proof of more science and skill in the technique of curves than during
the Louis XV. period. Some of the skeletonized curves with which
Meissonier and his school loved to adorn mouldings and the framework of
all kinds of furniture are shown on Plate XXXII., Nos. 2, 3, 4 and 5.
These elements were elaborated in a hundred various ways. This kind of
curved ornament used on large pieces of furniture is exemplified in the
sketch No. 1 on the same plate. This is a big china cupboard, or
double-bodied _buffet-vitrine_. It is far more sober in its
ornamentation than many objects of this class of the Louis XV. period.
It was made in Liège.
On the same plate is a beautiful _bras de lumière_ in gilded bronze by
Caffieri, with arms for candles. The branches twisted in moulded
volutes, enriched with acanthus, palm and oak leaves, flowers and buds,
spring with masterly management from a central stem which is robust and
in entire harmony with the dimensions of the whole. It is about 32
inches high.
The change from the Louis XV. to the Louis XVI. style, though marked,
was by no means violent or sudden. Chairs and settees are often found
with clearly defined transitional features in the mouldings and
ornamentation of the framework. Some of the Fontainebleau furniture
covered with tapestry from Boucher’s designs has the straight grooved
leg and other Louis XVI. characteristics. On Plate XXXVI., Nos. 3, 4, 5
and 7 are shown the details of a charming _causeuse_ of the transitional
period. The general disposition preserves the undulous flexions of the
Louis XV. style, and the details of the carving (bunches of flowers)
obey the law that proscribes those parts that are too prominent and
likely to form too sharp angles. The central cluster on the top of the
back, No. 3, soberly follows in its flowers and leaves the Louis XVI.
sweep, being in very low relief like the cluster No. 4 that heads the
middle leg. The general interlacings that run round the entire framework
are also in very low relief. This motive, borrowed from _passementerie_,
harmonizes excellently with the surfaces covered by the woven stuff. No.
5 shows the sections, curves and deep grooves of the mouldings of the
arms.
Towards the end of the Louis XV. period, the feet and general outlines
of the chairs and other furniture become more restrained and less
curved. The straight line that gradually asserts itself, and the knots
of ribbon, shepherds’ and shepherdesses’ hats, crowns and garlands that
appear as motives announce the coming _style Louis Seize_.
The bed was of many varieties. The great _lit d’ange_ is still met with,
but alcove and sofa-beds are far more popular. One of the new varieties
of the latter was the _lit d’anglaise_, which seems to have come into
fashion about 1750. This had three backs, or rather a back and a
headboard and footboard. In his _Principes de l’art du tapissier_,
Bimont says “the _lit d’anglaise_ can be used as a sofa at need. Care
must be taken that the backs fold exactly one over the other, which, of
course, is a matter of mechanical excellence.”
The _lit à la polonaise_ had four columns and a canopy. Sometimes the
canopy was decorated with a little graceful carving. A “_pomme_” or a
bunch of feathers, ornamented the centre and each corner of the canopy.
Houdon, the sculptor, had a _lit à la polonaise_ draped in yellow Indian
damask trimmed with braid, the woodwork of which was carved and painted
white. One of these beds, with a carved and gilt frame hung with crimson
damask, was sold for 3,000 livres in 1770; another, for 2,500 livres in
1777; and a third for 1,100 livres in 1782. Sometimes the frames were
made entirely of iron and draped.
The _lit de duchesse_ was also popular. In 1743, when the Queen’s
bedroom was refurnished for Marie Leczinska, a _lit de duchesse_ was
provided. The Duc de Luynes says: “This bed is of white silk,
embroidered and painted. The bed is not composed of four posts, as all
the Queen’s beds have been up to the present. It is what is called _à la
duchesse_.”
[Illustration: PLATE XXXV]
Another favourite was the _lit en ottamane_ which dates from about 1765.
One is described as a “_lit en ottomane_” of 5 feet, the dome and the
rest of the woodwork carved and gilt and the counterpane, the curtains
and the interior of cherry-coloured Indian damask.
Another, in 1770, was of “blue and white _moiré_, 3½ feet wide, _en
ottomane_, the wood carved and picked out with blue.” The _lit en
ottomane_ was a variety of the _lit de repos_.
