Exploring journey of M. Hodister, agent of the Upper Congo
Company, up the Lomami river and across country to the
Lualaba, at Nyangwe.
AFRICA: 1890.
Journey of Mr. Garrett in the interior of Sierra Leone to the
upper waters of the Niger.
AFRICA: 1890.
Journey of Dr. Fleck from the western coast across the
Kalihari to Lake Ngami.
AFRICA: 1890-1891.
Italian possessions in the Red Sea united in the colony of
Eritrea.
AFRICA: 1890-1891.
Mission of Captain Lugard to Uganda and signature of a treaty
by its king acknowledging the supremacy of the British East
Africa Company.
AFRICA: 1890-1891.
Exploration by M. Paul Crampel of the central region between
the French territories on the Congo and Lake Tchad, ending in
the murder of M. Crampel and several of his companions.
AFRICA: 1890-1891.
Journey of Mr. Sharpe from Mandala, in the Shiré Highlands, to
Garenganze, the empire founded by an African adventurer,
Mshidi, in the Katanga copper country, between Lake Moero and
the Luapula river on the east, and the Lualaba on the west.
AFRICA: 1890-1891.
Journey of Lieutenant Mizon from the Niger to the Congo.
AFRICA: 1890-1891.
Journey of Captain Becker from Yambuya, on the Aruwimi,
north-northwest to the Wellé.
AFRICA: 1890-1892.
Italian explorations in the Somali countries by Signor
Robecchi, Lieutenant Baudi di Vesme, Prince Ruspoli, and
Captains Bottego and Grixoni.
AFRICA: 1890-1893.
Expedition of Dr. Stuhlmann, with Emin Pasha, from Bagamoyo,
via the Victoria Nyanza and the Albert Edward, to the plateau
west of the Albert Nyanza. From this point Dr. Stuhlmann
returned, while Emin pursued his way, intending it is said, to
reach Kibonge, on the right bank of the Congo, south of
Stanley Falls. He was murdered at Kinena, 150 miles northeast
of Kibonge, by the order of an Arab chief.
AFRICA: 1891.
Extension of the British Protectorate of Lagos over the
neighboring districts of Addo, Igbessa, and Ilaro, which form
the western boundary of Yoruba.
AFRICA: 1891.
Treaty between Great Britain and Portugal defining their
possessions; conceding to the former an interior extension of
her South African dominion up to the southern boundary of the
Congo Free State, and securing to the latter defined
territories on the Lower Zambesi, the Lower Shiré, and the
Nyassa, as well as the large block of her possessions on the
western coast.
AFRICA: 1891.
Convention between Portugal and the Congo Free State for the
division of the disputed district of Lunda.
AFRICA: 1891.
Convention of the Congo Free State with the Katanga Company,
an international syndicate, giving the Company preferential
rights over reputed mines in Katanga and Urua, with a third of
the public domain, provided it established an effective
occupation within three years.
AFRICA: 1891.
French annexation of the Gold Coast between Liberia and the
Grand Bassam.
AFRICA: 1891.
Opening of the Royal Trans-African Railway, in West Africa,
from Loanda to Ambaca, 140 miles.
AFRICA: 1891.
Survey of a railway route from the eastern coast to Victoria
Lake by the Imperial British East Africa Company.
AFRICA: 1891.
Exploration of the Jub River, in the Somali country, by
Commander Dundas.
AFRICA: 1891.
Exploration by Captain Dundas, from the eastern coast, up the
river Tana to Mount Kenia.
AFRICA: 1891.
Mr. Bent's exploration of the ruined cities of Mashonaland.
AFRICA: 1891.
Journey of M. Maistre from the Congo to the Shari.
AFRICA: 1891.
Journeys of Captain Gallwey in the Benin country, West Africa.
AFRICA: 1891.
Mission established by the Berlin Missionary Society in the
Konde country, at the northern end of Lake Nyassa.
AFRICA: 1891-1892.
Incorporation of the African Lakes Company with the British
South Africa Company. Organization of the administration of
Northern Zambesia and Nyassaland.
AFRICA: 1891-1892.
Expedition of the Katanga Company, under Captain Stairs, from
Bagamoyo to Lake Tanganyika, thence through the country at the
head of the most southern affluents of the Congo, the Lualaba
and the Luapula.
AFRICA: 1891-1892.
Belgian expeditions under Captain Bia and others to explore
the southeastern portion of the Congo Basin, on behalf of the
Katanga Company, resulting in the determination of the fact
that the Lukuga River is an outlet of Lake Tanganyika.
AFRICA: 1891-1892.
Journey of Dr. James Johnston across the continent, from
Benguela to the mouth of the Zambesi, through Bihe, Ganguela,
Barotse, the Kalihari Desert, Mashonaland, Manica, Gorongoza,
Nyassa, and the Shiré Highlands.
AFRICA: 1891-1892.
Expedition of Mr. Joseph Thomson, for the British South Africa
Company, from Kilimane or Quillimane on the eastern coast to
Lake Bangweolo.
{3677}
AFRICA: 1891-1892.
Journey of Captain Monteil from the Niger to Lake Tchad and
across the Sahara to Tripoli.
AFRICA: 1891-1892.
Exploration by Lieutenant Chaltin of the river Lulu, and the
country between the Aruwimi and the Welle Makua rivers, in the
Congo State.
AFRICA: 1891-1893.
Journey of Dr. Oscar Baumann from Tanga, a port on the eastern
coast, in the northern part of the German Protectorate;
passing to the south of Kilimanjaro, discovering two lakes
between that mountain and the Victoria Nyanza; exploring the
southeastern shores of the Victoria, traversing the Shashi
countries lying east of the lake, and the Urundi country
between the Victoria and Tanganyika.
AFRICA: 1891-1894.
Expedition under the command of Captain Van Kerckhoven and M.
de la Kéthulle de Ryhove, fitted out by the Congo Free State,
for the subjugation of the Arabs, the suppression of the slave
trade and the exploration of the country, throughout the
region of the Wellé or Ubangi Uellé and to the Nile.
AFRICA: 1892.
Decision of the Imperial British East Africa Company to
withdraw from Uganda.
AFRICA: 1892.
Practical conquest of Dahomey by the French, General Dodds
taking possession of the capital November 16.
AFRICA: 1892.
Journey of M. Méry in the Sahara to the south of Wargla,
resulting in a report favorable to the construction of a
railway to tap the Central Sudan.
AFRICA: 1892.
French expedition under Captain Binger to explore the southern
Sudan and to act conjointly with British officials in
determining the boundary between French and English
possessions.
AFRICA: 1892.
Journey of Mr. Sharpe from the Shiré River to Lake Moero or
Mweru and the Upper Luapula.
AFRICA: 1892-1893.
Construction of a line of telegraph by the British South
African Company, from Cape Colony, through Mashonaland, to
Fort Salisbury, with projected extension across the Zambesi
and by the side of Lakes Nyassa and Tanganyika to Uganda,—and
ultimately down the valley of the Nile.
AFRICA: 1892-1893.
French scientific mission, under M. Dècle, from Cape Town to
the sources of the Nile.
AFRICA: 1892-1893.
Italian explorations, under Captain Bòttego and Prince
Ruspoli, in the upper basin of the River Jub.
AFRICA: 1893.
Brussels Antislavery Conference, ratified in its action by the
Powers.
AFRICA: 1893.
Official mission of Sir Gerald Porter to Uganda, sent by the
British Government to report as to the expediency of the
withdrawal of British authority from that country.
AFRICA: 1893.
Scientific expedition of Mr. Scott-Elliot to Uganda.
AFRICA: 1893.
Scientific expedition of Dr. Gregory, of the British Museum,
from Mombassa, on the eastern coast, through Masailand to
Mount Kenia.
AFRICA: 1893.
Journey of Mr. Bent to Aksum, in Abyssinia, the ancient
capital and sacred city of the Ethiopians.
AFRICA: 1893.
Journey of M. Foureau in the Sahara, crossing the plateau of
Tademait from north to south.
AFRICA: 1893-1894.
German scientific survey of Mount Kilimanjaro, under Drs. Lent
and Volkens.
AFRICA: 1893-1894.
Expedition of Mr. Astor Chanler and Lieutenant von Höhnel from
Witu, on the eastern coast, to the Jombini Range and among the
Rendile.
AFRICA: 1893-1894.
Explorations of Baron von Uechtritz and Dr. Passarge on the
Benue.
AFRICA: 1893-1894.
Journey of Baron von Schele from the eastern coast to Lake
Nyassa, and thence by a direct route to Kihsa.
AFRICA: 1893-1894.
Journey of Count von Götzen across the continent, from
Dar-es-Salaam, on the eastern coast, to the Lower Congo.
AFRICA: 1894.
Treaty between Great Britain and the Congo Free State,
securing to the former a strip of land on the west side of the
Nile between the Albert Nyanza and 10° north latitude, and to
the latter the large Bahr-el-Ghazel region, westward. This
convention gave offense to France, and that country
immediately exacted from the Congo Free State a treaty
stipulating that the latter shall not occupy or exercise
political influence in a region which covers most of the
territory assigned to it by the treaty with Great Britain.
AFRICA: 1894.
Franco-German Treaty, determining the boundary line of the
Cameroons, or Kamerun.
AFRICA: 1894.
Treaty concluded by Captain Lugard, November 10, at Nikki, in
Borgu, confirming the rights claimed by the Royal Niger
Company over Borgu, and placing that country under British
protection.
AFRICA: 1894.
Agreement between the British South Africa Company and the
Government of Great Britain, signed November 24, 1894,
transferring to the direct administration of the Company the
Protectorate of Nyassaland, thereby extending its domain to
the south end of Lake Tanganyika.
AFRICA: 1894.
Renewed war of France with the Hovas of Madagascar.
AFRICA: 1894.
Expedition of Dr. Donaldson Smith from the Somali coast,
aiming to reach Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie, but stopped and
turned back by the Abyssinians, in December.
AFRICA: 1894.
Visit of Mr. Cecil Rhodes to England to arrange financially
for the extension of the Cape railway system northwards from
Mafeking into Matabeleland.
AFRICA: 1894.
Completed conquest of Dahomey by the French; capture of the
deposed king, January 25, and his deportation to exile in
Martinique. Decree of the French Government, June 22,
directing the administrative organization of the "colony of
Dahomey and Dependencies"; with a ministerial order of the
same date which divides the new conquest into "Territoirés
annexés; Territoirés protégés; Territoirés d'action
politique."
AFRICA: 1894.
Occupation of Timbuctoo by a French force.
AFRICA: 1894.
Journey of Count von Götzen across the continent, from the
eastern coast, through Ruanda and the Great Forest to and
along the Lowa, an eastern tributary of the Congo, reaching
the Lower Congo in December.
AFRICA: 1894.
Exploration of the Upper Congo and the Lukuga by Mr. R. Dorsey
Mohun, American Agent on the Congo, and Dr. Hinde.
AFRICA: 1894.
Scientific to the Zambesi and Lake Tanganyika.
AFRICA: 1894-1895.
War of the Italians in their colony of Eritrea with both the
Abyssinians and the Mahdists. Italian occupation of Kassala as
a base of operations against the Mahdists.
{3678}
AFRICA: 1895.
Franco-British agreement, signed January 21, 1895, respecting
the "Hinterland" of Sierra Leone, which secures to France the
Upper Niger basin.
AFRICA: 1895.
Convention between Belgium and France signed February 5,
recognizing a right of pre-emption on the part of the latter,
with regard to the Congo State, in case Belgium should at any
time renounce the sovereignty which King Leopold desires to
transfer to it.
AFRICA: 1895.
Russian scientific expedition to Abyssinia, under Lieutenant
Leontieff.
----------AFRICA: End--------
AKKADIANS,
ACCADIANS.
See SEMITES: PRIMITIVE BABYLONIA (page 2888).
ALEXANDRIA:
Early Christian Church.
See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100,
and 100-312 (pages 43 and 445).
ALEXANDRIA:
Library.
See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2003).
AMANA COMMUNITY, The.
See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1843-1874 (page 2945).
----------AMERICA: Start--------
AMERICA:
The discoverers of the Northern Continent.
Mr. Harrisse's conclusions.
"The main points attained in this elaborate survey of all the
facts and documents known can be recapitulated as
follows,—perhaps with less assurance than a desire to be
succinct may undesignedly impart to our expressions:
1. The discovery of the continent of North America, and the
first landing on its east coast were accomplished not by
Sebastian Cabot, but by his father John, in 1497, under the
auspices of King Henry VII.
2. The first landfall was not Cape Breton Island, as is stated
in the planisphere made by Sebastian Cabot in 1544, but eight
or ten degrees further north, on the coast of Labrador; which
was then ranged by John Cabot, probably as far as Cape
Chudley.
3. This fact was tacitly acknowledged by all pilots and
cosmographers throughout the first half of the 16th century;
and the knowledge of it originated with Sebastian Cabot
himself, whatever may have been afterwards his contrary
statements in that respect.
