(1) Natural Philosophy: Physics; On the Heavens and the
Earth; On Generation and Corruption; Parva Naturalia (see
p. 143); On Mechanics.
(2) Mathematics: "Some books"; probably the treatises required
at Leipzig in 1410. (See p. 140).
(3) Politics.
(4) Rhetoric.
For the A.M.:
(1) Ethics.
(2) Meteorics (3 Bks.).[72]
3. Books required at Oxford, 1267: For the A.B. (Determination):
(1) Logic: The Old and the New Logic (see p. 140), and On
the Six Principles.
(2) Either Grammar (selections from Donatus and Priscian),
or Natural Philosophy (Physics, On the Soul, and On Generation
and Corruption).[73]
For the A.B. in (?) 1408.
(1) Logic: The Old and the New Logic in "cursory," or extraordinary,
lectures, given by Bachelors; Introduction, Porphyry: On the
Six Principles, Gilbert de la Porrée; Sophistical Refutations.
(2) Grammar; Barbarismus, Donatus.
(3) Mathematics: Arithmetic; Computus ecclesiasticus (Method
of finding Easter); On the Sphere, Sacrobosco.[74]
4. Books required at Leipzig for the Degree of A.B. in 1410.[75]
(1) Grammar; Priscian (the last two books). [2 months.]
{Tractatus (Summulae), Petrus Hispanus. [2-1/2-3 months.]
(2) Logic {The "Old" Logic (see Paris, 1254). [3-4 months.]
{The "New" " except Topics. [6-1/2-7 months.]
(3) Nat'l Philosophy {Physics. [6-9 months.]
{On the Soul. [7 weeks-2 months.]
(4) Mathematics; On the Material Sphere (Sacrobosco). [5-6 weeks.]
5. Books required at Leipzig for the Degree of A.M. in 1410.
(1) Logic {Logic of Heytisbury.
{Topics, Aristotle. [3-4 months.]
(2) Moral and {Ethics. [6-9 " ]
Practical {Politics. [4-9 " ]
Philosophy {Economics. [3 weeks.]
{On the Heavens and the Earth. [3-1/2-4
{ months.]
{On Generation and Destruction. [7
{ weeks-2 months.]
(3) Natural Philosophy {Meteorics. [3-1/2-4 months.]
{Parva Naturalia (i.e., the books on
{ Sense and Sensible Things, Sleep and
{ Waking, Memory and Recollection,
{ Longevity and Shortlivedness). [2-1/2-3
{ months.]
(4) Metaphysics: Metaphysics. [5-9 months.]
{Astronomy: Theory of the Planets
{ (Gerard of Cremona). [5-6 weeks.]
{Geometry: Euclid. [5-9 months.]
{Arithmetic: Common Arithmetic (Sacrobosco).
(5) Mathematics { [3 weeks-1 month.]
{Music: Music (John de Muris). [3
{ weeks-1 month.]
{Optics: Common Perspective (John
{ of Pisa). [3-3-1/2 months.][76]
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 70: Statutes of 1431.]
[Footnote 71: _Chart. Univ. Paris._, I, No. 246.]
[Footnote 72: Rashdall, I, p. 436.]
[Footnote 73: _Munimenta Acad. Oxon.,_ I, pp. 35-36.]
[Footnote 74: _Munimenta Acad. Oxon._, I, pp. 242-243.]
[Footnote 75: The figures in brackets indicate the time to be given to
each book, or group of books. The data are from Zarncke, _Statutenbücher
der Univ. Leipzig._, 311-312.]
[Footnote 76: For the requirements in 1519 see p. 134.]
VI
ACADEMIC LETTERS
1. LETTERS RELATING TO PARIS
(a) _A Twelfth-Century Critic_
The pessimist who laments the decay of education, and who feels that its
golden age was the time in which he received his own training, or
earlier, is a perennial figure in the history of education. The
following letter has a surprisingly modern ring. Denifle (p. 747) thinks
that Stephen was unable to reconcile himself to the new movement at
Paris because of his monastic training. Stephen's view, however, "was
not wholly wrong." Compare the letter of Peter de la Celle to John of
Salisbury, page 144.
"Stephen [Bishop] of Tournai, in his letters directed to the Pope,
laments the ruin of the study of sacred literature, of Canon Law and the
Arts, and, blaming the professors, implores the hand of Apostolic
correction." (1192-1203.)