The _lit à romaine_, which became popular about 1760, had a canopy and
four festooned curtains. The _lit à tulipe_ was similar to the _lit à
arc_, or _lit à flèche_; only, instead of an ornamental arrow fixed to
its pavilion, its decoration was a bronze, copper or gilded tulip from
the hanging bell of which the curtains seemed to fall. The _lit à la
Turque_, in fashion from 1755 to 1780, was a sort of sofa with three
backs; a variation was introduced about 1766. The _lit à tombeau_ (see
Plate XXXVI., No. 8) was also a favourite. The two posts at its foot
were shorter than the two at the head, and the canopy had in consequence
a somewhat sharp slant. It much resembles what in England was called a
“single-headed couch or field bed.” The _lit à double tombeau_ had posts
of equal height and the curtains fell down the sides in equal slants.
We also find among the beds of the day (1751) a _lit en baldaquin_ of
crimson damask, composed of a little canopy, two small and one large
valances, a large headboard, counterpane, two backs and two hooks. It
was 3½ feet wide and 6 feet long, and was equipped with two wool
mattresses, a feather bed and two feather bolsters.
Another _lit en baldaquin_ had its canopy, two small and one large
valances and headboard hung in green and white stripes while the two
large curtains (5 lengths each, 7½ feet long) were of green serge.
A _lit à chassis_ (canopy bed) was draped entirely in a green and white
striped material. It was composed of a canopy, four small and three
large valances, two lower valances, a headboard and a counterpane. The
frame was 9 feet, 8 inches high, and 4 feet wide.
Another _lit en chassis en l’air_ had its four small valances,
headboard, counterpane, two large curtains and two _bonnes grâces_ of
green serge and its three large valances and three lower valances of
green and white stripes.
The _lit de repos_, a kind of _chaise longue_ or couch, made for
lounging upon and of which examples have already been given on Plates
VIII., XIII., XVIII. and XX., becomes in this reign even of greater
importance. Sometimes two of them occur in a bedroom or boudoir. One of
these is represented in the niche or alcove on Plate XXIX.
A suggestion for a beautiful alcove bed may be taken from one dating
from 1732. This was equipped with a mattress, two bolsters and two
square pillows, and had three backs, all covered and draped with white
satin embroidered in poppies of natural hues, and ornamented with a
braid of silk embroidery. The feet of the bed were in the form of
consoles, carved and varnished. The room in which this was placed, also
contained a _fauteuil_ of beech, carved, upon the cane back and seat of
which was a cushion covered with the poppy-embroidered satin. Two
similar cushions furnished a chair of acacia and fine straw, and the
same material was used to cover two _banquettes_ or forms, of beech,
carved and varnished, and having hinds’ feet.
The first alcove beds were called _lits en niche_, and they were always
_lits de boudoir_ rather than beds for the sleeping room. In many old
designs, curtains are lacking and the bed is adorned merely with a
lambrequin, or a drapery across the façade of the niche or alcove, this
drapery being similar to the covering of the bed itself, which is
sometimes in the form of a _lit de repos_ or a sofa.
Some alcoves under the reign of Louis XV. contained a bed _vu de pied_
that stood very low and whose feet projected into the room. One of this
kind was in the Hôtel de Soubise; and the model may be seen in many old
designs.
An extreme example of the rococo decoration of a bed is shown on Plate
XXXIV. This is by J. J. Schübler, who died in Nuremberg in 1741.
Schübler, an architect, painter, sculptor and mathematician, was also
one of the most famous masters of decorative design of his day. His
original drawings include French beds, cabinets, alcoves, grates,
mantel-pieces, writing-tables, toilette-tables, clock-cases, commodes,
_chaises longues_, dining-room tables, candlestands, _dressoirs_,
lustres, _étagères_, consoles, jewel-cases, buffets, fountains,
garden-ornaments and grottoes. His collection of 150 plates passed
through twenty editions. His works often resemble those of Paul Decker,
another celebrated German master, who died in Nuremberg in 1713; and,
just as Decker is a German exponent of the late Louis XIV. emerging from
the influence of Bérain and Lepautre into the style of the Regency, so
Schübler exhibits the transitional stage between the Regency and Louis
XV. as filtered through a German mind. Two of Decker’s designs are shown
on Plate XXXIII., Nos. 1 and 2.
A bed of the late Louis XV. period also appears on Plate XXXIV., No. 2,
showing the correct arrangement of the canopy and draperies above the
sofa.
Window-curtains were of great importance. They hung from a cornice which
was carved, more or less ornately, in curves, scrolls and other
characteristic motives. Occasionally the curtains were of muslin or
gauze, but more frequently of silk, damask, brocatelle or “Persian.”