4. The voyage of 1498, also accomplished under the British
flag, was likewise carried out by John Cabot personally. The
landfall on that occasion must be placed south of the first;
and the exploration embraced the northeast coast of the
present United States, as far as Florida.
5. In the vicinity of the Floridian east coast, John Cabot, or
one of his lieutenants, was detected by some Spanish vessel,
in 1498 or 1499.
6. The English continued in 1501, 1502, 1504, and afterwards,
to send ships to Newfound·land, chiefly for the purpose of
fisheries. …
7. The Portuguese mariners who lived in the Azores were the
first who probed the Atlantic in search of oceanic islands and
continents. Their objective, after the discovery achieved by
Christopher Columbus, was the north-east coast of the New
World.
8. The earliest authentic records of Lusitanian transatlantic
expeditions begin only with Gaspar Corte-Real, who made three,
and not two voyages only; all to the same regions, as follows:
The first voyage of that navigator was undertaken previous to
May, 1500, in the direction of Greenland and Newfoundland, and
proved an absolute failure. The second voyage lasted from the
early part of the summer of 1500 until the autumn of that
year, and embraced the east coast of Newfoundland, from its
northernmost point down to Cape Race. The third expedition set
out from Lisbon early In the spring of 1501. It was composed
of three vessels. One of these returned to port On the 8th or
9th of October, the second on the 11th following. As to the
third, which was under the Immediate command of Gaspar
Corte-Real, it was ice-bound or shipwrecked, we do not know
when nor where, but probably in Hudson Bay, during the winter
of 1501-1502. The country visited during the first part of the
expedition seems to have been the northern extremity of
Newfoundland and the coast of Labrador.
9. The expedition of Miguel Corte-Real in search of his
brother, sailed May 10, 1502, and was also lost. …
10. Portugal continued to send ships to the fishing banks; and
the region south of Newfoundland was explored, particularly by
João Alvares Fagundes before 1521. …
11. The assertion that already in the time of Christopher
Columbus navigators and geographers believed in the existence
of a continent interposed between the West Indies and Asia,
and which was not Cathay, stands uncontroverted either by
contemporary authorities, or by the early Spanish charts. Nay,
it is corroborated by that class of proofs.
12. The absolute insularity of Cuba was an acknowledged fact
years before the periplus made by Sebastian de Ocampo, in
1508.
13. The mainland of the New World was believed to be a
continent distinct from Cathay and from India the moment
navigators commenced to search after a strait leading from the
Atlantic Ocean to the Asiatic seas.
14. The idea that America was a mere prolongation of Asia
ceased therefore to be entertained almost immediately after
the discovery of its east coast; by John Cabot in 1497; by
Americus Vespuccius, before 1501; by Gaspar Corte-Real, before
1502.
15. Christopher Columbus himself soon ceased to think that he
had discovered Cathay, or the Asiatic coast.
16. So early as October, 1501, the notion prevailed in Europe
that from Circulus articus to Pollus Antarticus, the newly
discovered land formed a single coast line belonging to a
separate continent."
_H. Harrisse,
Discovery of North America,
part 1, book 8, chapter 5._
AMERICA:
The alleged first voyage of Vespucius.
In the first volume of this work (page 52) the argument in
support of the disputed claim for Amerigo Vespucci, or
Vespucius, that he made a voyage in 1497-8 during which he
coasted the American continent from Honduras to Cape Hatteras,
is given in an excerpt from Dr. Fiske's "Discovery of
America." The following, from a paper by Mr. Clements R.
Markham, read before the Royal Geographical Society in June,
1892, presents, in part, the counter argument: "Vespucci's
account of his alleged first voyage is briefly as follows. He
says that he went to Spain to engage in mercantile pursuits,
but that after some years he resolved to see the world and its
marvels. King Ferdinand having ordered four ships to go forth
and make discoveries to the westward, Vespucci was chosen by
His Highness to go in the fleet, to assist in the work of
discovery. They sailed from Cadiz on May 10th, 1497, and
reached Grand Canary, which, he says, is in 27° 30' North, and
280 leagues from Lisbon.
{3679}
There they remained eight days, and then sailed for
thirty-seven (twenty-seven, Latin version) days on a W. S. W.
course ('Ponente pigliando una quarta di libeccio'), reaching
land when they were nearly 1,000 leagues from Grand Canary.
For they found, by their instruments, that they were in 16°
North latitude and 75° West longitude. Vespucci then gives a
long account of the natives. After some days they came to a
village built over the water, like Venice, about forty-four
houses resting on very thick poles. Sailing along the land for
80 leagues, they came to another people, speaking a different
language, where Vespucci saw an iguana being roasted, which he
describes. He made an excursion inland for 18 leagues, and
found the country very populous. This place was on the Tropic
of Cancer, where the latitude is 23° North. The province is
called 'Parias' (Latin version), 'Lariab' (Italian version).
Thence they sailed, always in sight of the land, on a
Northwest course ('verso el maestrale') for 870 leagues,
having intercourse with many tribes, and finding some gold.
When they had been absent thirteen months the ships begun to
leak, and required caulking, so they entered the best harbour
in the world, where there were many friendly people. Here they
refitted, and remained for thirty-seven days. They then sailed
eastward for seven days, and carne to some islands 100 leagues
off the mainland, inhabited by fierce people called 'Iti.'
They had encounters with the natives, when one of their men
was killed and twenty-two were wounded. They then sailed for
Spain with 222 slaves, arriving at Cadiz on October 15th,
1498, where they sold their slaves, and were well received.
This is the story of Vespucci. It has been considered to be a
fabrication from that time to this, for the following reasons.
Vespucci was at Seville or San Lucar, as a provision merchant,
from the middle of April, 1497, to the end of May, 1498, as is
shown by the official records, examined by Muñoz, of expenses
incurred in fitting out the ships for western expeditions.
Moreover, no expedition for discovery was despatched by order
of King Ferdinand in 1497; and there is no allusion to any
such expedition in any contemporary record. The internal
evidence against the truth of the story is even stronger.
Vespucci says that he sailed West South West for nearly 1,000
leagues from Grand Canary. This would have taken him to the
Gulf of Paria, which is rather more than 900 leagues West
South West from Grand Canary. It would never have taken him
near the land at 16° North. Even with a course direct for that
point, instead of a West North West course, and disregarding
intervening land, the distance he gives would leave him 930
miles short of the alleged position. No actual navigator would
have made such a blunder. He evidently quoted the dead
reckoning from Ojeda's voyage, and invented the latitude at
random. It is useless for the defenders of Vespucci to refer
to the faulty reckonings of those days, and to pilots thinking
they were near the Canaries when they were off the Azores.
This is a different matter. It is the case of a man alleging
that he has fixed his position by observations, and giving a
dead reckoning nearly a thousand miles out, in the belief that
it would bring him to the same point. It is fudging, but the
fudging of a man ignorant of a pilot's business. His statement
that he went Northwest for 870 leagues (2,610 miles) from a
position in latitude 23° North, is still more preposterous.
Such a course and distance would have taken him right across
the continent to somewhere in British Columbia. The chief
incidents in the voyage are those of the Ojeda voyage in 1499.
There is the village built on piles called Little Venice.
There is the best harbour in the world, which was the Gulf of
Cariaco, where Ojeda refitted. There was the encounter with
natives, in which one Spaniard was killed and 22 were wounded.
These numbers are convincing evidence. … Vespucci does not
mention the commanders of the expedition, nor any Spanish name
whatever, and only gives two names of places, namely, 'Parias'
or 'Lariab,' and 'Iti,' both imaginary. Humboldt was aware of
the proofs that Vespucci could not have been absent from Spain
in 1497-98, and that the incidents of his alleged first voyage
belonged to that of Ojeda; but he was reluctant to believe in
actual fraud. He therefore suggested that there were misprints
with regard to the dates; that the first voyage of Vespucci
was that of Ojeda; and that the Florentine merchant returned
home from Española in time to join the voyage of Pinzon in
1500, which was the second voyage. But no one was allowed to
land from Ojeda's ships at Española, and the dates are too
detailed, and occur too clearly in both versions, to admit of
the wholesale alterations demanded by this theory. The Baron
Varnhagen, in his defences of Vespucci, published in 1865 at
Lima, and in 1869 at Vienna, takes a bolder course. He adopts
the whole of the statements of Vespucci as perfectly true,
including the dates; but his defence does not amount to much.
He was evidently unaware of the extent of the error in
Vespucci's reckoning, and did not realise the inevitable
inference. He got over the Little Venice difficulty by
suggesting that there were many other villages built on piles,
and that there might have been one on the coast of Tabasco.
That is true. There was also the old Quebec hotel in
Portsmouth Harbour; but this is not the point, and he failed
to see where the difficulty lies. The Little Venice was a
discovery in Ojeda's voyage when Vespucci was present. Its
recurrence here, and its omission in the version of Ojeda's
voyage by Vespucci, are the suspicious points which Varnhagen
fails to explain away. Of the words 'Parias' and 'Lariab' in
the two versions, Varnhagen prefers the latter. It is quite
impossible to tell which form, or whether either, was in the
original manuscript. Although there is no such place as
'Lariab,' yet a Mexican author, named Orozco, said that some
of the names of places near Tampico, where the Huasteca
language is spoken, ended in 'ab.' This is a point, so far as
it goes—which is not very far. Even the voyage of 870 leagues
Northwest from latitude 23°, does not daunt the Baron. He
ignores Vespucci's course, and takes him a marvellous voyage
round the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the peninsula of
Florida, to Cape Hatteras, where he certainly does not find
the best harbour in the world. Thence Vespucci is taken to
Bermuda, identified as 'Iti,' and so home. It is well known
that Bermuda was uninhabited before its settlement by
Europeans, and that there were no signs of previous
inhabitants; while the 'Iti' of Vespucci was densely peopled
with fierce savages. But this is ignored by Varnhagen.
{3680}
It would certainly have been a most extraordinary voyage, and
it is still more extraordinary, that though the secret must
have been known to many people at the time, it should have
been inviolably kept without any object in such secrecy, and
that the discoveries should have appeared on no map and in no
narrative. Yet Vespucci's story, though a bold flight, bears
no comparison with the grandeur of Varnhagen's conception of
it."
_C. R. Markham,
Fourth Centenary of his Discovery,
note 2 (Royal Geographical Society,
Proceedings, 1892, September)._
AMERICA:
Monetary effects of the discovery of America.
See MONEY AND BANKING: 16-17TH CENTURIES (page 2208).
----------AMERICA: End--------
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Iroquois Confederacy.
Hiawatha the founder.
See IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY (page 1802).
AMERICAN COLONIAL TRADE.
See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MODERN.
AMERICAN LIBRARIES.
See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2017, and after).
AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION.
See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2021).
AMHERST COLLEGE, The founding of.
See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 733).
AMPERE'S ELECTRO-MAGNETIC DISCOVERIES.
See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION:
A. D. 1820-1825 (page 772).
[Transcriber's note: For a detailed look at electrical
theory of 1892.]
_T. O'Conor Sloane,
The Standard Electrical Dictionary,
www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26535._
AMSTERDAM, The founding of the Bank of.
See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2208).
ANÆSTHETICS, The discovery of.
See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 19TH CENTURY (page 2143).
ANARCHISM AND NIHILISM.
See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1839-1894;
and 1860-1870 (pages 2941 and 2948).
ANDORRA.
"The pastoral and picturesque valley of Andorra, a jumble of
hills, enclosed on all sides by the Pyrenean spurs, extends
about 7 L. long by 6 broad, and is bounded by the French and
Spanish ridges, by Puigcerdá to the South and East, by the
Comté de Foix (départ. de l'Ariège) to the North, and by the
Corregimiento of Talaru to the West. Watered by the Balira [or
Valira], Ordino, and Os, it is one of the wildest districts of
the Spanish Pyrenees, abounding in timber, which is floated
down the Balira and Segre to Tortosa. The name Andorra is
derived from the Arabic Aldarra, 'a place thick with trees,'
among which is found the Cabra Montaraz, with bears, boars,
and wolves."
_R. Ford,
Handbook for Travellers in Spain,
part 1, section 6._
"The republic of Andorra is said to owe its existence to a
defeat of the Saracens by Charlemagne or Louis le Débonnaire,
but in reality up to the French Revolution the valley enjoyed
no sovereign rights whatever. It was a barony of the Counts of
Urgel and of Aragon. In 1278 it was decided that Andorra
should be held jointly by the Bishops of Urgel and the Counts
of Foix. In 1793 the French republic declined to receive the
customary tribute, and in 1810 the Spanish Cortes abolished
the feudal regime. Andorra thus became an independent state.
The inhabitants, however, continue to govern themselves in
accordance with old feudal customs, which are not at all
reconcilable with the principles of modern republics. The land
belongs to a few families. There is a law of entail, and
younger brothers become the servants of the head of the
family, whose hospitality they enjoy only on condition of
their working for him. The tithes were only abolished in 1842.
