fate; yet, in justice to the word, it
may be said to have been a book of merit in its day, though much
inferior to Chippendale’s, which was a real original, as well as more
extensive and masterly in its designs.”
Strange to say, the book Sheraton thinks the earlier, came out six years
after Chippendale’s and contains designs that differ little in general
form from those in the _Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker’s Director_.
[Illustration: PLATE XXXVII]
It cannot fail to strike any one who examines Chippendale’s designs
carefully that he was beyond everything else a carver and a decorator.
Although he was most particular about proportion and joinery, he took
the greatest delight in ornamentation, caring far more for his ornate
carving and swags of drapery than for his wood, or his materials.
Indeed, he nearly always desires his handsome pieces to be gilded, or
painted, or japanned; and he says nothing whatever about textiles,
although his beds and sofas with canopies are so dependent upon festoons
and curtains for their effect. The covers upon his “French chairs” often
exhibit Chinese subjects, flowers, Æsop’s fables, or the gallant
Watteau-like scenes; and we may conclude that the printed silks and
satins of the day were too familiar to need any detailed description.
Ornate as his designs are, it will be noticed in the above Preface that
Chippendale thinks further “enrichment” will add to the beauty of every
design.
It will also be noticed that the descriptions of his plates contain very
few references to mahogany. He far prefers furniture made of soft wood
japanned in any colour, with the ornamental parts heavily gilt, and
carved and gilt frames, to sombre walnut or mahogany. Rosewood he likes
very much, but brightens it with gilt ornaments. Chippendale’s taste is
very gay, even fantastic, and a room furnished and decorated by him must
have been exceedingly brilliant.
Many of his plates were engraved by M. Darly, who lived in Paris in the
first half of the Eighteenth Century; and some people think that Darly
is responsible for all of Chippendale’s designs.
Whether Chippendale was ever in Paris or not, makes little difference:
he knew the contemporary designs and he was saturated with the flavour
of the Louis XV. taste. For instance, he was so familiar with
Meissonier, that he quietly appropriated some of his designs and issued
them in his book with little change as his own conceptions, without a
word of acknowledgment. One of these, Chippendale labels “French chair,”
but this is really a chair designed by Meissonier for Madame de
Brezenval in 1735, the only change being a little extra carving. Another
theft of Chippendale’s is a “sofa for a grand apartment.” The original
was a _canapé_ designed by Meissonier for the Grand Marshal of Poland,
also in 1735. Chippendale put cushions upon the arms and added a little
more carving,—and described it as follows:
“A Design of a Sofa for a grand Apartment, and will require Great Care
in the Execution, to make the several Parts come in such a Manner that
all the Ornaments join without the least Fault; and if the Embossments
all along are rightly managed, and gilt with burnished Gold, the whole
will have a noble appearance. The carving at the Top is the Emblem of
Watchfulness, Assiduity and Rest. The Pillows and Cushions must not be
omitted, though they are not in the Design. The dimensions are 9 feet
long without the scrolls; the broadest part of the Seat from Front to
Back 2 feet 6 inches; the Height of the Back from the Seat, 3 feet, 6
inches, and the Height of the Seat 1 foot 2 inches without Casters. I
would advise the workman to make a model of it at large before he begins
to execute it.” The massive frame is carved with shells, and on the top
rail in a cloud is seated a Cupid with his arm in the strap of a
buckler. Two large birds are carved below him on either side in the
centre of the sweeping curves and near them are bunches of flowers. The
arms are carved, and upholstered in a silk or damask the pattern of
which is a combination of flowers and large scrolls. One of the arms
ends in a grotesque head,—a kind of gnome with a long peaked beard.
[Illustration: PLATE XXXVIII]
Neither does Chippendale scruple to avail himself of one of Meissonier’s
trophies consisting of a hunting-horn, stag’s head, gun and net,
designed for the King’s portrait and the Royal Hunt; and Meissonier’s
_Livre de Légumes and Livre d’Ornements_ have been attentively studied
for the shell-work, fountains, balconies, balustrades, swags of
bell-flowers and laurel, colonnades, flowers, acanthus leaves, fruits,
animals, birds, human beings, dripping water, cascades, feathers, flags,
scrolls, musical instruments, fragmentary peristyle effects, implements,
weapons, vegetables, icicles and spiky effects.
The japanning and lacquering that Chippendale so frequently recommends
is doubtless inspired by the Vernis Martin; and all the gilded
ornaments, handles, shoes for legs of his pieces, from the French _or
moulu_ work.
Let us first examine the beds. We find “Dome Beds,” “Canopy Beds,”
“Gothic beds,” “Chinese Beds,” “Field” and “Tent Beds,” and “Couch” and
“Sofa Beds,” besides numerous designs for “Bed Posts” and “Cornices.”
His four-post bedsteads are, as a rule, 7 feet, 6 inches high; 6 feet, 4
inches high; and 5 feet wide. The canopy is generally surmounted by a
carved cornice furnished with an intricate arrangement of laths and
pulleys by which the curtains are drawn up. As the curtains and valances
are sometimes required to fall in symmetrical festoons and loops when
drawn up, the mechanical devices require detailed description. In one
“Gothic Bed with a drapery curtain,” the four posts of which are “made
into eight cants and indented,” has pullies fixed at each corner to draw
up the curtains. This bed appears as No. 2 on Plate XXXVIII.
No. 3 on Plate XLVIII. is a favourite with Chippendale. It appears in
his first edition as Plate XXXI. and in his third as Plate XXI. This is
more than 6 feet high, over 6 feet long, and 5 feet, 6 inches wide. He
says this “is a dome bed, the side of the dome and the cornice I have
form’d into an elliptical form, to take off the seeming weight which a
bed of this kind has when the cornice runs straight. There are four
dragons going up from each corner; the curtains and vallens are all in
drapery. The head-board has a small Chinese Temple with a joss, or
Chinese God; on each side is a Chinese man at worship; the outside of
the dome is intended to be japan’d and Mosaic work drawn upon it; the
other ornaments to be gilt; but that is left to the will of those who
shall please to have it executed.”
[Illustration: PLATE XXXIX]