They were of a solid hue, or a mixture of two or three colours. The
designs of these rich materials were much smaller in pattern, as a rule,
than those of the preceding reign and they were far gayer in colour, for
all the crimson, _gros bleu_, _gros vert_ and other dark shades gave
place to the light hues of rose, pale green, pale blue, jonquil, yellow,
etc.
The shapes and folds into which the curtains were cut and draped were
spirited, fantastic, and even coquettish, in order to harmonize with the
general character of the decorations and furniture, and it required the
greatest skill on the part of the decorators to loop and tie them into
the correct knots, shells, “_choux_,” “_volants_,” etc., to give them
the proper effect and light, half frivolous air.
The lambrequin, which was extremely popular, differed from that in use
in the reign of Louis XIV. It was less severe and straight, being cut
more freely in order to accord with the cornice that surmounted it.
Instead of the rounded scallop, it often terminated in points, to each
of which a tassel was hung. Braids took the place of lace in trimming,
and the favourite fringe consisted of twisted strands of mixed colours.
The ravelled-out fringe, long so popular, at last disappeared. An
example of the pointed drapery is shown in the Schübler bed on Plate
XXXIV.
The commode was universally used in the bedrooms and boudoirs. It
generally stood opposite the mantel-piece. It is now a superb piece of
furniture, being, as a rule, richly decorated with gilt bronze _or
moulu_ and often painted and lacquered in the Chinese taste,—in _Vernis
Martin_. It was the famous Cressent who made the Commode _à la Régence_,
_à la Chartres_, _à la Bagnolet_, _à la Charolais_, _à la Harant_ and _à
la Dauphine_ fashionable. One of Cressent’s commodes, sold in 1761, was
thus described by himself: “A commode of a pleasing contour, made of
violet-wood, having four drawers and ornamented with bronze gilt, _or
moulu_. This commode is a work (with regard to the bronzes) of an
extraordinary richness; they are very well executed and the distribution
of them very fine; among other things, you notice the bust of a Spanish
woman placed between the four drawers; two dragons, whose tails turned
up in relief form the handles for the two upper drawers, and the stems
of two great leaves of a beautiful form are also turned up in relief to
make handles for the two lower ones: you must admit that this commode is
a veritable curiosity.”
Another of Cressent’s commodes owned by the Baron Rothschild in London
“is of a most elegant form upon which the bronzes of an extraordinary
richness represent, on the front, two children swinging a monkey.” Jean
Jacques Caffieri also made superb commodes. One of his, ornamented with
superb bronzes in the _rocaille_ style, is in the Wallace Collection
which also owns a commode by Cressent. Sometimes the commode was
ornamented with panels of rosewood, or violet-wood, or some other exotic
product, framed in spiky bronze work, or again, it was of lacquer, the
designs being flowers, leaves, Chinese pagodas and landscapes.
Two commodes are represented on Plate XXXV. The lower one is made of
violet-wood with ornaments of chiselled copper, Nos. 2a and 2b show the
handles and the end of another by Pinaud. This dates from 1750. The
decorative details are of gilt copper and show the mascaron and
gracefully twining leaves. The handles and key-plates are hidden by the
ornaments. The key-plates of the two drawers are different, as will be
noted. On the upper one, a woman’s head is represented, while the lower
one has a fine shell. The third ornament below these is a shell with the
favourite device of dripping water. A commode dressing-table appears as
No. 12 on Plate XXXVI. The foot of a chest-of-drawers with beautiful
ornamentation of chased and gilded copper, is on the same plate, No. 11.
At this date the _Cabinet de toilette_ is often called the _Cabinet à la
Poudre_, the name not needing a definition when we recall the numerous
pictures and caricatures of the fashionable lady seated before her
glass, with her _coiffeur_, or _femme de chambre_, mounted on a stool,
or ladder, busy working on the towering headdress. The toilet table was
a commode or a simple table spread with linen, silk, or lace over silk,
and above which was hung a glass. Frequently lace, muslin, chintz, or
silk, was looped over the table and caught back by knots of ribbon,
artificial flowers, or gilded figures of Cupids, or dolphins, or some
favourite device of the day. The small _chiffonnier_ with drawers, made
of marquetry, or _Vernis Martin_, and ornamented with gilt bronze _or
moulu_ mounts, dates from this period.