To the Pope. Beseeching his pardon, we would speak to our
sovereign Pontiff, whose kindness stimulates our boldness, whose
knowledge supports our ignorance, whose patience assures
indulgence. The authority of our forefathers first impels us,
then the disease which is insinuating itself, and which will in
the end be irremediable if its evil influence be not checked at
the beginning. Nor do we say this, Father, as though we wish to
be either censors of morals, or judges of the doctors, or
debaters of doctrines. This burden requires stronger shoulders
and this fight calls for the vigorous arms of spiritual athletes.
We wish only to point out this distress to your sacred
Fatherhood, on whom God has conferred the power of checking error
and the knowledge of how to correct it.
The study of sacred letters among us has descended into the very
factory of confusion; the teachers are more watchful for glory
than for doctrine, and they write up new and modern summaries and
commentaries upon theological foundations, with which they
soothe, retain, and deceive their pupils; as though there were
not plenty of works of the holy fathers who, we read, put forth
their sacred writings inspired by that same spirit which we
believe inspired the apostles and prophets when they composed
theirs.... Public debates are carried on in violation of the
sacred constitutions concerning the incomprehensibility of the
Deity; a wordy, carnal strife on the incarnation of the Word goes
on irreverently. Even the indivisible Trinity is divided at the
street corners and quarrelled over, so that there are already as
many errors as there are teachers, as many scandals as lecture
rooms, as many blasphemies as public squares.
Furthermore, if recourse is had to the courts which are
established by Common Law, either those set up by us, or by the
regular judges which we are bound to recognize, there is
presented by venal men the tangled forest of the Decretals, under
the pretext, as it were, of the sacred memory of Pope Alexander,
and the more ancient sacred Canons are thrown away, rejected, and
spewed out.
This confusion being made in the very centre of the wholesome
regulations made by the Councils of the holy fathers, they impose
upon their councils no method and on their business no restraint,
those letters having prevailing weight, which, it may be, lawyers
have forged and engrossed for pay in their own offices or
chambers. A new volume, got together from these sources, is both
read regularly in the schools and is exposed for sale in the
market with the approval of the crowd of notaries, who rejoice
that both their labor is lessened and their pay increased in
engrossing these suspicious works.
Two woes have been set forth, and lo, a third woe remains! The
Faculties called liberal [i.e., free] have lost their old time
liberty, and are devoted to a slavery so complete that
long-haired youths shamelessly possess themselves of the offices
in these Faculties, and beardless boys sit in the seat of the
Elders, and those who do not yet know how to be pupils strive to
be named Doctors. And they themselves compile their own
summaries, reeking and wet with [their own] further drivellings,
and not even seasoned with the salt of the philosophers.
Neglecting the rules of the Arts and throwing away the standard
works of the Makers of the Arts, they catch in their sophisms, as
in spiders' webs, the midges of their empty trifling phrases.
Philosophy cries out that her garments are rent and torn asunder;
she modestly covers her nakedness with certain carefully prepared
remnants [but] she is neither consulted by the good man nor does
she console the good woman.
These things, O Father, demand the hand of Apostolic correction,
that the present unseemliness of teaching, learning, and debating
may by your authority be reduced to definite form, that the
Divine Word may not be cheapened by vulgar attrition; that it may
not be said on the corners, Lo! Here is Christ, or Lo! He is
there! that sacred things may not be cast before dogs or pearls
before swine to be trampled under their feet.[77]
(b) _The Monastic View_
To many of the monks of this period study and the search for truth
through reason were repellent. In their view the way to spiritual truth
was through retirement from the world, and the observance of religious
exercises. This is the burden of a letter to John of Salisbury by Peter
de la Celle, abbot of a monastery near Rheims, in 1164. Incidentally it
gives his view concerning Paris.
"Peter de la Celle to John of Salisbury concerning the perils that
encompass souls at Paris and concerning the true school of truth."
His own Abbot to his own clerk. You have, my well-beloved, chosen
a sufficiently delightful exile, where joys, though they be vain,
are in superabundance, where the supply of bread and wine exceeds
in richness that of your own land where there is the frequent
access of friends, where the dwelling together of comrades is
common. Who else besides you is there beneath the sky who has not
thought Paris the place of delights, the garden of plantations,
the field of first fruits?
