nomen sacrilegia, ne adversus ejus veritatem blasphemiae aliaeque
religionis offensiones publice emergant ac in populum spargantur....
Politicam ordinationem probo, quae in hoc incumbit, ne vera religio,
quae Dei lege continetur, palam, publicisque sacrilegiis impune
violetur" (_Institutio Christianae Religionis_, ed. Tholuck, ii. 477).
"Hoc ergo summopere requiritur a regibus, ut gladio quo praediti sunt
utuntur ad cultum Dei asserendum" (_Praelectiones in Prophetas, Opera_,
v. 233, ed. 1667).]
[Footnote 271: "Huic etiam colligere promptum est, quam stulta fuerit
imaginatio eorum qui volebant usum gladii tollere e mundo, Evangelii
praetextu. Scimus Anabaptistas fuisse tumultuatos, quasi totus ordo
politicus repugnaret Christi regno, quia regnum Christi continetur sola
doctrina; deinde nulla futura sit vis. Hoc quidem verum esset, si
essemus in hoc mundo angeli: sed quemadmodum jam dixi, exiguus est
piorum numerus: ideo necesse est reliquam turbam cohiberi violento
freno: quia permixti sunt filii Dei vel saevis belluis, vel vulpibus et
fraudulentis hominibus" (_Pr. in Michaeam_, v. 310). "In quo non suam
modo inscitiam, sed diabolicum fastum produnt, dum perfectionem sibi
arrogant; cujus ne centesima quidem pars in illis conspicitur"
(_Institutio_, ii. 478).]
[Footnote 272: "Tota igitur excellentia, tota dignitas, tota potentia
Ecclesiae debet huc referri, ut omnia subjaceant Deo, et quicquid erit
in gentibus hoc totum sit sacrum, ut scilicet cultus Dei tam apud
victores quam apud victos vigeat" (_Pr. in Michaeam_, v. 317).]
[Footnote 273: "Ita tollitur offensio, quae multos imperitos fallit, dum
metuunt ne hoc praetextu ad saeviendum armentur Papae carnifices."
Calvin was warned by experience of the imprudence of Luther's language.
"In Gallis proceres in excusanda saevitia immani allegant autoritatem
Lutheri" (Melanchthon. _Opera_, v. 176).]
[Footnote 274: "Vous avez deux especes de mutins qui se sont eslevez
entre le roy et l'estat du royaume: Les uns sont gens fantastiques, qui
soubs couleur de l'evangile vouldroient mettre tout en confusion. Les
aultres sont gens obstines aux superstitions de l'Antechrist de Rome.
Tous ensemble meritent bien d'estre reprimes par le glayve qui vous est
commis, veu qu'ils s'attaschent non seulement au roy, mais a Dieu qui
l'a assis au siege royal" (Calvin to Somerset, Oct. 22, 1540: _Lettres
de Calvin_, ed. Bonnet, i. 267. See also Henry, _Leben Calvins_, ii.
Append. 30).]
[Footnote 275: "Abdicant enim se potestate terreni principes dum
insurgunt contra Deum: imo indigni sunt qui censeantur in hominum
numero. Potius ergo conspuere oportet in ipsorum capita, quam illis
parere, ubi ita proterviunt ut velint etiam spoliare Deum jure suo, et
quasi occupare solium ejus, acsi possent eum a coelo detrahere" (_Pr. in
Danielem_, v. 91).]
[Footnote 276: "Quant au serment qu'on vous a contraincte de faire,
comme vous avez failli et offense Dieu en le faisant, aussi n'estes-vous
tenue de le garder" (Calvin to the Duchess of Ferrara, _Bonnet_, ii.
338). She had taken an oath, at her husband's death, that she would not
correspond with Calvin.]
[Footnote 277: "In aulis regum videmus primas teneri a bestiis. Nam
hodie, ne repetamus veteres historias, ut reges fere omnes fatui sunt ac
bruti, ita etiam sunt quasi equi et asini brutorum animalium.... Reges
sunt hodie fere mancipia" (_Pr. in Danielem_, v. 82). "Videmus enim ut
hodie quoque pro sua libidine commoveant totum orbem principes; quia
produnt alii aliis innoxios populus, et exercent foedam nundinationem,
dum quisque commodum suum venatur, et sine ullo pudore, tantum ut augeat
suam potentiam, alios tradit in manum inimici" (_Pr. in Nahum_, v. 363).
"Hodie pudet reges aliquid prae se ferre humanum, sed omnes gestus
accommodant ad tyrannidem" (_Pr. in Jeremiam_, v. 257).]