The _armoire_ is still in use. In 1760, we hear of the lower part of a
large _armoire_ in the form of a bookcase, of violet-wood veneered in
mosaics. It was 7½ feet long, 4 feet high, and 26 inches deep. The
interior was divided into three compartments and a long shelf covered
with crimson watered silk. In front were three doors, the middle one of
which was enriched with a large medallion, bronze gilt _or moulu_,
representing Minerva holding in her right hand a compass with which she
is measuring a globe, on a background of lapis lazuli painted. The other
doors were decorated with trophies in bronze gilt _or moulu_
representing mathematical instruments. On the ends were cartouches of
bronze gilt _or moulu_ of various Chinese plants. The bookcase was
ornamented with hasps and mouldings also of bronze gilt _or moulu_ and
stood on six feet, the four front ones being square and the two in the
back round.
The form is still in use. In 1750, the archives of Versailles mention:
“seven _formes de moquette_ with coloured flowers on a white background,
5 or 6 feet long, and from 2 to 4 feet, by 18 inches high, and 15 inches
wide, nailed with gilded nails, to serve the Queen at the _grand
couvert_.”
These were also known as _banquettes_ as early as 1732. In 1770, there
is mention for the service of the King, of “nine _banquettes_ covered
with crimson plush 6 feet long and 17 inches wide to be used at the
_grand couvert_” also, in the same year, to serve in the _Salle de
spectacle amphithéâtre_, four _banquettes_ each having two elbows,
covered with blue velvet garnished with gold braid nailed on with gilt
nails, the wood painted blue picked out with gold.
The frames of the chairs and arm-chairs of this period were not only
carved and gilt, but were painted or lacquered as well. Sometimes one
colour only was used, which was brightened by threads of gold, or white,
or some gay hue harmonizing, or contrasting, with the upholstery.
Sometimes the wood was painted in several colours, and often, too,
another kind of painting, known as _camaïeux_,[18] was used. Simpler
arm-chairs, and chairs that were met with in the drawing-room were of
natural oak, or beech, polished with an encaustic. In the same room with
the large arm-chairs smaller ones are often found. These were known as
_cabriolets_, probably owing to the ease by which they were moved about,
as well as to their shape. In general design, the _cabriolet_ was like
the large arm-chair, but it was even more curved, more arched, and more
exaggerated than its parent. The elbows too were more wavy and were
always of a most graceful sweep. At the beginning of this period, the
back was of the form of a violin, but later the medallion form became
more popular. The upholsterers studied the proportions of the smaller
chair as they did the large one, and gave the seats less thickness and a
more square, or a rounder effect, according to the form and proportions
of the seat and back, as well as the curves of the whole frame. The
small arm-chair was placed in front of, or at the side of, one of the
great arm-chairs in the drawing-room or boudoir. The _cabriolet_ had to
agree with its large companion either in its frame, or else its covering
had to be of the same material.
[Illustration: PLATE XXXVI]
The arm-chair (_fauteuil_) is represented on Plate No. XIII.
These chairs and sofas were upholstered with many of the textiles used
in the reign of Louis XIV. One of the most popular coverings was Gobelin
or Aubusson tapestry representing the graceful designs of Watteau, or
Æsop’s _Fables_. Utrecht velvet and Lyons damask with floral designs
were also popular, as well as silk brocaded with coloured flowers.
Sometimes a braid or lace (a very favourite pattern being the rat-tooth,
“_dent de rat_”) was used to hide the nails; but the material was also
tacked to the frames by gilt-headed nails placed so close together that
they touched one another.
A typical pattern of the period is shown in the sofa on Plate XXXII.
Turning now to special descriptions of chairs at Versailles, we find in
1722, “two _fauteuils_ of varnished walnut and open-work cane; the
_manchettes_ (elbow-cushions) and backs upholstered in lemon-coloured
leather,” the backs curved; three _fauteuils_ of varnished walnut wood
and cane with sweeping backs and console feet, and carved with several
ornaments; twelve chairs with backs, of cherry wood and open-worked
cane, the backs having sweeping curves and feet in consoles, carved with
various ornaments, including shells. The latter stood 39 inches high,
including back, the seats measured 16 inches. In 1729, “six _fauteuils_
of cane and cherry-wood carved with several ornaments and varnished, the
backs curved and the elbows cushioned.” They were upholstered in red
leather with a braid of gold, nailed with gilt-headed nails. Also “four
_fauteuils_ of beech-wood, varnished and cane, had curved and carved
backs ornamented with a carved border all around the seat, the arms also
carved at the ends.” These were upholstered in lemon-coloured leather
fastened with silver-headed nails placed close together.