Yet, though smiling [at these things], you have said truly that
where pleasure of the body is greater and fuller, there is the
exile of the soul; and where luxury reigns there the soul is a
wretched and afflicted hand-maid. O Paris! How well-suited art
thou to captivate and deceive souls! In thee are the nets of the
vices, in thee the arrow of Hell transfixes the hearts of the
foolish! This my John has felt and therefore he has named it an
exile. Would that you were leaving behind that exile of yours
just as it is, and were hastening to your native land not in word
and tongue only but in very deed and truth! There, in the book of
life would you be looking, not upon forms and elements, but upon
divinity itself, as it really is, as upon truth--eye to eye,
without labor of reading, without tediousness of seeing, without
fallacies and mistakes of understanding, without anxiety of
retaining, without fear of forgetting. O blessed school, where
Christ teaches our hearts with the words of his virtue, where
without study and lecture we learn how we should live happily to
eternity! There no book is bought, no teacher of things written
is hired, there is no circumventing in debate, no intricacy of
sophisms, [but] a plain settlement of all questions, a full
apprehension of universal reasons and arguments. There life
avails more than lecture; simplicity, more than cavilling. There
no one is shut in [i.e., limited in freedom] save he who is shut
out. In a word; there every reproach is done away with in the
answer given to him who evilly presents an evil life: "Depart
from me, ye cursed, into everlasting fire prepared for the devil
and his angels;" and to him who sets for a good life: "Come, ye
blessed" &c.
Would that the sons of men were as intent upon these better
studies as they are on idle talking, on vain and base buffoonery!
Certainly they would harvest richer fruits, more excellent
favors, certainly greater honors and beyond doubt would learn the
end of all perfection,--Christ,--whom they will never find in
these. Farewell.[78]
(c) _Letters from or to Students at Paris_
These letters belong to a period covering nearly four centuries. The
first gives an opinion of William of Champeaux in marked contrast to
that of Abelard.
(1) A CERTAIN D. WRITES TO A CERTAIN PRIOR CONCERNING HIS STUDIES AT
PARIS. (1109-1112.)
I am now in Paris in the School of Master William of Champeaux,
the greatest of all the men of his time whom I have known, in
every branch of learning. When we hear his voice we think that no
man, but, as it were, an angel from heaven, is speaking; for the
melody of his words and the profundity of his ideas transcends,
as it were, human limitations....
Here, my revered friend, I am training my youth that I may not
utterly succumb to those vices which, unless conquered, are wont,
as a rule, to overturn this period of life. Here I am doing my
best to illumine by doctrine and study my untaught mind,
emancipated from the shades of ignorance and the sin of the first
man, so far as God, from whom alone comes every blessing of
wisdom, shall himself deign to permit. Because the blessing of
wisdom, when sought and acquired with pure interest, is rightly
believed and considered by all men of discernment as the surmnuni
[bonum]. For, as the Apostle says: Knowledge without charity
puffeth up but, with charity edifieth: for it uproots vices and
grafts in virtues; it instructs itself in its duty to itself, its
neighbor, and its Creator; finally, by its presence, it fortifies
and defends the mind, over which it presides in person, against
all the ills of this life that come to it from without.[79]
(2) PHILIP OF HARVENGT TO HERGALD, A STUDENT AT PARIS (DATE BETWEEN 1154
AND 1181)
Know that I have both read carefully and when read, accepted
gratefully the letters which your affection, with memorable
feeling, led you to send to me ...because in them I thought I saw
evidence of your progress in learning.... Just as the Queen of
Sheba is said to have come with a large retinue, that by the
sight of her own eyes she might have surer knowledge of those
things whose fame she had eagerly absorbed from afar, so you too,
drawn by love of knowledge, came to Paris and found a much
desired model of Jerusalem, sought for by many. For here David
strikes his harp of ten chords, here with mystic touch he
composes the psalms. Here Isaiah is read and in the reading his
prophecies are revealed; here the rest of the prophets present
their diverse strains of harmonious melody. Here the wisdom of
Solomon is open for the instruction of those who have gathered
from all parts of the world; here his treasure house is thrown
open to eager students. Here to stimulate so great a concourse of
students there is so great a throng of clerks that it vies with
the numerous multitude of the laity. Happy city! in which the
Sacred Codes are pored over with so much zeal and their involved
mysteries are solved by the gift of the outpoured Spirit, in
which there is so much diligence on the part of the readers,
and, in short, so much knowledge of Scriptures that it truly
deserves to be called Cariath Sepher, that is The City of
Letters. Therein would I have you instructed like Gothoniel, not
so much in letters as in the spirit, and so to grasp the
Scriptures that you may take delight in searching out their inner
sweetness.... Farewell.[80]
(3) DESCRIPTION OF PARIS ABOUT 1175 BY GUY DE BASOCHES
To a youth who is noble and so like himself as to be a second
self, Guy de Basoches [seeks] to match his nobility of birth by
high-bred manners....