The 'liberty' of these mountaineers consists merely in
exemption from the Spanish conscription and impunity in
smuggling; and, to increase their revenues, they have recently
established a gambling-table. Their legitimate business
consists in cattle-breeding, and there are a few forges and a
woollen factory. The republic of Andorra recognises two
suzerains, viz. the Bishop of Urgel, who receives an annual
tribute of £25, and the French Government, to whom double that
sum is paid. Spain and France are represented by two provosts,
the commandant of Séo de Urgel exercising the functions of
viceroy. The provosts command the militia and appoint the
bailiffs, or judges. They, together with a judge of appeal,
alternately appointed by France and Spain, and two
'rahonadores,' or defenders of Andorran privileges, form the
Cortes. Each parish is governed by a consul, a vice-consul,
and twelve councillors elected by the heads of families. A
General Council, of which the consuls and delegates of the
parishes are members, meets at the village of Andorra. But in
spite of these fictions Andorra is an integral part of Spain,
and the carabineers never hesitate to cross the frontiers of
this sham republic. By language, manners, and customs the
Andorrans are Catalans. Exemption from war has enabled them to
grow comparatively rich."
_E. Reclus,
The Earth and its Inhabitants: Europe, Spain,
section 6._
ANN ARBOR, University at.
See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 732).
ANNAM.
See TONKIN (page 3114).
ANSELM: Dispute with William Rufus.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1087-1135 (page 796).
ANTIOCH, The early Christian Church in.
See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100 (page 435).
ANTIOCH COLLEGE.
See EDUCATION (page 744).
ANTI-SEMITE MOVEMENT, The.
See JEWS: 19TH CENTURY (page 1931).
APOSTLES, Missionary labors of the.
See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100 (page 433).
ARABS:
Ancient and Mediæval Commerce.
See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE.
ARABS:
Medical Science.
See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 7-11TH CENTURIES (page 2129).
----------ARCTIC EXPLORATION: Start--------
ARCTIC EXPLORATION:
A Chronological Record.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1500-1502.
Discovery and exploration of the coast of Labrador and the
entrance of Hudson Strait by the Cortereals.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1553.
Voyage of Willoughby and Chancellor from London, in search of
a northeast passage to India. Chancellor reached Archangel on
the White Sea, and opened trade with Russia, while Willoughby
perished with all his crew.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1556.
Exploring voyage of Stephen Burroughs to the northeast, approaching Nova Zembla.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1576-1578.
Voyages of Frobisher to the coast of Labrador and the entrance
to Davis Strait, discovering the bay which bears his name, and
which he supposed to be a strait leading to Cathay; afterwards
entering Hudson Strait.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1580.
Northeastern voyage of Pet and Jackman, passing Nova Zembla.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1585-1587.
Three voyages of John Davis from Dartmouth, in search of a
northwestern passage to India, entering the strait between
Greenland and Baffinland which bears his name and exploring it
to the 72nd degree north latitude.
{3681}
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1594-1595.
Dutch expeditions (the first and second under Barentz) to the
northeast, passing to the north of Nova Zembla, or Novaya
Zem]ya, but making no progress beyond it.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1596-1597.
Third voyage of Barentz, when he discovered and coasted
Spitzbergen, wintered in Nova Zembla with his crew, lost his
ship in the ice, and perished, with one third of his men, in
undertaking to reach the coast of Lapland in open boats.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1602.
Exploration for a northwest passage by Captain George
Weymouth, for the Muscovy Company and the Levant Company,
resulting in nothing but a visitation of the entrance to
Hudson Strait.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1607.
Polar voyage of Henry Hudson, for the Muscovy Company of
London, attaining the northern coast of Spitzbergen.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1608.
Voyage of Henry Hudson to Nova Zembla for the Muscovy Company.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1610.
Voyage of Henry Hudson, in English employ, to seek the
northwest passage, being the voyage in which he passed through
the Strait and entered the great Bay to which his name has
been given, and in which he perished at the hands of a
mutinous crew.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1612-1614.
Exploration of Hudson Bay by Captains Button, Bylot, and
Baffin, practically discovering its true character and shaking
the previous theory of its connection with the Pacific Ocean.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1614.
Exploring expedition of the Muscovy Company to the Greenland
coast, under Robert Fotherby, with William Baffin for pilot,
making its way to latitude 80°.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1616.
Voyage into the northwest made by Captain Baffin with Captain
Bylot, which resulted in the discovery of Baffin Bay, Smith
Sound, Jones Sound, and Lancaster Sound.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1619-1620.
Voyage of Jens Munk, sent by the King of Denmark to seck the
northwest passage; wintering in Hudson Bay, and losing there
all but two of his crew, with whom he succeeded in making the
voyage home.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1632.
Voyages of Captains Fox and James into Hudson Bay.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1670.
Grant and charter to the Hudson Bay Company, by King Charles
II. of England, conferring on the Company possession and
government of the whole watershed of the Bay, and naming the
country Prince Rupert Land.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1616.
Voyage of Captain John Wood to Nova Zembla, seeking the
northeastern passage.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1728.
Exploration of the northern coasts of Kamtschatka by the
Russian Captain Vitus Behring, and discovery of the Strait
which bears his name.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1741.
Exploration of northern channels of Hudson Bay by Captain
Middleton.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1743.
Offer of £20,000 by the British Parliament for the discovery
of a northwest passage to the Pacific.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1746.
Further exploration of northern channels of Hudson Bay by
Captains Moor and Smith.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1753-1754.
Attempted exploration of Hudson Bay by the colonial Captain
Swaine, sent out from Philadelphia, chiefly through the
exertions of Dr. Franklin.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1765.
Russian expedition of Captain Tchitschakoff, attempting to
reach the Pacific from Archangel.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1768-1769.
Exploration of Nova Zembla by a Russian officer, Lieutenant
Rosmyssloff.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1769-1770.
Exploring journey of Samuel Hearne, for the Hudson Bay
Company, from Churchill, its most northern post, to Coppermine
River and down the river to the Polar Sea.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1773.
Voyage of Captain Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave, toward the
North Pole, reaching the northeastern extremity of
Spitzbergen.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1779.
Exploration of the Arctic coast, east and west of Behring
Strait, by Captain Cook, in his last voyage.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1789.
Exploring journey of Alexander Mackenzie, for the Northwest
Company, and discovery of the great river flowing into the
Polar Sea, which bears his name.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1806.
Whaling voyage of Captain Scoresby to latitude 81° 30' and
longitude 19° east.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1818.
Unsatisfactory voyage of Commander John Ross to Baffin Bay and
into Lancaster Sound.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1818.
Voyage of Captain Buchan towards the North Pole, reaching the
northern part of Spitzbergen.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1820.
First voyage of Lieutenant Parry, exploring for a northwest
passage, through Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, Lancaster Sound,
and Barrow Strait, to Melville Island.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1822.
Journey of Captain (afterwards Sir John) Franklin, Dr.
Richardson, and Captain (afterwards Sir George) Back, from
Fort York, on the western coast of Hudson Bay, by the way of
Lake Athabasca, Great Slave Lake, and Coppermine River, to
Coronation Gulf, opening into the Arctic Ocean.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1824.
Russian expeditions for the survey of Nova Zembla.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1820-1824.
Russian surveys of the Siberian Polar region by Wrangel and
Anjou.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1821-1823.
Second voyage of Captain Parry, exploring for a northwest
passage to the Pacific Ocean, through Hudson Strait and Fox
Channel, discovering the Fury-and-Hecla Strait, the northern
outlet of the Bay.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1821-1824.
Russian surveying expedition to Nova Zembla, under Lieutenant
Lutke.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1822.
Whaling voyage of Captain Scoresby to the eastern coast of
Greenland, which was considerably traced and mapped by him.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1822-1823.
Scientific expedition of Captain Sabine, with Commander
Clavering, to Spitzbergen and the eastern coast of Greenland.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1824-1825.
Third voyage of Captain Parry, exploring for a northwest
passage, by way of Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, and Lancaster
Sound, to Prince Regent Inlet, where one of his ships was
wrecked.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1825-1827.
Second journey of Franklin, Richardson, and Back, from Canada
to the Arctic Ocean; Franklin and Back by the Mackenzie River
and westward along the coast to longitude 149° 37'; Richardson
by the Mackenzie River and the Arctic coast eastward to
Coppermine River.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1826.
Voyage of Captain Beechey through Behring Strait and eastward
along the Arctic coast as far as Point Barrow.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1827.
Fourth voyage of Captain Parry, attempting to reach the North
Pole, by ship to Spitzbergen and by boats to 82° 45' north
latitude.
{3682}
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1829-1833.
Expedition under Captain Ross, fitted out by Mr. Felix Booth,
to seek a northwest passage, resulting in the discovery of the
position of the north magnetic pole, southwest of Boothia, not
far from which Ross' ship was ice-bound for three years.
Abandoning the vessel at last, the explorers made their way to
Baffin Bay and were rescued by a whale-ship.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1833-1835.
Journey of Captain Back from Canada, via Great Slave Lake, to
the river which he discovered and which bears his name,
flowing to the Polar Sea.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1836-1837.
Voyage of Captain Back for surveying the straits and channels
in the northern extremity of Hudson Bay.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1837-1839.
Expeditions of Dease and Simpson, in the service of the Hudson
Bay Company, determining the Arctic coast line as far east as
Boothia.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1845.
Departure from England of the government expedition under Sir
John Franklin, in two bomb-vessels, the Erebus and the Terror,
which entered Baffin Bay in July and were never seen
afterward.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848.
Expedition of Sir John Richardson and Mr. John Rae down the
Mackenzie River, searching for traces of Sir John Franklin and
his crews.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848-1849.
Expedition under Sir James Clarke Ross to Baffin Bay and
westward as far as Leopold Island, searching for Sir John
Franklin.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848-1851.
Searching expedition of the Herald and the Plover, under
Captain Kellett and Commander Moore, through Behring Strait
and westward to Coppermine River, learning nothing of the fate
of the Franklin party.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850.
Searching expedition sent out by Lady Franklin, under Captain
Forsyth, for the examination of Prince Regent Inlet.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851.
United States Grinnell Expedition, sent to assist the search
for Sir John Franklin and his crew, consisting of two ships,
the Advance and the Rescue, furnished by Mr. Henry Grinnell
and officered and manned by the U. S. Government, Lieutenant
De Haven commanding and Dr. Kane surgeon. Frozen into the ice
in Wellington Channel, in September, 1850, the vessels drifted
helplessly northward until Grinnell Land was seen and named,
then southward and westward until the next June, when they
escaped in Baffin Bay.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851.
Franklin search expedition, sent out by the British
Government, under Captain Penny, who explored Wellington
Channel and Cornwallis Island by sledge journeys.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851.
Discovery of traces of Franklin and his men at Cape Riley and
Beechey Island, by Captain Ommaney and Captain Austin.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1852.
Franklin search expedition under Captain Collinson, through
Behring Strait and eastward into Prince of Wales Strait,
sending sledge parties to Melville Island.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1854.
Franklin search expedition under Captain McClure, through
Behring Strait and westward, between Banks Land and Prince
Albert Land, attaining a point within 25 miles of Melville
Sound, already reached from the East; thus demonstrating the
existence of a northwest passage, though not accomplishing the
navigation of it. McClure received knighthood, and a reward of
£10,000 was distributed to the officers and crew of the
expedition.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1851.
Expedition of Dr. Rae, sent by the British Government to
descend the Coppermine River and search the southern coast of
Wollaston Land, which he did, exploring farther along the
coast of the continent eastward to a point opposite King
William's Land.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1851-1852.
Franklin search expedition sent out by Lady Franklin under
Captain Kennedy, for a further examination of Prince Regent
Inlet and the surrounding region.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1852-1854.
Franklin search expedition of five ships sent out by the
British Government under Sir Edward Belcher, with Captains
McClintock, Kellett, and Sherard Osborn under his command.
Belcher and Osborn, going up Wellington Channel to
Northumberland Sound, were frozen fast; McClintock and Kellett
experienced the same misfortune near Melville Island, where
they had received Captain McClure and his crew, escaping from
their abandoned ship. Finally all the ships of Belcher's fleet
except one were abandoned. One, the Resolute, drifted out into
Davis Strait in 1855, was rescued, bought by the United States
Government and presented to Queen Victoria.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1853-1854.
Hudson Bay Company expedition by Dr. Rae, to Repulse Bay and
Pelly Bay, on the Gulf of Boothia, where Dr. Rae found Eskimos
in possession of articles which had belonged to Sir John
Franklin, and his men, and was told that in the winter of 1850
they saw white men near King William's Land, traveling
southward, dragging sledges and a boat, and, afterwards saw
dead bodies and graves on the mainland.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1853-1855.
Grinnell expedition, under Dr. Kane, proceeding straight
northward through Baffin Bay, Smith Sound and Kennedy Channel,
nearly to the 79th degree of latitude, where the vessel was
locked in ice and remained fast until abandoned in the spring
of 1855, the party escaping to Greenland and being rescued by
an expedition under Lieutenant Hartstein which the American
Government had sent to their relief.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1855.