[Footnote 278: "Sur ce que je vous avais allegue, quo David nous
instruict par son exemple de hair les ennemis de Dieu, vous respondez
que c'estoit pour ce temps-la duquel sous la loi de rigueur il estoit
permis de hair les ennemis. Or, madame, ceste glose seroit pour
renverser toute l'Escriture, et partant il la fault fuir comme une peste
mortelle.... Combien que j'aye tousjours prie Dieu de luy faire mercy,
si est-ce que j'ay souvent desire que Dieu mist la main sur luy (Guise)
pour en deslivrer son Eglise, s'il ne le vouloit convertir" (Calvin to
the Duchess of Ferrara, _Bonnet_, ii. 551). Luther was in this respect
equally unscrupulous: "This year we must pray Duke Maurice to death, we
must kill him with our prayers; for he will be an evil man" (MS. quoted
in Doellinger, _Reformation_, iii, 266).]
[Footnote 279: "Quod de praepostero nostrorum fervore scribis,
verissimum est, neque tamen ulla occurrit moderandi ratio, quia sanis
consiliis non obtemperant. Passim denuntio, si judex essem me non minus
severe in rabioso, istos impetus vindicaturum, quam rex suis edictis
mandat. Pergendum nihilominus, quando nos Deus voluit stultis esse
debitores" (Calvin to Beza; Henry, _Leben Calvins_, iii. Append. 164).]
[Footnote 280: "Il n'a tenu qu'a moi que, devant la guerre, gens de
faict et d'execution ne se soyent efforcez de l'exterminer du monde
(Guise) lesquels ont este retenus par ma seule exhortation."--_Bonnet_,
ii. 553.]
[Footnote 281: "Hoc nobis si assidue ob animos et oculos obversetur,
eodem decreto constitui etiam nequissimos reges, quo regum auctoritas
statuitur; nunquam in animum nobis seditiosae illae cogitationes
venient, tractandum esse pro meritis regem nec aequum esse, ut subditos
ei nos praestemus, qui vicissim regem nobis se non praestet.... De
privatis hominibus semper loquor. Nam si qui nunc sint populares
magistratus ad moderandam regum libidinem constituti (quales olim erant
... ephori ... tribuni ... demarchi: et qua etiam forte potestate, ut
nunc res habent, funguntur in singulis regnis tres ordines, quum
primarios conventus peragunt) ... illos ferocienti regum licentiae pro
officio intercedere non veto" (_Institutio_, ii. 493, 495).]
[Footnote 282: "Quum ergo ita licentiose omnia sibi permittent
(Donatistae), volebant tamen impune manere sua scelera: et in primis
tenebant hoc principium: non esse poenas sumendas, si quis ab aliis
dissideret in religionis doctrina: quemadmodum hodie videmus quosdam de
hac re nimis cupide contendere. Certum est quid cupiant. Nam si quis
ipsos respiciat, sunt impii Dei contemptores: saltem vellent nihil
certum esse in religione; ideo labefactare, et quantum in se est etiam
convellere nituntur omnia pietatis principia. Ut ergo liceat ipsis
evomere virus suum, ideo tantopere litigant pro impunitate, et negant
poenas de haereticis et blasphemis sumendas esse" (_Pr. in Danielem_, v.
51).]
[Footnote 283: "Defensio Orthodoxae Fidei ... ubi ostenditur Haereticos
jure gladii coercendos esse," 1554.]
[Footnote 284: "Non modo liberum esse magistratibus poenas sumere de
coelestis doctrinae corruptoribus, sed divinitus esse mandatum, ut
pestiferis erroribus impunitatem dare nequeant, quin desciscant ab
officii sui fide.... Nunc vero quisquis haereticis et blasphemis injuste
paenam infligi contenderet, sciens et volens se obstringet blasphemiae
reatu.... Ubi a suis fundamentis convellitur religio, detestandae in
Deum blasphemiae proferuntur, impiis et pestiferis dogmatibus in exitium
rapiuntur animae; denique ubi palam defectio ab unico Deo puraque
doctrina tentatur, ad extremum illud remedium descendere necesse" (see
Schenkel, iii. 389; Dyer, _Life of Calvin_, p. 354; Henry, iii. 234).]
[Footnote 285: _De Haereticis an sint persequendi_, Magdeburgi, 1554.
Chataillon, to whom it is generally attributed, was not the author (see
Heppe, _Theodor Beza_, p. 37).]