My situation then is this: I am indeed in Paris, happy because of
soundness of both mind and body, happier were you enjoying it
too, and happiest had it but been my lot to have you with me. I
am indeed in Paris, in that City of Kings, which not only holds,
by the sweet delight of her natural dowry, those who are with
her, but also alluringly invites those who are far away. For as
the moon by the majesty of its more brilliant mirror overwhelms
the rays of the stars, not otherwise does said city raise its
imperial head with its diadem of royal dignity above the rest of
the cities. It is situated in the lap of a delightful valley,
surrounded by a coronet of mountains which Ceres and Bacchus
adorn with fervent zeal. The Seine, no humble stream amid the
army of rivers, superb in its channel, throwing its two arms
about the head, the heart, the very marrow of the city, forms an
island. Two suburbs reach out to right and left, the less
excellent, even, of which begets envy in envious cities. From the
two suburbs two stone bridges stretch over to the island and one
of them which has been named for its size, for it is Great, faces
the north and the English Sea, while the opposite one, which
opens towards the Loire, they call the Little Bridge....
On this island Philosophy, of old, placed a royal throne for
herself, Philosophy, who, despised in her solitude, with a sole
attendant, Study, now possesses an enduring citadel of light and
immortality, and under her victorious feet tramples the withered
flowers of a world already in its dotage.
On this island, the seven sisters, to wit, the Liberal Arts, have
secured an eternal abiding place for themselves, and, with the
ringing clarion of their nobler eloquence, decrees and laws are
proclaimed.
Here the healing fount of learning gushes forth, and as it were
evoking from itself three most limpid streams, it makes a
threefold division of the knowledge of the sacred page into
History, Allegory and Morals.[81]
(4) JOHANN VON JENZENSTEIN TO MASTER BENESCH OF HORSCHOWITZ, CONCERNING
PARIS. (1375.)
Master Bennessius, dearest comrade and friend. If recent doings
at Paris are unknown to you, if the fecundity of pleasures, the
abundance of all things edible, the manners of the men, the
bountiful supply of all the sciences, even the clever teaching in
very many material crafts,--if you could but see the mere shadow
of all these, surely, overpowered by their arguments, you would
throw off your sluggishness and generously enter into the
aforesaid enjoyments; and your eyes, grown old in old sights
would renew their youth in these new sights....
For here (says the writer sarcastically) are distinguished
doctors of many faculties, some of whom by their crazy ways of
thinking, and still others by crazy ways of acting, others,
indeed, by inflicting wounds, and still others by abusive words,
furnish enjoyment that is exceeding pleasing; and (he adds more
seriously) there are other Masters subtly trained in the seven
liberal Arts, by whose example and teaching the entire earth,
like the heavens, is adorned with stars; and some of these
masters are illuminated by the three trivials and some by the
four quadrivials and some by both the trivials and the
quadrivials.
Now the three trivials are grammar, which teaches clearly the
agreement of speech; and starting from that, the youth who holds
on to his first teaching makes a beginning whereby he may obtain
a deeper taste of the profundities of other knowledge also; the
second is rhetoric, which by the charm of its colors adorns as
with pearls the subject matter, and ennobles grammar, and instils
acceptably into the ears of men that which is heard; the third is
logic by means of which the method of skilful deductive reasoning
is assigned to the individual sciences, without which the powers
of all the sciences are quiescent, and by whose addition all the
sciences are regularly organized. (The letter ends with a similar
description of the quadrivials.)[82]
2. TWO OXFORD LETTERS OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY
(1) OXFORD UNIVERSITY TO THE DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, ACKNOWLEDGING A GIFT OF
BOOKS. (1439.)
Most illustrious, most cultured and magnificent Prince, the
enduring value of the benefits you have conferred on the English
nation, and the meritorious deeds of your most powerful Highness
in its behalf can never die, but, with distinguished fame
destined to endure, will flourish with ever-renewed praise and
happy remembrance. How delightful it certainly is for us to
reflect upon these again and again! Among the rest, however, that
deed itself redounds to the splendor of your most mighty
Highness, namely, that after having brought about the repression
of heretic plotting against the church of God, you have chosen to
reinvigorate the vineyard of the Lord, your hand-maid, the
University of Oxford, with books on all the sciences and virtues,
out of which the abundant wine of knowledge and truth may be
squeezed by the press of study. For this reason we set forth in
this humble letter our thanks, our praise, and our prayers, but
we cannot express ourselves adequately.