Cruise of the U. S. ship Vincennes, Lieutenant John Rodgers
commanding, in the Arctic Sea, via Behring Strait to Wrangel
Land.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1855.
Expedition of Mr. Anderson, of the Hudson Bay Company, down
the Great Fish River to Point Ogle at its mouth, seeking
traces of the party of Sir John Franklin.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1857-1859.
Search expedition sent out by Lady Franklin, under Captain
McClintock, which became ice-bound in Melville Bay, August,
1857, and drifted helplessly for eight months, over 1,200
miles; escaped from the ice in April, 1858; refitted in
Greenland and returned into Prince Regent Inlet, whence
Captain McClintock searched the neighboring regions by sledge
journeys, discovering, at last, In King William's Land, not
only remains but records of the lost explorers, learning that
they were caught in the ice somewhere in or about Peel Sound,
September, 1846; that Sir John Franklin died on the 11th of
the following June; that the ships were deserted on the 22d of
April, 1848, on the northwest coast of King William's Land,
and that the survivors, 105 in number, set out for Back or
Great Fish River. They perished probably one by one on the
way.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1860-1861.
Expedition of Dr. Hayes to Smith Sound; wintering on the
Greenland side at latitude 78° 17'; crossing the Sound with
sledges and tracing Grinnell Land to about 82° 45'.
{3683}
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1860-1862.
Expedition of Captain Hall on the whaling ship George Henry,
and discovery of relics of Frobisher.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1864-1869.
Residence of Captain Hall among the Eskimos on the north side
of Hudson Strait and search for further relics of the Franklin
expedition.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1867.
Tracing of the southern coast of Wrangel Land by Captains Long
and Raynor, of the whaling ships Nile and Reindeer.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1867.
Transfer of the territory, privileges and rights of the Hudson
Bay Company to the Dominion of Canada.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1868.
Swedish Polar expedition, directed by Professor Nordenskiöld,
attaining latitude 81° 42', on the 18th meridian of east
longitude.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1869.
Yacht voyage of Dr. Hayes to the Greenland coasts.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1869-1870.
German Polar expedition, under Captain Koldewey, one vessel of
which was crushed, the crew escaping to an ice floe and
drifting 1,100 miles, reaching finally a Danish settlement on
the Greenland coast, while the other explored the east coast
of Greenland to latitude 77°.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1871-1872.
Voyage of the steamer Polaris, fitted out by the U. S.
Government, under Captain Hall; passing from Baffin Bay,
through Smith Sound and Kennedy Channel, into what Kane and
Hayes had supposed to be open sea, but which proved to be the
widening of a strait, called Robeson Strait by Captain Hall,
thus going beyond the most northerly point that had previously
been reached in Arctic exploration. Wintering in latitude 81°
38' (where Captain Hall died), the Polaris was turned homeward
the following August. During a storm, when the ship was
threatened with destruction by the ice, seventeen of her crew
and party were left helplessly on a floe, which drifted with
them for 1,500 miles, until they were rescued by a passing
vessel. Those on the Polaris fared little better. Forced to
run their sinking ship ashore, they wintered in huts and made
their way south in the spring, until they met whale-ships
which took them on board.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1872-1874.
Austro-Hungarian expedition, under Captain Weyprecht and
Lieutenant Payer, seeking the northeast passage, with the
result of discovering and naming Franz Josef Land, Crown
Prince Rudolf Land and Petermann Land, the latter (seen, not
visited) estimated to be beyond latitude 83°. The explorers
were obliged to abandon their ice-locked steamer, and make
their way by sledges and boats to Nova Zembla, where they were
picked up.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1875.
Voyage of Captain Young, attempting to navigate the northwest
passage through Lancaster Sound, Barrow Strait and Peel
Strait, but being turned back by ice in the latter.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1875-1876.
English expedition under Captain Nares, in the Alert, and the
Discovery, attaining by ship the high latitude of 82° 27', in
Smith Sound, and advancing by sledges to 83° 20' 26", while
exploring the northern shore of Grinnell Land and the
northwest coast of Greenland.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1876-1878.
Norwegian North-Atlantic expedition, for a scientific
exploration of the sea between Norway, the Faroe Islands,
Iceland, Jan Mayen, and Spitzbergen.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878.
Discovery of the island named "Einsamkeit," in latitude 77°
40' North and longitude 860 East, by Captain Johannesen, of
the Norwegian schooner Nordland.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878-1879.
Final achievement of the long-sought, often attempted
northeast passage, from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, by
the Swedish geographer and explorer, Baron Nordenskiöld, on
the steamer Vega, which made the voyage from Gothenburg to
Yokohama, Japan, through the Arctic Sea, coasting the Russian
and Siberian shores.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878-1883.
Six annual expeditions to the Arctic Seas of the ship Willem
Barentz, sent out by the Dutch Arctic Committee.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879.
Cruise of Sir Henry Gore-Booth and Captain Markham, R. N., in
the cutter Isbjorn to Nova Zembla and in Barentz Sea and the
Kara Sea.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879-1880.
Journey of Lieutenant Schwatka from Hudson Bay to King William
Island, and exploration of the western and southern shores of
the latter, searching for the journals and logs of the
Franklin expedition.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879-1882.
Polar voyage of the Jeannette, fitted out by the proprietor of
the New York Herald and commanded by Commander De Long, United
States Navy. The course taken by the Jeannette was through
Behring Strait towards Wrangel Land, and then northerly, until
she became ice-bound when she drifted helplessly for nearly
two years, only to be crushed at last. The officers and crew
escaped in three boats, one of which was lost in a storm; the
occupants of the other two boats reached different mouths of
the river Lena. One of these two boats, commanded by Engineer
Melville, was fortunate enough to find a settlement and obtain
speedy relief. The other, which contained commander De Long,
landed in a region of desolation, and all but two of its
occupants perished of starvation and cold.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1880-1882.
First and second cruises of the United States Revenue Steamer
Corwin in the Arctic Ocean, via Behring Strait, to Wrangel
Land seeking information concerning the Jeannette and
searching for two missing whaling ships.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1880-1882.
Two voyages of Mr. Leigh Smith to Franz Josef Land, in his
yacht Eira, in the first of which a considerable exploration
of the southern coast was made, while the second resulted in
the loss of the ship and a perilous escape of the party in
boats to Nova Zembla, where they were rescued.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881.
Expedition of the steamer Rodgers to search for the missing
explorers of the Jeannette; entering the Arctic Sea through
Behring Strait, but abruptly stopped by the burning of the
Rodgers, on the 30th of November, in St. Lawrence Bay.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881.
Cruise of the United States Alliance, Commander Wadleigh, via
Spitzbergen, to 79° 3' 36" north latitude, searching for the
Jeannette.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881-1884.
International undertaking of expeditions to establish Arctic
stations for simultaneous meteorological and magnetic
observations: by the United States at Smith Sound and Point
Barrow; by Great Britain at Fort Rae; by Russia at the mouth
of the Lena and in Nova Zembla; by Denmark at Godhaab, in
Greenland; by Holland at Dickson's Haven, near the mouth of
the Yenisei; by Germany in Cumberland Sound, Davis Strait; by
Austro-Hungary on Jan Mayen Island; by Sweden at Mussel Bay in
Spitzbergen. The United States expedition to Smith Sound,
under Lieutenant Greeley, established its station on Discovery
Bay. Exploring parties sent out attained the highest latitude
ever reached, namely 83° 24'. After remaining two winters and
failing to receive expected supplies, which had been
intercepted by the ice, Greeley and his men, twenty-five in
number, started southward, and all but seven perished on the
way. The survivors were rescued, in the last stages of
starvation, by a vessel sent to their relief under Captain
Schley, United States Navy.
{3684}
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1882-1883.
Danish Arctic expedition of the Dijmphna, under Lieutenant
Hovgaard; finding the Varna of the Dutch Meteorological
Expedition beset in the ice at 69° 42' North latitude and 64°
45' East longitude; both vessels becoming frozen in together
and drifting for nearly twelve months, being carried to 71°
North; the Dijmphna taking the crew of the Varna, which
succumbed to the ice pressure and went down; the Danish ship
finally being liberated, August 1, 1893, and regaining Vardo,
Norway, in October of that year.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883.
Expedition of Lieutenant Ray, United States Navy, from Point
Barrow, on the Arctic Ocean, to Meade River.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883.
Expedition of Baron Nordenskiöld to Greenland, making
important explorations in the interior, but failing to find
the temperate central valleys which the Baron's theoretical
studies had led him to expect.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883-1885.
East Greenland expedition of Captain Holm and Lieutenant
Garde, surveying and mapping the coast from 59° 49' to 68° 45'
North latitude, and studying its geology, meteorology and
natural history.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1884.
Second cruise of the U. S. Revenue Marine Steamer Corwin in
the Arctic Ocean.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1886.
Reconnoissance of the Greenland inland ice by Civil Engineer
R. E. Peary, United States Navy, "to gain a practical
knowledge of the obstacles and ice conditions of the
interior," and "to put to the test of actual use certain
methods and details of equipment."
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1888.
Journey of Dr. Nansen across South Greenland, from the
icebound eastern coasts to the Danish settlements on the
western.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890.
Swedish expedition to Spitzbergen, under G. Nordenskiöld and
Baron Klinkowström.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890.
Danish scientific explorations in North and South Greenland.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890.
Russian exploration of the Malo-Zemelskaya, or Timanskaya
tundra, in the far north of European Russia, on the Arctic
Ocean.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1892.
Expedition of Lieutenant Peary, United States Navy, with a
party of seven persons, including Mrs. Peary, establishing
headquarters on McCormick Bay, on the north side of Murchison
Sound, north west Greenland; thence making sledge journeys to
the northeastern coast of Greenland, at Independence Bay and
northward from it to latitude 82°, and following the coast
southward to Cape Bismarck. The surveys of Lieutenant Peary
have gone far toward proving Greenland to be an island.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1892.
Danish East Greenland expedition of Lieutenant Ryder,
wintering on Denmark Island in Scoresby's Sound, from which
boat journeys were made and the interior ramifications of the
Sound surveyed and mapped.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1893.
Expeditions of Dr. Drygalski to Greenland for the study of the
movement of the great glaciers.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1892.
Swedish expedition of Bjorling and Kallstenius, the last
records of which were found on one of the Cary Islands, in
Baffin Bay, in the autumn of 1892.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1892.
French expedition under M. Ribot to explore the islands of
Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893.
Expedition of Dr. Nansen, who sailed June 24, in the Fram from
Christiania, for the New Siberian Islands, thence aiming to
enter a current which flows, in Dr. Nansen's belief, across
the Arctic region to Greenland, touching the North Pole, or
nearly, in its course.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893.
Russian expedition, under Baron Toll, to the New Siberian
Islands and the Siberian Arctic coasts.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893.
Danish expedition to Greenland, under Lieutenant Garde, for a
geographical survey of the coast and study of the inland ice.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893-1894.
Expedition of Lieutenant Peary and party (Mrs. Peary again of
the number), landing in Bowdoin Bay, Inglefield Gulf, north of
McCormick Harbor, in August, 1893; attempting in the following
March a sledge journey with dogs to Independence Bay, but
compelled to turn back when no more than a quarter of the
distance had been traversed. An auxiliary expedition brought
back most of the party to Philadelphia in September, 1894; but
Lieutenant Peary with two men remained in Greenland to
continue explorations.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893-1894.
Scientific journey of Mr. Frank Russell, under the auspices of
the State University of Iowa, from Lake Winnipeg to the mouth
of Mackenzie River and to Herschel Island.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1894.
Expedition of Mr. Walter Wellman, an American journalist,
purposing to reach Spitzbergen via Norway, and to advance
thence towards the Pole, with aluminum boats, weighing only
400 pounds each, and provided with runners for use on the ice.
The party left Tromsoë May 1, but were arrested before the end
of the month by the crushing of their vessel in the ice at
Walden. They were picked up and brought back to Norway.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1894.
Departure of what is known as the Jackson-Harmsworth North
Polar Expedition, which sailed from Greenhithe, in England,
July 11, under the command of Mr. F. G. Jackson, Mr.
Harmsworth equipping the expedition at his personal cost. Its
plan is to make Franz Josef Land a base of operations from
which to advance carefully and persistently towards the Pole.
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1895.
Preparations of Herr Julius von Payer, the explorer of Franz
Josef Land, for an artistic and scientific expedition to the
east coast of Greenland, in which he will be accompanied by
landscape and animal painters, photographers, and savants.
----------ARCTIC EXPLORATION: End--------
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, The Constitution of.
See CONSTITUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC (page 511).
ARMENIA, Atrocities in.
See TURKS: A. D. 1895 (page 3157).
ARYAN NATIONS OF EUROPE.
See EUROPE (page 990, and after).