[Footnote 286: Hallam, _Literature of Europe_, ii. 81; Schlosser, _Leben
des Beza_, p. 55. This is proved by the following passage from the
dedication: "This I say not to favour the heretics, whom I abhor, but
because there are here two dangerous rocks to be avoided. In the first
place, that no man should be deemed a heretic when he is not ... and
that the real rebel be distinguished from the Christian who, by
following the teaching and example of his Master, necessarily causes
separation from the wicked and unbelieving. The other danger is, lest
the real heretics be not more severely punished than the discipline of
the Church requires" (Baum, _Theodor Beza_, i. 215).]
[Footnote 287: "Multis piis hominibus in Gallia exustis grave passim
apud Germanos odium ignes illi excitaverant, sparsi sunt, ejus
restinguendi causa, improbi ac mendaces libelli, non alios tam
crudeliter tractari, quam Anabaptistas ac turbulentos homines, qui
perversis deliriis non religionem modo sed totum ordinem politicum
convellerent.... Haec mihi edendae Institutionis causa fuit, primum ut
ab injusta contumelia vindicarem fratres meos, quorum mors pretiosa erat
in conspectu Domini; deinde quum multis miseris eadem visitarent
supplicia, pro illis dolor saltem aliquis et sollicitudo exteras gentes
tangeret" (_Praefatio in Psalmos._ See "Historia Litteraria de Calvini
Institutione." in _Scrinium Antiquarium_, ii. 452).]
[Footnote 288: Baum, i. 206. "Telles gens," says Calvin, "seroient
contents qu'il n'y eust ne loy, ne bride au monde. Voila pourquoy ils
ont basti ce beau libvre _De non comburendis Haereticis_, ou ils out
falsifie les noms tant des villes que des personnes, non pour aultre
cause sinon pource que le dit livre est farcy de blasphemes
insupportables" (Bonnet, ii. 18).]
[Footnote 289: _De Haereticis a civili Magistratu puniendis_, 1554.]
[Footnote 290: "Absit autem a nobis, ut in eos, qui vel simplicitate
peccant, sine aliorum pernicie et insigni blasphemia, vel in explicando
quopiam Scripturae loco dissident a recepta opinione, magistratum
armemus" (_Tractatus Theologici_, i. 95).]
[Footnote 291: This was sometimes the practice in Catholic countries,
where heresy was equivalent to treason. Duke William of Bavaria ordered
obstinate Anabaptists to be burnt; those who recanted to be beheaded.
"Welcher revocir, den soll man koepfen; welcher nicht revocir, den soll
man brennen" (Joerg, p. 717).]
[Footnote 292: "Ex quibus omnibus una conjunctio efficitur, istos quibus
haeretici videntur non esse puniendi, opinionem in Ecclesiam Dei conari
longe omnium pestilentissimam invehere et ex diametro repugnantem
doctrinae primum a Deo Patre proditae, deinde a Christo instauratae, ab
universa denique Ecclesia orthodoxa perpetuo consensu usurpatae, ut mihi
quidem magis absurde facere videantur quam si sacrilegas aut parricidas
puniendos negarent, quum sint istis omnibus haeretici infinitis partibus
deteriores" (_Tract. Theol._ i. 143).]
[Footnote 293: "Verum est quod correctione non exspectata Ananiam et
Sapphiram occidit Petrus. Quia Spiritus Sanctus tunc maxime vigens, quem
spreverant, docebat esse incorrigibiles, in malitia obstinatos. Hoc
crimen est morte simpliciter dignum et apud Deum et apud homines. In
aliis autem criminibus, ubi Spiritus Sanctus speciale quid non docet,
ubi non est inveterata malitia, aut obstinatio certa non apparet aut
atrocitas magna, correctionem per alias castigationes sperare potius
debemus" (Servetus, _Restitutio Christianismi_, 656; Henry, iii. 235).]
[Footnote 294: "Nam si venerit, modo valeat mea authoritas, vivum exire
nunquam patiar" (Calvin to Farel, in Henry, iii. Append. 65; Audin, _Vie
de Calvin_, ii. 314; Dyer, 544).]
[Footnote 295: "Spero capitale saltem fore judicium; poenae vero
atrocitatem remitti cupio" (Calvin to Farel, Henry, iii. 189). Dr. Henry
makes no attempt to clear Calvin of the imputation of having caused the
death of Servetus. Nevertheless he proposed, some years later, that the
three-hundredth anniversary of the execution should be celebrated in the
Church of Geneva by a demonstration. "It ought to declare itself in a
body, in a manner worthy of our principles, admitting that in past times
the authorities of Geneva were mistaken, loudly proclaiming toleration,
which is truly the crown of our Church, and paying due honour to Calvin,
because he had no hand in the business (parcequ'il n'a pas trempe dans
cette affaire), of which he has unjustly borne the whole burden." The
impudence of this declaration is surpassed by the editor of the French
periodical from which we extract it. He appends to the words in our
parenthesis the following note: "We underline in order to call attention
to this opinion of Dr. Henry, who is so thoroughly acquainted with the
whole question" (_Bulletin de la Societe de l'Histoire du Protestantisme
Francais_, ii. 114).]