Which of the Universities has found a Prince so munificent, so
illustrious, so magnificent?--whose service in the field has ever
been successful, whose mind is most liberal, and who displays
charity to all, justice to each, and harm to none. What respecter
of the wise was ever so pious, what supporter of them so
efficient, what patron of the sciences, of virtues, and of books
so generous? And by these not only are the hearts of the living
enlightened to the glory of God and the advance of virtue, but
even more in coming ages will posterity be illumined. Can the
happy memory of deeds so great pass away? Nay, but it will be a
benediction forever.
A statute has been made in the words of your supplicant, and is
to be forever in force, which will never fail in prayers in your
behalf but will serve as an enduring memorial. Wherefore,
although the fame of others may ebb with the flow of time or
perish through being overshadowed by the rising of greater men,
yet your fame cannot perish under the cloud of oblivion nor can
it, of a truth, be obscured by the shadow of greater
benefactions.
If the great conquests of Alexander come to our ears, renewed day
by day through the devices of the wise Greeks who committed such
deeds to writing, how much more will this University, your
devoted supplicant, bear witness to your magnificent deeds to the
end of time, not only by her prayers but also in her writings?
Nay, were the tongues of all to be silent the fact itself would
bear witness more than speech, the fact, to wit, that one hundred
and thirty-nine most precious volumes of theology, medicine, and
the seven liberal sciences have been deposited in our library
from your own collection, as an eternal witness to your
surpassing virtues and munificence.
We pray therefore that you may be willing to look upon this
University as your vineyard and your handmaid and perpetual
supplicant. And may the Lord Himself most glorious, who chose
your serenity for the bestowing of such benefactions, grant to
you the fruits of the spirit and guide you to the University of
the saints. Written at Oxford in our congregation in the
twenty-fifth day of the month of January.
The most humble supplicant of your Serenity, the University of
learning at Oxford.[83]
(2) TESTIMONIAL LETTER FOR MR. JOHN KING OF OXFORD
To all the children of Holy Church, our Mother, to whom this
letter may come, the Chancellor of the University of Oxford and
the whole assembly of masters ruling in the same send greeting in
the arms of our Saviour. We believe that we present an offering
in the sight of the highest truth, as often as we furnish a
testimony of high praise to one excellent in virtue and in
knowledge. Therefore we,--wishing all whom it may concern to know
of the commendable life and the fragrance of honest conversation
of our beloved brother, Master John King, M.A. and student in
Sacred Theology, a prudent Procurator of our University who has
filled his office most efficiently; we therefore, as we have
said, wishing all to know, as we are bound to do,--and to prevent
so bright a light from being hid beneath the bushel of
silence,--do bear witness by this letter that, through the
commendable merits of our aforesaid brother and his study, he has
attained such proficiency that the fragrant fame of his
name--which the praise of his excellent action has exalted to the
pinnacle of glory with us--could not be concealed: but from the
height of its exalted pedestal it has furnished a living example
to all scholars for emulation, and a great light to all people
for profitable instruction. And so, while adorning our University
with his presence and outshining all in the maturity and dignity
of his character, he won the love of all by his spotless name. We
commend him therefore to your worshipful reverences, earnestly
praying that you will show yourselves favorable and kind to him,
both out of regard for our University and for his deserts. In
witness of which, and that all may know more fully about his
laudable character, we have caused this letter to be sealed for
said Master John with the seal of our University.
Given at Oxford in the Congregation-house, February 9th,
1434.[84]
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 77: _Chart. Univ. Paris._, I, f. 47.]
[Footnote 78: _Chart. Univ. Paris.,_ I, No. 22, p. 24.]
[Footnote 79: Jaffé, _Bibliotheca_, V, pp. 285, ff.]
[Footnote 80: _Chart. Univ. Paris._, I, No. 51, p. 50.]
[Footnote 81: _Bulletin de la Société de l'Histoire de Paris_, 1877, p.
37 f.]
[Footnote 82: _Archiv für oesterreichische Geschichte_, Vol. 55, p.
385.]
[Footnote 83: _Epistolae Academicae Oxon._, I, p. 177.]
[Footnote 84: _Epistolae Academicae Oxon._, I, p. 113.]
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
=1. Additional Readings from the Sources.=