ASCHAM, Roger, and "The Scholemaster."
See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE (page 708).
{3685}
ASCLEPIADÆ, The.
See MEDICAL SCIENCE, GREEK (page 2124).
ASIA MINOR, Missionary journeys of St. Paul in.
See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100 (page 436).
ASOKA, and the rise of Buddhism.
See INDIA: B. C. 312 (page 1704).
ASSIGNATS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.
See MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1789-1796 (page 2212).
ASSYRIAN EDUCATION, Ancient.
See EDUCATION, ANCIENT (page 674).
ASSYRIAN LIBRARIES.
See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2000).
ASSYRIAN MONEY AND BANKING.
See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2199).
ATHENS: Outline sketch of ancient history.
See EUROPE (pages 992-996).
ATLANTIC CABLE, The laying of the.
See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION:
A. D. 1854-1866 (page 776).
ATTAINDER.
BILL OF ATTAINDER.
"An attainder ('attinctura') is a degradation or public
dishonouring, which draws after it corruption of blood. It is
the consequence of any condemnation to death, and induces the
disherison of the heirs of the condemned person, which can
only be removed by means of parliament. A bill of attainder,
or of pains and penalties, inflicts the consequences of a
penal sentence on any state criminal. … By the instrumentality
of such bill the penalties of high treason are generally
imposed. Penalties may, however, be imposed at pleasure,
either in accordance with, or in contravention of, the common
law. No other court of law can protect a person condemned in
such manner. The first bill of the kind occurred under Edward
IV., when the commons had to confirm the statute condemning
Clarence to death. This convenient method of getting rid of
disagreeable opponents was in high favour during the reign of
Henry VIII. The bills of pains and penalties were hurried
through the parliament, and the parties accused were not even
put upon their trial. Thus were the illustrious Sir Thomas
More and Bishop Fisher, for misprision of treason, without
regular trial, without examination of witnesses, or hearing
the accused in their self-defence, legally consigned to the
scaffold. Anne Boleyn was formally tried for high treason by
the house of peers; but the head of Catharine Howard was
disposed of by a simple bill of attainder. This was the first
case in which the offence charged was created by the very bill
against which the pretended criminal was held to have
offended. Under Philip and Mary the benefit of clergy was, by
means of a bill, withheld from a certain Rufford. What had
been an instrument of kingly despotism, under Tudor sway, was
converted, under the Stuarts, into a parliamentary engine
against the crown. The points of indictment against Strafford
were so weak that the lords were for acquitting him.
Thereupon, Sir Arthur Haselrig introduced a bill of attainder
in the commons. The staunch friends of freedom, such as Pym
and Hampden, did not support this measure; but yet it passed
through the commons with only 59 dissentient voices. After the
35 peers opposed to the trial of Strafford had withdrawn, the
terror-stricken lords accepted the bill by 26 against 19
votes. … This parliamentary administration of justice has by
no means been relinquished. A bill of attainder may refer
simply to a concrete case, and contrive penalties for acts
which are not specially punishable by statute, whereas an
impeachment applies to some violation of recognized legal
principles, and is a solemn indictment preferred by the
commons to the house of lords."
_E. Fischel,
The English Constitution,
book 7, chapter 9._
"By the 33 & 34 Vict. c. 23, forfeiture and attainder for
treason or felony have been abolished."
_T. P. Taswell-Langmead,
English Constitutional History,
chapter 10 (2d edition, page 393), foot-note._
----------AUSTRIA: Start--------
AUSTRIA: A. D. 1273-1349.
The House of Hapsburgh in the earlier period of its fortunes.
"It was just now [1273] that the German monarchy received once
more a real king [in the person of Rudolph of Hapsburgh]. It
is evident that Ottocar's remarkable rise into power was due
essentially to the previous excessive weakness of German
kingship. He had acquired Austria and Styria by doubtful right
according to German notions, Carinthia and Carniola without
any acquiescence at all on the part of the empire. … In the
election of Rudolph he was not willing to take part and
afterwards he refused him recognition. No wonder that from the
very beginning the German princes felt the necessity of
driving him from his usurped position. … For the German cause
it was the greatest gain that through Ottocar's fall (1278)
room was won on the Middle Danube for a national rule: the
House of Austria was enabled there to found that power which
played so great a part in the world's history. The victory on
the marchfeld was a victory of the renewed imperial might over
a recalcitrant vassal whose power had extended the due measure
of that of a prince of the realm. Looked at in this light the
fall of Ottocar reminds one of the fall of Henry the Lion a
hundred years before; the gain for Rudolph, however, was still
greater and more essential than it had been at that former
time for Frederick I. His position was for the first time now
actually assured; for if the battle had resulted unfavorably
it is doubtful if he could have continued to command
obedience. Besides this the possibility presented itself now
of using the position of ruler, conferred on him personally,
to the lasting advantage of his house; at the same time he
could only go to work in the matter very slowly and
cautiously. … At his departure from these parts in 1281 he
conferred the regency in Austria proper and in the other lands
to his own son Albrecht. The latter appears already as a
matured man with a certain talent for ruling. He overthrew all
those who opposed them but, having done this, he bore no
malice and cherished no hostility. No one could be in doubt
but that for Albrecht, and for his house altogether, the king
thought to found there a separate territorial principality. To
begin with, the fiefs which the dukes of Austria had held of
the neighboring bishoprics, especially the Bavarian ones, were
conferred by Rudolph on his sons, other privileges in
compensation being granted to the bishoprics. The consent of
the electors, according to the new order of things, was
necessary in such a case, and the king next sought to gain
them over. … On December 27, 1282, he invested his sons
Albrecht and Rudolph in common with Austria, Styria, Carniola
and the Windischmark. …
{3686}
At the request of the Estates of those lands, who wished
neither a joint rule nor a separation from each other, Rudolph
in 1283 invested his son Albrecht alone with those four
provinces. To the younger Rudolph the promise of another
appanage or at least of a compensation was held out—a fatal
matter! For the son of this Rudolph was John the Parricide. It
was an event of the greatest import that in these
south-eastern marks of the empire the Babenbergers were
replaced by the Hapsburghs. The latter now, in consequence of
their all-decisive victory, turned their attention at the same
time to Bohemia and Hungary. Although neither in the one land
nor the other did they now actually attain their goal, yet
their efforts in this direction deserve our close attention as
being the first tokens of a policy that was most strongly to
affect the world's history. … One sees, even in these
unsuccessful attempts, the bold dynastic ambition of King
Rudolph; the kingdom of Arles, also, he had had in view for
one of his sons. The acquisition of Austria alone, indeed,
marks an epoch in itself; all the more so as only through this
did he gain the prestige which he needed to enable him to do
justice to his task as king of Germany. If this task be
regarded as having consisted chiefly in restoring and
maintaining the public peace after thirty years of utter
confusion, then, indeed, he showed himself completely equal to
it. … In short, through valor and steadfastness he strongly,
in internal matters, upheld the power of the empire.
Rebellions, indeed, were not wanting; now the archbishop of
Cologne, now the duke of Savoy revolted; now Bern or Colmar,
now the counts in Suabia and Burgundy. He overcame and humbled
them all. … He was a very tall, thin man, pale of countenance
and with very little hair on his small head; in all things
moderate and of a genial nature as was shown by his offering
to become the guest of artisans and by his darning his own
doublet. … When giving Austria to his son Albrecht who was to
try and establish here a dynastic power (Hausmacht), Rudolph
had really intended to give the German crown to his younger
son, Rudolph, and he might have put this through had not this
son died before himself. In May 1291 the king then held a diet
at Frankfort for the purpose of inducing the electors now to
give their vote to his son Albrecht. This he was unable to
bring about and with his hopes unrealized he died on the 15th
of July 1291. … After long preliminary negotiations between
the separate electors … the election took place on May 5th,
1292. Albrecht had not yet abandoned hope and had appeared in
the vicinity. … The electors laid down the principle that it
was not right for the son to directly follow the father on the
throne of the empire. … They chose again a simple count,
Adolphus of Nassau. … The less Adolphus fulfilled the
expectations of his electors … the more did he lose his
authority. … In short it appears that Adolphus's whole
attitude, his league with England, his conception of the
rights of the empire, the way he insulted ecclesiastical and
secular princes, his policy with regard to the majority of the
cities, caused a general ferment. … It was at a great assembly
of princes in Prague, where Mainz, Bohemia, Brandenburg and
Saxony met together that Albrecht's influence began to gain
the upper hand. Albrecht promised, in case he should become
king, to give to King Wenzel the conquests made by Adolphus in
Meissen. Albrecht and all his friends then girded themselves
up to conquer the empire. In April 1298 we find him in Alsace
opposing Adolphus who, however, still had the upper hand. The
archbishop of Mainz then summoned the electors to Mainz for
June 15 to consult about the disturbances in the empire. …
They determined now to depose the king whom they had elected.
This was done in the Thiergarten near Mainz on June 23, 1298.
… The battle for the possession of the empire took place on
July 2nd at Göllheim, where a stone cross still marks the
spot. … The kings wore the same coat-of-arms—yellow with a
black eagle—and bore the same banner. According to one
account, for which Albert of Strassburg is voucher, they came
into hand to hand conflict with each other. Adolphus cried
out: 'Here you will relinquish the Empire!' Albrecht answered
'The decision lies in the hand of God.' The one-eyed Albrecht
struck the surer blow, hitting his antagonist directly over
the eye. The blood ran down Adolphus s face; he fell and died.
Albrecht would never acknowledge that he had been the slayer
of the Lord's anointed. Be that as it may he won the crown for
himself on the battle-field. … Albrecht is altogether a
striking figure in German history. Everywhere, in the lowest
plains of Switzerland or in the highest mountains of
Switzerland he is busy in founding his dynastic power. Under
him the House of Austria made a vigorous beginning in the
matter of establishing a great and extensive authority in all
parts of the empire. … It was fatal for him that the harsh
want of consideration which forms the chief feature of his
sway as a statesman should have raised up a murderer against
him in his own immediate vicinity—in the person of his own
nephew."
_L. Ranke,
Weltgeschichte
(translated from the German),
volume 8, pages 566-601._
See, also, AUSTRIA (pages 199-201).
AUSTRIA: A. D. 1648-1715.
Relations with Germany and France.
See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1648-1715.
AUSTRIA: A. D. 1780-1790.
Joseph II., the enthroned Philosopher.
"The prince who best sums up the spirit of the century, is not
Frederic [the Great, of Prussia), it is Joseph II. [the
emperor]. Frederic was born a master, Joseph II. a disciple,
and it is by disciples that we judge schools. The king of
Prussia dammed up the waters, directed their flow, made use of
the current: the emperor cast himself upon them and permitted
himself to be carried. With Frederic the statesman always
dominates, it is he who proposes and finally decides; the
philosopher is subordinate: he furnishes to the results
brought about by policy their abstract cause for existence and
their theoretical justification. With Joseph II. rational
conception precedes political calculation and governs it. He
had breadth of mind, but his mind was superficial; ideas
slipped from it. He had a taste for generosity, a passion for
grandeur; but there was nothing profound in him but ambition,
and it was all counter-stroke and reflection. He wished to
surpass Frederic; his entire conduct was but an awkward,
imprudent and ill-advised imitation of this prince whom he had
made his hero, whom history made his rival and whom he copied
while detesting him.
{3687}
The political genius of Frederic was born of good sense and
moderation: there was nothing in Joseph II. but the
immoderate. He was a man of systems: he had only great
velleities. His education was mediocre, and, as to methods,
entirely jesuitical. Into this contracted mould he cast
confusedly notions hastily borrowed from the philosophers of
France, from the economists especially. He thus formed a very
vague ideal of political aspirations and an exaggerated sense
of the power at his disposition to realize them. 'Since I
ascended the throne and have worn the first crown of the
world,' wrote he in 1781, 'I have made Philosophy the lawmaker
of my empire. Her logical applications are going to transform
Austria.' He undertakes reforms in every direction at once.
History is null for him, traditions do not count, nor do facts
acquired. There is no race, nor period, nor surrounding
circumstances: there is the State which is everything and can
do everything. He writes in 1782, to the bishop of Strasbourg:
'In a kingdom governed conformably to my principles,
prejudice, fanaticism, bondage of mind must disappear, and
each of my subjects must be reinstated in the possession of
his natural rights.' He must have unity, and, as a first
condition, the rejection of all previous ideas. Chance makes
him operate on a soil the most heterogeneous, the most
incoherent, the most cut up, parceled out and traversed by
barriers, that there is in Europe. Nothing in common among his
subjects, neither language, nor traditions, nor interests. It
is from this, according to him, that the defect of monarchy
arises. 'The German language is the universal language of my
empire. I am the emperor of Germany, the states which I
possess are provinces which form but one body with the State
of which I am the head. If the kingdom of Hungary were the
most important of my possessions, I should not hesitate to
impose its tongue on the other countries.' So he imposes the
German language on the Hungarians, the Croats, the Tchèques,
the Poles, on all the Slavs. He suppresses the ancient
territorial divisions; they recall the successive
agglomerations, the irregular alluvions which had formed the
monarchy; he establishes thirteen governments and divides them
into circles. The diets disappear; the government passes into
the hands of intendants according to the French formula. In
the cities the burgomaster appointed by the government becomes
a functionary. The nobles lose the part, already much
curtailed, that they still had, here and there, in the
government. He taxes them, he taxes the ecclesiastics; he
meditates establishing a tax proportional to incomes and
reaching all classes. He protects the peasants, alleviates
serfdom, diminishes the corvées, builds hospitals, schools
above all, in which the state will form pupils to obey her.