[Footnote 296: "Qui scripserunt de non plectendis haereticis, semper
mihi visi sunt non parum errare" (Farel to Blaarer, Henry, iii. 202).
During the trial he wrote to Calvin: "If you desire to diminish the
horrible punishment, you will act as a friend towards your most
dangerous enemy. If I were to seduce anybody from the true faith, I
should consider myself worthy of death; I cannot judge differently of
another than of myself" (Schmidt, _Farel und Viret_, p. 33).
Before sentence was pronounced Bullinger wrote to Beza: "Quid vero
amplissimus Senatus Genevensis ageret cum blasphemo illo nebulone
Serveto. Si sapit et officium suum facit, caedit, ut totus orbis videat
Genevam Christi gloriam cupere servatam" (Baum, i. 204). With reference
to Socinus he wrote: "Sentio ego spirituali gladio abscindendos esse
homines haereticos" (Henry, iii. 225).
Peter Martyr Vermili also gave in his adhesion to Calvin's policy: "De
Serveto Hispano, quid aliud dicam non habeo, nisi eum fuisse genuinum
Diaboli filium, cujus pestifera et detestanda doctrina undique
profliganda est, neque magistratus, qui de illo supplicium extremum
sumpsit, accusandus est, cum emendationis nulla indicia in eo possent
deprehendi, illiusque blasphemiae omnino intolerabiles essent" (_Loci
Communes_, 1114. See Schlosser, _Leben des Beza und des Peter Martyr
Vermili_, 512).
Zanchi, who at the instigation of Bullinger also published a treatise,
_De Haereticis Coercendis_, says of Beza's work: "Non poterit non
probari summopere piis omnibus. Satis superque respondit quidem ille
novis istis academicis, ita ut supervacanea et inutilis omnino videatur
mea tractatio" (Baum, i. 232).]
[Footnote 297: "The trial of Servetus," says a very ardent Calvinist,
"is illegal only in one point--the crime, if crime there be, had not
been committed at Geneva; but long before the Councils had usurped the
unjust privilege of judging strangers stopping at Geneva, although the
crimes they were accused of had not been committed there" (Haag, _La
France Protestante_, iii. 129).]
[Footnote 298: _Literature of Europe_, ii. 82.]
[Footnote 299: This is the ground taken by two Dutch divines in answer
to the consultation of John of Nassau in 1579: "Neque in imperio, neque
in Galliis, neque in Belgio speranda esset unquam libertas in externo
religionis exercitio nostris ... si non diversarum religionum exercitia
in una eademque provincia toleranda.... Sic igitur gladio adversus nos
armabimus Pontificios, si hanc hypothesin tuebimur, quod exercitium
religionis alteri parti nullum prorsus relinqui debeat" (_Scrinium
Antiquarium_, i. 335).]
VI
POLITICAL THOUGHTS ON THE CHURCH[300]
There is, perhaps, no stronger contrast between the revolutionary times
in which we live and the Catholic ages, or even the period of the
Reformation, than in this: that the influence which religious motives
formerly possessed is now in a great measure exercised by political
opinions. As the theory of the balance of power was adopted in Europe as
a substitute for the influence of religious ideas, incorporated in the
power of the Popes, so now political zeal occupies the place made vacant
by the decline of religious fervour, and commands to an almost equal
extent the enthusiasm of men. It has risen to power at the expense of
religion, and by reason of its decline, and naturally regards the
dethroned authority with the jealousy of a usurper. This revolution in
the relative position of religious and political ideas was the
inevitable consequence of the usurpation by the Protestant State of the
functions of the Church, and of the supremacy which, in the modern
system of government, it has assumed over her. It follows also that the
false principles by which religious truth was assailed have been
transferred to the political order, and that here, too, Catholics must
be prepared to meet them; whilst the objections made to the Church on
doctrinal grounds have lost much of their attractiveness and effect, the
enmity she provokes on political grounds is more intense. It is the same
old enemy with a new face. No reproach is more common, no argument
better suited to the temper of these times, than those which are
founded on the supposed inferiority or incapacity of the Church in
political matters. As her dogma, for instance, is assailed from opposite
sides,--as she has had to defend the divine nature of Christ against the
Ebionites, and His humanity against Docetism, and was attacked both on
the plea of excessive rigorism and excessive laxity (Clement Alex.,
_Stromata_, iii. 5),--so in politics she is arraigned on behalf of the
political system of every phase of heresy. She was accused of favouring
revolutionary principles in the time of Elizabeth and James I., and of
absolutist tendencies under James II. and his successors. Since
Protestant England has been divided into two great political parties,
each of these reproaches has found a permanent voice in one of them.