In 1730, there were “fourteen _chaises à la Reine_, covered with crimson
and gold damask, the frames carved and gilt.” Also “three _chaises à la
Reine_ covered with crimson and gold damask nailed to the frames with
gilt-headed nails, very close together, the frames painted red and
gold;” also “four _fauteuils_ and two _tabourets_ of walnut covered with
black leather;” and finally a _chaise d’affaires_, the frame on a
background of black lacquer and “_aventurine de Japon_,” with landscapes
and birds in relief in colours and gilt in the borders, a mosaic of
mother-of-pearl and copper wire _à la Chinoise_. The chair was lined
with red lacquer, and the cushion was green velvet. This remarkable
chair was 19 x 15 inches wide and 19 inches deep. The _chaise à la
Reine_, mentioned above, had a very low seat with a very high back.
In the same year, there are two _fauteuils_, Chinese style, painted at
the Gobelins, with cartouches, representing figures, birds, Chinese
houses, etc. The border was of carved and gilt wood, the feet hinds’
feet, the backs ending in a shell, and the seats and backs covered with
crimson damask.
In 1736, two _banquettes_ of beech-wood, delicately carved and
varnished, 24 inches long, 14 inches deep and 15 inches high, have seats
of cane, each supplied with a hair cushion covered on both sides with
crimson damask, tufted. There were also three _tabourets_ like the
above, only shorter,—16 inches long, 14 inches deep and 16 inches high.
In 1737, a tall chair of beech lightly carved appears, the curved back
filled with cane, and the seat, lemon-coloured velvet fastened with
silver-headed nails, standing on four hinds’ feet. Two little chairs of
gilt cane, the backs curved, the wood delicately carved and gilt are
also mentioned.
In 1751, six chairs of fine straw were made, each with two cushions for
the seat, the back of crimson damask, tufted; and six folding-stools
covered with crimson damask garnished with a gold fringe, the wood
painted red picked out with gold, for M. le Dauphin.
Several arm-chairs of a new shape appear. One, usually placed by the
hearth near the fire, is of the “gondola” form. The ornamentation, of
course, followed the general style of the room. This is the period at
which they began to take the name of _fauteuil de bergère_, or
_marquise_ (see Plate XXXVI., No. 1). The _bergère_, or “burjair,”
played a very important part in the new styles put forth by Chippendale,
Ince and Mayhew, Heppelwhite and others. It was, as a general rule,
quite large, wider than it was deep, and the seat was not very high from
the floor. The _bergère_ was sometimes accompanied by a _tabouret_,
which was placed immediately in front of the chair, and made of it a
kind of _chaise longue_.
In this reign arm-chairs were also made, especially for desks. Until
this time, they always used any ordinary chair, or arm-chair at the
desk. The new arm-chair for this purpose was of the “gondola” form,
usually with back and seat of cane, the elbows adorned with cushions
(_manchette_) and covered with leather. This chair spread out even more
generously, and the legs were balanced as follows: one was placed
directly under each elbow, a third directly in front, and the fourth in
the centre of the back. Some of these arm-chairs were equipped with a
removable leather cushion.
The first _chaises comfortables_ followed the model of the gondola
arm-chairs; the wood, or rather the moulding of the back, served as a
framework for more or less simple garniture. The feet were either
grooved, or of sabre form.
Dining-room chairs were specially designed, and followed the general
form of the drawing-room chairs. As a rule, they are covered with
leather. Tapestry is met with also, and “Persian.”
A _fauteuil de commodité_ of the period is described as having a little
mahogany desk attached to the right of the chair by means of a gilded
steel support nicely divided into compartments for pens, ink, etc. On
each side of the chair, two sconce-arms for candles were adjusted. The
chair and cushion were covered with blue leather.
Leather was quite popular for covering furniture. One set, consisting of
a sofa, two _banquettes_, twelve _tabourets_ and a six-leaved screen,
were upholstered in red leather, with applied ornaments of yellow
leather edged with a narrow gold cord.
Characteristic chairs are shown on Plate XXIX. and Plate XXXIII., Nos.
3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. These are by Meissonier.
The very handsome _canapé_ shown on Plate XXXII. is also one of
Meissonier’s productions. This was designed for Count Bielenski. The
frame was gilt.
The _canapé confident_ consisted of a sofa which had from two to four
places, and at each end by the elbows, there was another seat at the
corner rounded off. It was supplied with an elbow at the other side. The
effect was as if an arm-chair had been placed at each end of the sofa at
right angles. It was a very popular piece of furniture.
The _chaise longue_ is sometimes composed of two sections; one, a kind
of very deep _fauteuil_ with two elbows; the other, a kind of
_tabouret_, which also had a small back against which the lounger placed
his feet.
The example on Plate XXXIII. is of carved wood with cane seat and backs.