His ideal would be the equality of his subjects under the
uniform sway of his government. He unifies the laws; he
institutes courts of appeal with a supreme court for the
entire empire. He makes regulations for manufactures, binds
commerce to the most rigorous protective system. Finally he
puts a high hand on the church and decrees tolerance. … This
immense revolution was accomplished by means of decrees, in
less than five years. If we compare the state of cohesion
which the Bourbon government had brought about in France in
1789, with the incoherence of the Austrian monarchy on the
death of Maria Theresa in 1780, it will be seen that the
revolution which caused the Constituent Assembly was a small
matter compared with that which Joseph II. intended to
effect."
_A. Sorel,
L'Europe et la Rêvolution française
(translated from the French),
part 1, pages 119-122._
----------AUSTRIA: End--------
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, Libraries of.
See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2013).
AUSTRIAN SCHOOLS.
See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 709).
AVICENNA AND ARABIAN MEDICAL SCIENCE.
See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 7-11TH CENTURIES (page 2130).
B.
BÂB, The.
The word Bâb, "meaning, in Arabic, 'a gate,' is the title of a
hero of our own days, the founder, if not of a new religion,
at least of a new phase of religious belief. His history, with
that of his first followers, as told by M. le Comte de
Gobineau in his 'Religions et Philosophies dans l'Asie
Centrale,' presents a picture of steadfast adherence to truth
(as they held it), of self-denial, of joyful constancy in the
face of bitterest suffering, torture and death, as vivid and
touching as any that are found in the records of the heroic
days of old. … Among the crowd of pilgrims who flocked to
Mecca in the summer of 1843 was a youth who had then hardly
completed his nineteenth year. He had come from the far
distant city of Shiraz, where his family held an honourable
position, claiming, indeed, to trace their descent from the
great Prophet himself. Thoughtful and devout from his
childhood, Mirza Ali Mohammed had zealously and regularly
practised all religious duties considered binding on an
orthodox Mussulman. He had received a liberal education, and
while still a mere boy had eagerly examined and weighed every
new set of ideas with which he came in contact. Christians,
Jews, Fire-worshippers—he conversed with them all, and studied
their books. … Up to the time of his visiting the shrine of
the Prophet there had been no indication of any departure from
the faith of his fathers. But this pilgrimage, instead of
confirming his faith in Islam, had a quite contrary effect.
While still in the holy city, and still more on the return
journey, he had begun to confide to a select few views which
attracted and delighted them, not more, perhaps, by their
breadth and freedom than by the vague mystery in which they
were still wrapped. His decisive breach with the old faith was
not far distant. … Arrived at Shiraz, his first overt act was
to present to his friends his earliest written works. These
were two: a journal of his pilgrimage and a commentary on a
part of the Korân. In the latter the readers were amazed and
charmed to find meanings and teachings of which they had never
dreamed before. From this time he began to teach more
publicly; and day by day larger crowds flocked around him.
{3688}
In public he still spoke with reverence of the Prophet and his
laws; while in more private conferences he imparted to his
disciples those new ideas which were, perhaps, not yet very
clearly defined in his own mind. Very soon he had gathered
round him a little band of devoted followers, ardently
attached to himself, and ready to sacrifice wealth, life, all,
in the cause of truth. And throughout the great empire men
began everywhere to hear of the fame of Mirza Ali Mohammed.
There was much in the young teacher himself, apart from the
subject of his teaching, to account for this rapid success. Of
blameless life; simple in his habits; strict and regular in
all pious observances, he had already a weight of character to
which his extreme youth added a tenfold interest. But in
addition to these things, he was gifted with striking beauty
of person, and with that subtle, winning sweetness of manner
so often possessed by leaders of men, and to which, more than
to the most weighty arguments, they have often owed their
power. … Ere long, Mirza assumed the title by which he has
since been known throughout Persia—the Bâb—that is, the Door,
the only one through which men can reach the knowledge of God.
It may be well to give here an outline of what the Bâb did
teach. He believed in one God, eternal, unchangeable, Creator
of all things, and into whom all shall finally be reabsorbed.
He taught that God reveals His will to men by a series of
messengers, who, while truly men, are not mere men, but also
divine; that each of these messengers—Moses, Jesus,
Mohammed—is the medium of some new truth, higher than that
brought by the one who preceded him; that he himself, the Bâb,
though claiming divine honours while he lived, was but the
forerunner of one greater than he, the great Revealer—'He whom
God shall manifest, who should complete the revelation of all
truth, and preside at the final judgment, at which all the
good shall be made one with God, and all evil annihilated. One
of the most marked and singular characteristics of his system
is the prominence given in it to that mysterious and fanciful
theory of numbers which had always had so great a charm for
him. Taking various forms of the name of God—'ahyy,' meaning
'the giver of life'; 'wahed,' 'the only One'; or that which is
a most sacred formula, 'Bismillah elemna elegdous,' 'in the
name of God, highest and holiest'—he shows that the letters
composing each of those names, taken by their numerical value,
make up the number 19. This he therefore concludes is the
number which lies at the foundation of all things in heaven
and earth, the harmony of the universe, the number which must
rule in all earthly arrangements. The year should have 19
months, the month 19 days, the day 19 hours. … There are three
points in particular in which the reforms proposed by the Bâb
cannot fail, so far as they gain ground, to have a mighty
effect on society. In the first place, he abolished polygamy;
that is, he so strongly discountenanced it that his followers
universally regard it as a prohibition. In close
connection—almost as a necessary accompaniment of this—he
forbade divorce; that festering sore which corrupts the mass
of Persian society to its very heart, and makes pure family
life almost impossible. His third revolutionary step was in
the same direction. He abolished the veiling of the women. …
While the fame and popularity of the young preacher were daily
increasing, his bold exposure of the vices of the clergy
aroused against him their bitterest enmity." This hostility
soon became influential enough to prevail on the king and his
ministers to silence the Bâb. Mirza was placed under
confinement in his own house; but a chosen band of apostles
went forth to do missionary work throughout the empire, and
their success was great. Ere long, they began to combine
political with religious aims, and one of them, Moulla
Houssein, organized a movement which assumed a revolutionary
character and spread to formidable proportions. The government
became greatly alarmed, and an energetic minister took
measures to suppress the Bâbys, which was done with merciless
vigor. The Bâb, himself, though he had taken no part in the
political doings of his disciples, and had remained a quiet
prisoner on parole at Shiraz, was put to death, after being
brutally exposed for several hours to the insults of a mob.
This was in 1851. The following year witnessed the martyrdom
of a large number of the surviving Bâbys of prominence, all of
whom died for their faith without shrinking—as exalted in
spirit, it would seem, as the early Christian martyrs. But
Bâbism was not extinguished. It is said to have spread
secretly and continually throughout Persia, and to be of
unknown extent at the present day."
_M. F. Wilson,
The Story of the Bâb
(Contemporary Review, December, 1885)._
BABŒUF, Conspiracy of.
See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1753-1797 (page 2934).
BABYLONIA: Captivity of the Jews.
See JEWS: B. C. 604-536;
and 537 (page 1907).
BABYLONIA:
Commerce.
See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, ANCIENT.
BABYLONIA:
Education, ancient.
See EDUCATION, ANCIENT (page 674).
BABYLONIA:
Libraries.
See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2000).
BABYLONIA:
Medical Science.
See MEDICAL SCIENCE, BABYLONIAN (page 2122).
BABYLONIA:
Money and banking.
See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2199).
BACK, Captain, Northern explorations of.
See (in this Supplement)
ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1833-1835; and 1836-1837.
BACTERIOLOGY, Development of the science of.
See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 19TH CENTURY (page 2146).
BALOCHISTAN,
BALUCHISTAN.
"Balochistan, in the modern acceptation of the term, may be
said, in a general sense, to include all that tract of country
which has for its northern and north-eastern boundary the
large kingdom of Afghanistan, its eastern frontier being
limited by the British province of Sindh, and its western by
the Persian State, while the Arabian Sea washes its southern
base for a distance of nearly six hundred miles. … In area
Balochistan had long been supposed to cover in its entirety
quite 160,000 square miles, but the latest estimates do not
raise it higher than 140,000 square miles, of which 60,000 are
said to belong to what is termed Persian Balochistan, and the
remaining 80,000 to Kalāti Balochistan, or that portion which
is more or less directly under the rule of the Brāhui Khān of
Kalāt. …
{3689}
Balochistan may be said to be inhabited chiefly by the Baloch
tribe, the most numerous in the country, and this name was
given to the tract they occupy by the great Persian monarch,
Nadir Shah, who, as St. John remarks, after driving the Afghan
invaders from Persia, made himself master in his turn of the
whole country west of the Indus, and placed a native chief
over the new province, formed out of the districts bounded on
the north and south by the Halmand valley and the sea, and
stretching from Karmān on the west to Sindh on the east. This
newly formed province he called Balochistan, or, the country
of the Baloch, from the name of the most widely spread and
numerous, though not the dominant, tribe. According to Masson,
who, it must be admitted, had more ample opportunities of
obtaining correct information on this subject than any other
European, the Balochis are divided into three great classes,
viz.,
(1) the Brahuis;
(2) the Rinds; and
(3) the Lumris (or Numris);
but this must be taken more in the sense of inhabitants of
Balochistan than as divisions of a tribe, since the Brahuis
are of a different race and language and call the true
Balochis 'Nhāruis,' in contradistinction to themselves as
'Brahuis.' … The origin of the word 'Baloch' is evidently
involved in some obscurity, and has given rise to many
different interpretations. Professor Rawlinson supposes it to
be derived from Belūs, king of Babylon, the Nimrod of Holy
Writ, and that from 'Kush,' the father of Nimrod, comes the
name of the Kalāti eastern district, 'Kachh.' Pottinger
believes the Balochis to be of Turkoman lineage, and this from
a similarity in their institutions, habits, religion—in
short, in everything but their language, for which latter
anomaly, however, he has an explanation to offer. But be this
as it may, the very tribe themselves ascribe their origin to
the earliest Muhammadan invaders of Persia, and are extremely
desirous of being supposed to be of Arab extraction. They
reject with scorn all idea of being of the same stock as the
Afghan. They may possibly be of Iranian descent, and the
affinity of their language, the Balochki, to the Persian,
bears out this supposition; but the proper derivation of the
word 'Baloch' still remains an open question. … The Brahuis,
who, as a race, are very numerous in Balochistan, Pottinger
considers to be a nation of Tartar mountaineers, who settled
at a very early period in the southern parts of Asia, where
they led an ambulatory life in Khels, or societies, headed and
governed by their own chiefs and laws for many centuries, till
at length they became incorporated and attained their present
footing at Kalāt and throughout Balochistan generally. Masson
supposes that the word 'Brahui' is a corruption of Ba-roh-i,
meaning, literally, of the waste; and that that race entered
Balochistan originally from the west. … The country may be
considered as divided into two portions—the one, Kalāti
Balochistan, or that either really or nominally under the rule
of the Khān of Kalāt; and the other as Persian Balochistan, or
that part which is more or less directly under the domination
of the Shah of Persia. Of the government of this latter
territory, it will suffice to say that it is at present
administered by the Governor of Bam-Narmashir, a deputy of the
Kermān Governor; but the only district that is directly under
Persian rule is that of Banpur—the rest of the country, says
St. John, is left in charge of the native chiefs, who, in
their turn, interfere but little with the heads of villages
and tribes. … It would … appear that the supremacy of the Shah
over a very large portion of the immense area (60,000 square
miles) known as Persian Balochistan is more nominal than real,
and that the greater number of the chiefs only pay revenue to
their suzerain when compelled to do so. As regards Kalāti
Balochistan, the government is, so to speak, vested
hereditarily in the Brahui Khān of Kalāt, but his sovereignty
in the remote portions of his extensive territory (80,000
square miles), though even in former times more nominal than
real, is at the present moment still more so, owing to the
almost constant altercations and quarrels which take place
between the reigning Khān and his Sardārs, or chiefs. … In …
the modern history of Kalāti Balochistan under the present
dynasty, extending from about the commencement of the 18th
century, when Abdula Khān was ruler, down to the present time,
a period of, say, nearly 180 years, there is not much to call
for remark. Undoubtedly the Augustan age of Balochistan was
the reign of the first Nasir Khān [1755-1795], the Great
Nasir, as he is to this day called by the Balochis. Of his
predecessors little seems to be known; they were indeed simply
successful robbers on a large scale, with but few traces of
any enlightened policy to gild over a long succession of deeds
of lawlessness, rapine, and bloodshed. … Had his successors
been of the same stamp and metal as himself, the Kalāti
kingdom of to-day would not perhaps show that anarchy and
confusion which are now its most striking characteristics."