Whilst Tory writers affirm that the Catholic religion is the enemy of
all conservatism and stability, the Liberals consider it radically
opposed to all true freedom.
"What are we to think," says the _Edinburgh Review_ (vol. ciii. p.
586), "of the penetration or the sincerity of a man who professes to
study and admire the liberties of England and the character of her
people, but who does not see that English freedom has been nurtured
from the earliest times by resistance to Papal authority, and
established by the blessing of a reformed religion? That is, under
Heaven, the basis of all the rights we possess; and the weight we
might otherwise be disposed to concede to M. de Montalembert's
opinions on England is materially lessened by the discovery that,
after all, he would, if he had the power, place this free country
under that spiritual bondage which broods over the empires of Austria
or of Spain."
On the other hand, let us hearken to the Protestant eloquence of the
_Quarterly Review_ (vol. xcii. p. 41):--
Tyranny, fraud, base adulation, total insensibility, not only to the
worth of human freedom, but to the majesty of law and the sacredness
of public and private right; these are the malignant and deadly
features which we see stamped upon the conduct of the Roman
hierarchy.
Besides which, we have the valuable opinion of Lord Derby, which no
Catholic, we should suppose, east of the Shannon has forgotten, that
Catholicism is "religiously corrupt, and politically dangerous." Lord
Macaulay tells us that it exclusively promoted the power of the Crown;
Ranke, that it favours revolution and regicide. Whilst the Belgian and
Sardinian Liberals accuse the Church of being the enemy of
constitutional freedom, the celebrated Protestant statesman, Stahl,
taunts her with the reproach of being the sole support and pillar of the
Belgian constitution. Thus every error pronounces judgment on itself
when it attempts to apply its rules to the standard of truth.
Among Catholics the state of opinion on these questions, whether it be
considered the result of unavoidable circumstances, or a sign of
ingenious accommodation, or a thing to be deplored, affords at least a
glaring refutation of the idea that we are united, for good or for evil,
in one common political system. The Church is vindicated by her
defenders, according to their individual inclinations, from the opposite
faults imputed to her; she is lauded, according to circumstances, for
the most contradictory merits, and her authority is invoked in exclusive
support of very various systems. O'Connell, Count de Montalembert,
Father Ventura, proclaim her liberal, constitutional, not to say
democratic, character; whilst such writers as Bonald and Father
Taparelli associate her with the cause of absolute government. Others
there are, too, who deny that the Church has a political tendency or
preference of any kind; who assert that she is altogether independent
of, and indifferent to, particular political institutions, and, while
insensible to their influence, seeks to exercise no sort of influence
over them. Each view may be plausibly defended, and the inexhaustible
arsenal of history seems to provide impartially instances in
corroboration of each. The last opinion can appeal to the example of the
Apostles and the early Christians, for whom, in the heathen empire, the
only part was unconditional obedience. This is dwelt upon by the early
apologists: "Oramus etiam pro imperatoribus, pro ministris eorum et
potestatibus, pro statu saeculi, pro rerum quiete, pro mora finis."[301]
It has the authority, too, of those who thought with St. Augustine that
the State had a sinful origin and character: "Primus fuit terrenae
civitatis conditor fratricida."[302] The Liberals, at the same time, are
strong in the authority of many scholastic writers, and of many of the
older Jesuit divines, of St. Thomas and Suarez, Bellarmine, and Mariana.
The absolutists, too, countenanced by Bossuet and the Gallican Church,
and quoting amply from the Old Testament, can point triumphantly to the
majority of Catholic countries in modern times. All these arguments are
at the same time serviceable to our adversaries; and those by which one
objection is answered help to fortify another.
The frequent recurrence of this sort of argument which appears to us as
treacherous for defence as it is popular as a weapon of attack, shows
that no very definite ideas prevail on the subject, and makes it
doubtful whether history, which passes sentence on so many theories, is
altogether consistent with any of these. Nevertheless it is obviously an
inquiry of the greatest importance, and one on which controversy can
never entirely be set at rest; for the relation of the spiritual and the
secular power is, like that of speculation and revelation, of religion
and nature, one of those problems which remain perpetually open, to
receive light from the meditations and experience of all ages, and the
complete solution of which is among the objects, and would be the end,
of all history.