_A. W. Hughes,
The Country of Balochistan,
pages 2-48, and 285._
BANKING, History of.
See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2198).
BANKS, Nathaniel P.
His election to the Speakership.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1855-1856 (page 3396).
BAPTIST CHURCH, The first in Rhode Island.
See RHODE ISLAND: A. D. 1639 (page 2641).
BAPTISTS.
The name 'Baptist' was not a self-chosen one. In the early
Reformation time those who withdrew from the dominant
churches because of the failure of these churches to
discriminate between the church and the world, between the
regenerate and the unregenerate, and who sought to organize
churches of believers only, laid much stress on the lack of
Scriptural warrant for the baptism of infants and on the
incompatibility of infant baptism with regenerate membership.
Following what they believed to be apostolic precept and
example, they made baptism on a profession of faith a
condition of church-fellowship. This rejection of infant
baptism and this insistence on believers' baptism were so
distinctive of these Christians that they were stigmatized as
'Anabaptists,' 'Catabaptists,' and sometimes as simply
'Baptists'; that is to say, they were declared to be
'rebaptizers,' 'perverters of baptism,' or, as unduly
magnifying baptism and making it the occasion of schism,
simply 'baptizers.' These party names they earnestly
repudiated, preferring to call themselves Brethren,
Christians, Disciples of Christ, Believers, etc. …
{3690}
Baptists have, for the most part, been at one with the Roman
Catholic, the Greek Catholic, and most Protestant communions
in accepting for substance the so-called Apostles', Nicene,
and Athanasian creeds, not, however, because they are
venerable or because of the decisions of ecclesiastical
councils, but because, and only in so far as, they have
appeared to them to be in accord with Scripture. … As regards
the set of doctrines on which Augustin differed from his
theological predecessors, and modern Calvinists from
Arminians, Baptists have always been divided. … The great
majority of the Baptists of today hold to what may be called
moderate Calvinism, or Calvinism tempered with the
evangelical anti-Augustinianism which came through the
Moravian Brethren to Wesley and by him was brought powerfully
to bear on all bodies of evangelical Christians. Baptists are
at one with the great Congregational body and with most of
the minor denominations as regards church government."
_A. H. Newman,
A. History of the Baptist Churches in the United States,
introduction._
"Baptist principles are discoverable in New England from the
very earliest colonial settlements. The Puritans of Plymouth
had mingled with the Dutch Baptists during the ten years of
their sojourn in Holland, and some of them seem to have
brought over Baptist tendencies even in the Mayflower. Dutch
Baptists had emigrated to England and extended their
principles there; and from time to time a persecuted Baptist
in England sought refuge in America, and, planted here,
brought forth fruit after his kind. But as every offshoot of
these principles here was so speedily and vigorously beaten
down by persecution, and especially as, after the banishment
of Roger Williams, there was an asylum a few miles distant,
just over Narraganset Bay, where every persecuted man could
find liberty of conscience, Baptist principles made little
progress in the New England colonies, except Rhode Island, for
the first hundred and twenty years. A little church of Welsh
Baptists was founded in Rehoboth, near the Rhode Island line,
in 1663, and shortly afterwards was compelled by civil force
to remove to Swanzea, where, as it was distant from the
centres of settlement, it was suffered to live without very
much molestation. It still exists, the oldest Baptist church
in the State. In 1665, the First Baptist Church in Boston was
organized, and, alone, for almost a century, withstood the
fire of persecution,—ever in the flames, yet never quite
consumed. In 1693, a second church was constituted in Swanzea,
not as a Regular, but as a Six-Principle, Baptist Church. In
1705, a Baptist church was formed in Groton, Connecticut.
These four churches, three Regular and one Six-Principle,
having in the aggregate probably less than two hundred
members, were all the Baptist churches in New England outside
of Rhode Island previous to the Great Awakening."
_D. Weston.
Early Baptists in Massachusetts
(The Baptists and the National Centenary),
pages 12-18._
"The representative Baptists of London and vicinity, who in
1689 put forth the Confession of Faith which was afterward
adopted by the Philadelphia Association, and is therefore
known in this country as the Philadelphia Confession, copied
the Westminister Confession word for word, wherever their
convictions would permit, and declared that they would thus
show wherein they were at one with their brethren, and what
convictions of truth made impossible a complete union. And
wherever Baptists appeared however or by whomsoever they were
opposed, the ground of complaint against them was their
principles. Some of these principles were sharply antagonistic
to those of existing churches, and also to those on which the
civil governments were administered. They were widely
disseminated, especially in Holland, England, and Wales, and
there were separate churches formed. From purely doctrinal
causes also came divisions among 'the Baptized churches'
themselves. The most notable one was that in England between
the General or Arminian Baptists, and the Particular or
Calvinistic Baptists. With the latter division do the Regular
Baptists of America hold lineal connection. … The churches of
Philadelphia and vicinity kept the closest connection with the
mother country, and were most affected by it. In New England,
in 'the Great Reformation' under the lead of Jonathan Edwards,
there was made from within the Congregational churches a most
vigorous assault against their own 'half-way Covenant' in the
interest of a pure church. Along his lines of thought he
started multitudes who could not stop where he himself
remained and would fain have detained them. They separated
from the Congregational churches, and were hence called
Separates. A large proportion of them became Baptists, and
formed themselves into Baptist churches. Through the labors of
earnest men who went from them to Carolina and Virginia, their
principles were widely disseminated in those and the
neighboring colonies, and, in consequence, many churches came
into existence."
_G. D. B. Pepper,
Doctrinal History and Position (The same),
pages 51-52._
BARDI, The.
See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2206).
BARENTZ, Voyages of.
See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION:
1594-1595; and 1596-1597.
BARNARD COLLEGE.
See EDUCATION (page 743).
BARRE, Colonel Isaac.
Speech against the Stamp Act.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765 (page 3186).
BATTLE, Trial by.
See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1077,
and CRIMINAL: A. D. 1818 (pages 1957 and 1985).
BELCHER, Sir Edward,
Franklin search expedition of.
See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1852--1854.
BELGIUM:
Constitutional revision of 1893.
See (in this Supplement) CONSTITUTION OF BELGIUM.
BELGIUM:
King Leopold's legacy of the Congo State.
See (in this Supplement) AFRICA: 1889.
BELGIUM:
Libraries.
See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2013).
BELGIUM:
Schools.
See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 709).
BELL TELEPHONE, The invention of the.
See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION:
A. D. 1876-1892 (page 776).
[Transcriber's Note.]
_T. O'Conor Sloane
The Standard Electrical Dictionary,
www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26535._
BELLAMY, Edward, and the Nationalist Movement.
See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1888-1893 (page 2956).
BENTHAM, Jeremy, and reforms in the Law of Evidence.
See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1851 (page 1979).
{3691}
BERNADOTTE:
Election to the throne of Sweden.
See (in this Supplement) SWEDEN: A. D. 1810.
BIBLIOTHÈQUE NATIONALE.
See LIBRARIES, MODERN: FRANCE (page 2010).
BICHAT, and the progress of physiological science.
See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 18TH CENTURY (page 2142).
BILL OF ATTAINDER.
See (in this Supplement) ATTAINDER
BILLS OF EXCHANGE.
See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1603 (page 1968).
BIORKO.
See (in this Supplement), COMMERCE, MEDIÆVAL.
BISMARCK'S POLICY AND SPEECHES.
See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1862-1890.
BLACK FRIDAY.
See NEW YORK: A. D. 1869 (page 2347).
BLAKE, Admiral Robert, Victories of.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1652-1654 (page 885).
BLANC, Louis, and his scheme of stateaided co-operation.
See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1840-1848 (page 2942).
BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT, The.
"Just when or by whom the acts and proceedings of New Haven
colony were first stigmatized as Blue Laws, cannot now be
ascertained. The presumption, however, is strong that the name
had its origin in New York, and that it gained currency in
Connecticut, among episcopalian and other dissenters from the
established church, between 1720 and 1750. … In the colony of
New Haven, before the union with Connecticut, the privileges
of voting and of holding civil office were, by the
'fundamental agreement,' restricted to church-members. This
peculiarity of her constitution was enough to give color to
the assertion that her legislation was, pre-eminently, blue.
That her old record-book contained a code of 'blue laws' which
were discreditable to puritanism and which testified to the
danger of schism—became, among certain classes, an assured
belief. To this imaginary code wit and malice made large
additions, sometimes by pure invention, sometimes by borrowing
absurd or arbitrary laws from the records of other colonies.
And so the myth grew—till the last vestige of truth was lost
in fable. The earliest mention of the 'New Haven Blue Laws'
that I remember to have seen in print, is in a satirical
pamphlet published in 1762, entitled; 'The Real Advantages
which Ministers and People may enjoy, especially in the
Colonies, by conforming to the Church of England,' etc. … From
the manner in which this allusion is introduced it is evident
that reproach of New Haven for her 'blue laws' was already a
familiar weapon of religious controversy. A few years later—in
1767—William Smith, Chief-Justice of New York, had the
curiosity to inspect 'the first records of the colony of New
Haven, vulgarly called the Blue Laws.' In the continuation of
his history of New York, he gives (p. 93) the result of his
examination: 'A note ought not to be suppressed concerning
these records, to correct a voice of misplaced ridicule. Few
there are, who speak of the Blue Laws, … who do not imagine
they form a code of rules for future conduct, drawn up by an
enthusiastic, precise set of religionists; and if the
inventions of wits, humorists, and buffoons were to be
credited, they must consist of many volumes. The author had
the curiosity to resort to them, when the Commissaries met at
New Haven, for adjusting a partition line between New York and
the Massachusetts in 1767; and a parchment-covered book of
demi-royal paper was handed to him for the laws asked for, as
the only volume in the office passing under this odd title. …
It contains the memorials of the first establishment of the
colony, which consisted of persons who had wandered beyond the
limits of the old charter of the Massachusetts Bay, and who,
as yet unauthorized by the crown to set up any civil
government in due form of law, resolved to conduct themselves
by the Bible. As a necessary consequence, the judges they
chose took up an authority similar to that which every
religious man exercises over his own children and domestics.
Hence their attention to the morals of the people, in
instances with which the civil magistrate can never
intermeddle under a regular well-policied institution;
because, to preserve liberty, they are cognizable only by
parental authority. … So far is the common idea of the blue
laws being a collection of rules from being true, that they
are only records of convictions, consonant, in the judgment of
the magistrates, to the word of God, and dictates of reason.'
… Occasional allusions to the 'Blue Laws' are found in
newspapers and pamphlets printed before the Revolution, but no
specimens of the laws so stigmatised seem to have been
published before 1781, when 'a sketch of some of them' was
given to the world by the Rev. Samuel Peters, in 'A General
History of Connecticut, from its First Settlement under George
Fenwick, Esq.,' etc.: 'By a Gentleman of the Province:'
printed in London, 'for the Author.' … As the sole authority
for the only 'New Haven Blue Laws' that are now popularly
known by the name, he and his book are entitled here to a
larger notice. The late Professor J. L. Kingsley, in the notes
to his Historical Discourse at New Haven (1838), was at the
pains of pointing out 'a few errors'—as he charitably named
them—of 'the work which, more than any other, has given
currency to various misrepresentations respecting the New
Haven colony:' and in this connection he quoted a remark made
by the Rev. Dr. Trumbull, the historian, who was a townsman of
Peters and had known him from childhood,—that, 'of all men
with whom he had ever been acquainted, Dr. Peters, he had
thought, from his first knowledge of him, the least to be
depended upon as to any matter of fact, especially in
story-telling.' The best excuse that can be made for him is,
that he was a victim of pseudomania; that his abhorrence of
truth was in fact a disease, and that he was not morally
responsible for its outbreaks. He could not keep even his name
clear of falsification. It passes into history with doubtful
initials and fictitious titles. … In 1774, his obstinate and
aggressive toryism rendered him very obnoxious to his
neighbors and finally provoked the resentment of the Sons of
Liberty. A party of two or three hundred men paid him a visit,
threatened him (so he averred) with tar and feathers, handled
him somewhat roughly when they detected him in falsehood, and
drew from him a promise that he would not again meddle in
public affairs. … He found his only comfort in the
anticipation that, if his plans of vengeance should succeed,
Connecticut might be blotted out: 'the bounds of New York may
directly extend to Connecticut river, Boston meet them, New
Hampshire take the Province of Maine, and Rhode Island be
swallowed up as Dathan.'
{3692}
In October, 1774, he sailed for England, where he remained
until 1805. He obtained a small pension from the crown, and
some compensation for the property he professed to have lost
in Connecticut: and it was perhaps in the hope of eking out a
livelihood, as well as of gratifying his resentment, that he
employed his pen in abuse of the colony which gave him birth,
and the religion of his fathers. He did not, says Mr.
Duykinck, 'carry his point of dismembering Connecticut, but he
punished the natives almost as effectually by writing a
book—his History of the State.'"
_J. H. Trumbull,
Introduction to "The True-Blue Laws of
Connecticut and New Haven."_
"In this 'History' were collected all the extravagant stories
that had been set afloat during the previous fifty years to
gratify the stupidity of those among the lower classes in New
York who were descended from the Dutch, or the hatred of the
most bitter of the British royalists. This 'History' is the
first and the only 'authority' for the 'Blue Laws' which were
attributed to the early New Haven colonists. … No person in
America who knew anything about the history of his country
ever seriously quoted Dr. Peters's 'History' as an authority
on any subject whatever. The 'Comic History of England,' or
the 'Travels of Baron Munchausen,' would be as little likely
to be quoted in England for any serious purpose. And yet this
falsehood about the 'Blue Laws,' which was thus first
concocted for a purpose, has a vitality which, in some of its
aspects, is amusing."
W. L. Kingsley,
Blackwood's Magazine on the "Blue Laws"
(New Englander, April, 1871), pages 296-299.
BODLEIAN LIBRARY, The.
See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2016).
BOERHAAVE, and humoral pathology.
See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 17TH CENTURY (page 2136).
BOLOGNA, University of.
See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL (page 696).
"BOMBA," King.
See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849 (page 1862).
BOOTH, Reverend General William, and the Salvation Army.
See (in this Supplement) SALVATION ARMY.
BOROUGH FRANCHISE, English.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1884-1885 (pages 973-978).
BOSTON LATIN SCHOOL.
See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 727).
BOTHWELL, James Hepburn, Earl of, and Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1561-1568 (page 2857).
BOWDOIN COLLEGE.
An act of the Legislature of the province of Maine, approved
in 1794, incorporated the above-named institution. The
management of the college was placed under a board of
trustees, with full powers of control. … That the institution
might not want for proper support, it was further enacted,
'That the clear rents, issues, and profits of all the estate,
real and personal, of which the said corporation shall be
seized or possessed, shall be appropriated to the endowment of
the said college, in such manner as will most effectually
promote virtue, piety, and the knowledge of such of the
languages and the useful and liberal arts and sciences as
shall hereafter be directed from time to time by said
corporation.' Five townships of land, each six miles square,
were granted to the college for Its endowment and vested in
the trustees, provided that fifteen families be settled in
each of the said townships within a period of twelve years,
and provided further that three lots containing 320 acres each
be reserved, one for the first settled minister, one for the
use of the ministry, and one for the support of schools within
the township where it is located. These townships were to be
laid out and assigned from any of the unappropriated lands
belonging to the commonwealth of the district of Maine. The
first money endowment was instituted by a general law of
Massachusetts, approved February 24, 1814, which reads as
follows: 'Be it enacted by the Senate and House of
Representatives in General Court now assembled, That the tax
which the president, directors and company of the
Massachusetts Bank are and shall be liable to pay to the
commonwealth, shall be and hereby is granted to and
appropriated as follows, viz: ten-sixteenths parts thereof to
the president and fellows of Harvard College; and
three-sixteenths parts thereof to the president and trustees
of Williams College; and three-sixteenths thereof
to the president and trustees of Bowdoin College.'"
_F. W. Blackmar,
History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education in
the United States (Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1890, number 1), pages 123-124._
The college was named in honor of Governor James Bowdoin, of
Massachusetts, whose son made valuable gifts to it.
BRACTON, Henry de, and early English Law.
See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1216-1272 (page 1961).
BRADFORD PRESS, The.
See PRINTING AND PRESS: A. D. 16815-1693:
and 1704-1729 (page 2597).
BRAZIL: A. D. 1891.
Adoption of the Constitution.
For text see CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL (page 518).
BRAZIL: A. D. 1893-1894.
Triumph of the Peixoto government.
"The civil war In Brazil resulted in the complete triumph of
the Peixoto government in the spring. During November [1893]
the insurgents held their own in the harbor of Rio Janeiro,
and in the following month occupied a number of islands in the
bay. On December 1 Admiral Mello, their leader, with two of
his ships, ran past the government batteries and out to sea,
leaving in command in the harbor Admiral da Gama, who up to
that time had remained neutral. The latter shortly after
issued a manifesto pointing to a restoration of the monarchy
as the ultimate purpose of the rebels. This seems to have
tended rather to weaken the insurgent cause, and a month later
da Gama tried in another proclamation to explain away the
interpretation that had been put upon the first. The
government, meanwhile, confined itself to strengthening its
positions in the city and along the shore so as to make any
attempt to land unsuccessful. Desultory hostilities continued
throughout December and January, incidentally to which the
American commander on one occasion enforced respect for
merchant vessels bearing his flag by firing on an insurgent
vessel. On February 12 da Gama made his most elaborate attempt
to gain a foothold on the main land at Armacao, but was repulsed
with severe losses.
{3693}
By this time the insurgent cause was clearly on the decline.
On the first of March a presidential election was held, which
resulted in the choice of Prudente Moraes, a civilian. This
removed the leading grievance of the rebels, that Piexoto was
perpetuating a regime of pure militarism. On the 11th of March
the fleet which the government had been fitting out in the United
States and Europe appeared at the entrance to the harbor of
Rio, and Peixoto gave notice of an active movement against the
rebels. Da Gama promptly offered to surrender on certain
conditions, which being refused, he and his officers sought
asylum on first a French and later a Portuguese war vessel.
Thus deserted, the crews of the insurgent vessels surrendered
without resistance when the government batteries opened fire
on the 13th. Admiral Mello, meanwhile, had been operating with
some success in connection with the insurgents on land in the
southern states of Brazil. In the first part of April,
however, the government forces totally defeated the rebels in
Rio Grande do Sul, and Mello, about the middle of the month,
surrendered himself and his command to the Uruguayan
authorities, by whom they were disarmed."
_Political Science Quarterly,
June, 1894._
BREAKSPEAR, Nicholas.
Pope Hadrian IV., 1154-1159.
BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE, Schools of the.
See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE (page 705).
BRISBANE, Albert, and Fourierism in America.
See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1832-1847,
and 1841-1847 (pages 2940 and 2944).
BRITANNIC FEDERATION, Proposed.
See FEDERAL GOVERNMENT (page 1112).
BRITISH MUSEUM LIBRARY, The.
See LIBRARIES, MODERN: ENGLAND (page 2014).
BROCTON COMMUNITY, The.
See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1867-1875 (page 2951).
BROOK FARM.
See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS; A. D. 1841-1847 (page 2943).
BROTHERHOOD OF THE NEW LIFE, The.
See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1867-1875 (page 2951).
BROWN UNIVERSITY.
"Brown University, the oldest and best endowed institution of
learning connected with the Baptist denomination, dates back
for its origin to a period anterior to the American
Revolution, when in all the thirteen colonies there were less
than 70 Baptist churches, with perhaps 4,000 communicants. It
is not surprising that, at the memorable meeting of the
Philadelphia Association, held on the 12th of October, 1762,
when the members were finally led to regard it, in the words
of Backus, as 'practicable and expedient to erect a College in
the Colony of Rhode Island, under the chief direction of the
Baptists, in which education might be promoted and superior
learning obtained, free from any sectarian tests,' the mover
in the matter should at first have been laughed at, the thing
being looked upon as, under the circumstances, an utter
impossibility. But lenders at that time, like Morgan Edwards
and Isaac Eaton, Samuel Jones, Abel Morgan, Benjamin Griffith,
John Sutton and John Gano, were men of faith. … At the time of
which I speak, there was graduated from Princeton, with the
second honors of his class, a man of wonderful mental and
physical endowments, an early pupil of Isaac Eaton at
Hopewell, James Manning, of Elizabethtown, New Jersey. To him
the enterprise of the college was by common consent intrusted.
… The first commencement of the college, which was held in the
then new Baptist meeting-house of the town of Warren, on the
7th of September, 1769, has already been regarded as a Red
Letter Day in its history. Five years previous, the General
Assembly, begun and holden by adjournment at East Greenwich,
on the last Monday in February, 1764; after various
difficulties and delays, in consequence of the determined
opposition of those who were unfriendly to the movement, had
granted a charter for a 'College or University in the English
Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, in New
England in America.' Such is the language of the act of
incorporation. But though Rhode Island had been selected for
its home by the original projectors of the institution, and a
liberal and ample charter had thus been secured, the college
itself was still in embryo. Without funds, without students,
and with no present prospect of support, a beginning must be
made where the president could be the pastor of a church, and
thus obtain an adequate compensation for his services. Warren,
then as now, a delightful and flourishing inland town,
situated 10 miles from Providence, seemed to meet the
requisite requirements and thither, accordingly, Manning
removed with his family in the spring of 1764. He at once
commenced a Latin School, as the first step preparatory to the
work of college instruction. Before the close of the year a
church was organized, over which he was duly installed as
pastor. The following year, at the second annual meeting of
the corporation, held in Newport, Wednesday, September 3d, he
was formally elected, in the language of the records,
'President of the College, Professor of Languages and other
branches of learning, with full power to act in these
capacities at Warren or elsewhere.' On that same day, as
appears from a paper now on file in the archives of the
Library, the president matriculated his first student, William
Rogers, a lad of fourteen, the son of Captain William Rogers,
of Newport. Not only was this lad the first student of the
college, but he was also the first freshman class. Indeed, for
a period of nine months and seventeen days, as appears from
the paper already referred to, he constituted the entire body
of students. From such feeble beginnings has the university
sprung."
_R. A. Guild,
The First Commencement of Rhode Island College
(Rhode Island Historical Society Collections, v. 7),
pages 269-271._
Six years after the founding of the University it was removed
from Warren to Providence, and its name changed from Rhode
Island College to Brown University, in honor of John Brown, of
Providence, who was its most liberal benefactor.
_G. W. Greene,
Short History of Rhode Island,
page 196._
Although founded by the Baptist Church, the charter of the
University "expressly forbids the use of religious tests. The
corporation is divided into two Boards—the Trustees, 36 in
number, of whom 22 must be Baptists, 5 Quakers, 5
Episcopalians, and 4 Congregationalists, and the Fellows, 12
in number, of whom 8, including the President, must be
Baptists, and the remainder of other denominations. Twelve
Trustees and 5 Fellows form a quorum. The college estate, the
students, and the members of the faculty, with their families,
are exempt from taxation and from serving as jurors."
_S. G. Arnold,
History of the State of Rhode Island,
chapter 18 (volume 2)._
{3694}
BRUCHION, Library of the.
See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2003).
BRUNONIAN SYSTEM, The.
See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 18TH CENTURY (page 2141).
BRYN MAWR COLLEGE.
See EDUCATION (page 743).
BUBBLE ACT, The.
See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1710 (page 1971).
BULGARIANS, The conversion of the.
See CHRISTIANITY: 9TH CENTURY (page 464).
BUREAU OF EDUCATION, The United States.
See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 735).
BURKE, Edmund.
Speech on Conciliation of the American Colonies.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1775 (pages 3218-3221).
BYNG, Admiral John, Execution of.
See MINORCA: A. D. 1756 (page 2187).
BYZANTINE TRADE.
See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MEDIÆVAL.
CABOTS, Voyages of the.
See (in this Supplement) AMERICA.
C.
CALHOUN, John C., The aggressive proslavery policy of.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1837-1838, and 1847 (pages 3375 and 3380).
CAMBOJA.
See TONKIN (page 3114).
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY.
See EDUCATION (pages 701, 706 and 710).
CAMPBELLITES, The.
See (in this Supplement) DISCIPLES OF CHRIST.
CANADA:
Constitution of the Dominion.
See CONSTITUTION OF CANADA (page 526).
CANADA:
Libraries.
See LIBRARIES, MODERN: CANADA (page 2023).
CANADA:
The Ontario school system.
See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 733).
CANALS.
See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MODERN.
CANULEIAN LAW, The.
See ROME: B. C. 445-400 (page 2667).
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.
See LAW, CRIMINAL: A. D. 1600,
and 1660-1820 (pages 1983 and 1984).
CARNATIC, The.
See (in this Supplement) KARNATIC.
CARNOT, President Sadi, The assassination of.
See (in this Supplement) FRANCE: A. D. 1894-1895.
CARTHAGINIAN COMMERCE.
See (In this Supplement) COMMERCE, ANCIENT.
CASHGAR.
See TURKESTAN (page 3130);
and YAKOOB BEG (page 3662).
CASIMIR-PERIER,
Election to the Presidency of the French Republic,
and resignation.
See (in this Supplement) FRANCE: A. D. 1894-1895.
CATHOLIC REACTION IN GERMANY, The.
See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: 16TH CENTURY;
also, page 2457.
CAUCASUS, The Races of the.