the stratification of religious beliefs among the Malays (“The
Folk-lore of the Malays,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of the
Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 7, June, 1881, pp. 11 _sq._). He says:
“Two successive religious changes have taken place among them, and
when we have succeeded in identifying the vestiges of Brahmanism
which underly the external forms of the faith of Muhammed, long
established in all Malay kingdoms, we are only half-way through our
task. There yet remain the powerful influences of the still earlier
indigenous faith to be noted and accounted for. Just as the
Buddhists of Ceylon turn, in times of sickness and danger, not to
the consolations offered by the creed of Buddha, but to the
propitiation of the demons feared and reverenced by their early
progenitors, and just as the Burmese and Talaings, though Buddhists,
retain in full force the whole of the _Nat_ superstition, so among
the Malays, in spite of centuries which have passed since the
establishment of an alien worship, the Muhammedan peasant may be
found invoking the protection of Hindu gods against the spirits of
evil with which his primitive faith has peopled all natural
objects.”
M68 Demons in ancient India.
277 H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 39 _sq._
M69 Demons in modern India.
278 Monier Williams, _Religious Thought and Life in India_ (London,
1883), pp. 210 _sq._
279 Monier Williams, _op. cit._ pp. 230 _sq._ The views here expressed
by the late Professor Monier Williams are confirmed from personal
knowledge by Mr. E. T. Atkinson, _The Himalayan Districts of the
North-Western Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 840.
M70 Demons in Bengal, Assam, the Chin Hills Sikhim, Tibet, and
Travancore.
280 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872),
pp. 256, 257, 258.
281 Rev. S. Endle, _The Kacharis_ (London, 1911), p. 33.
282 Bertram S. Carey and H. N. Tuck, _The Chin Hills_, i. (Rangoon,
1896) p. 196.
283 L. A. Waddell, “Demonolatry in Sikhim Lamaism,” _The Indian
Antiquary_, xxiii. (1894) p. 197.
284 L. A. Waddell, _The Buddhism of Tibet_ (London, 1895), p. 152.
285 Lt.-Colonel J. Shakespear, _The Lushei Kuki Clans_ (London, 1912),
pp. 61, 65 _sq._, 67.
286 Rev. S. Mateer, _The Land of Charity_ (London, 1883), p. 207.
M71 Demons in Ceylon.
287 R. Percival, _Account of the Island of Ceylon_, Second Edition
(London, 1805), pp. 211-213.
M72 Demons in Burma.
288 C. J. F. S. Forbes, _British Burma_ (London, 1878), pp. 221 _sq._
289 Shway Yoe, _The Burman, his Life and Notions_ (London, 1882), i. 276
_sq._
290 Shway Yoe, _op. cit._ i. 278. “To the Burman,” says A. Bastian, “the
whole world is filled with nats. Mountains, rivers, waters, the
earth, etc., have all their nat.” (_Die Völker des östlichen Asien_,
ii. 497).
M73 Demons in Siam and Indo-China.
291 Mgr. Pallegoix, _Description du royaume Thai ou Siam_ (Paris, 1854),
i. 42.
292 C. Bock, _Temples and Elephants_ (London, 1884), p. 198.
293 Mgr. Bruguière, in _Annales de l’Association de la Propagation de la
Foi_, v. (1831) p. 128.
294 J. Deniker, _The Races of Man_ (London, 1900), pp. 400 _sqq._
295 A. Bourlet, “Les Thay,” _Anthropos_, ii. (1907) p. 619.
296 A. Bourlet, _op. cit._ p. 632.
M74 Demons in China.
297 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, v. (Leyden,
1907) p. 470.
298 J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ vi. (Leyden, 1910) pp. 930-932. This
sixth volume of Professor de Groot’s great work is mainly devoted to
an account of the ceaseless war waged by the Chinese people on
demons or spectres (_kwei_). A more summary notice of this curious
national delusion will be found in his work _The Religion of the
Chinese_ (New York, 1910), chapter ii., “The Struggle against
Spectres,” pp. 33-61.
M75 Demons in Corea.
299 Mrs. Bishop (Isabella L. Bird), _Korea and her Neighbours_ (London,
1898), ii. 227 _sq._, 229. I have taken the liberty of changing the
writer’s “daemon” and “daemoniacal” into “demon” and “demoniacal.”
M76 Demons among the Koryaks.
300 C. von Dittmar, “Über die Koräken und die ihnen sehr nahe verwandten
Tschuktschen,” _Bulletin de la Classe Historico-philologique de
l’Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg_, xiii. (1856)
coll. 123 _sq._
301 W. Jochelson, _The Koryak_ (Leyden and New York, 1908), p. 28 (_The
Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of
Natural History_).
M77 Demons among the Gilyaks.
302 L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” _Archiv für
Religionswissenschaft_, viii. (1905) pp. 460 _sq._
M78 Demons in ancient Babylonia and Assyria.
303 M. Jastrow, _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_ (Boston, 1898),
pp. 260 _sqq._; _id._, _Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens_, i.
(Giessen, 1905) pp. 278 _sqq._; C. Fossey, _La Magie Assyrienne_
(Paris, 1902), pp. 27-30, 34; E. Schrader, _Die Keilinschriften und
das Alte Testament_, Dritte Auflage, neu bearbeitet von H. Zimmern
und H. Winckler (Berlin, 1902), pp. 458 _sqq._
M79 Demons in ancient and modern Egypt.
304 E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_ (London,
1911), ii. 150.
305 E. W. Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (Paisley
and London, 1895), chap. x. pp. 231 _sq._
306 C. B. Klunzinger, _Bilder aus Oberägypten, der Wüste und dem Rothen
Meere_ (Stuttgart, 1877), p. 382; compare _ibid._ pp. 374 _sq._
M80 Demons in ancient Greece and mediaeval Europe.
307 Aristotle, _De anima_, i. 5. 17; Diogenes Laertius, i. 1. 27.
308 Porphyry, quoted by Eusebius, _Praeparatio Evangelii_, iv. 23.
309 Elsewhere I have attempted to shew that a particular class of
purifications—those observed by mourners—is intended to protect the
living from the disembodied spirits of the dead (“On certain Burial
Customs as illustrative of the Primitive Theory of the Soul,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) pp. 64
_sqq._).
310 C. Meyer, _Der Aberglaube des Mittelalters_ (Bâle, 1884), pp.
109-111, 191 _sq._
M81 Demons in modern Europe.
311 E. Gerard, _The Land beyond the Forest_ (Edinburgh and London,
1888), i. 328. The superstitions of the Roumanians of Transylvania
have been collected by W. Schmidt in his tract _Das Jahr und seine
Tage in Meinung und Brauch der Romänen Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt,
1866).
M82 Demons in modern Armenia.
312 Manuk Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_ (Leipsic, 1899), pp. 31
_sq._
M83 General clearances of evils take the form of expulsions of demons.
M84 General expulsions of demons in Melanesia, Australia and South
Africa.
313 Paul Reina, “Über die Bewohner der Insel Rook,” _Zeitschrift für
allgemeine Erdkunde_, N.F., iv. (1858) p. 356.
314 R. Parkinson, _Im Bismarck-Archipel_ (Leipsic, 1887), p. 142; _id._,
_Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee_ (Stuttgart, 1907), p. 119.
315 O. Opigez, “Aperçu général sur la Nouvelle-Calédonie,” _Bulletin de
la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), VII. Série, vii. (1886) p. 443.
316 S. Gason, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv.
(1895) p. 170.
317 Rev. James Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), pp.
100-102. The writer, who describes the ceremony at first hand,
remarks that “there is no periodic purging of devils, nor are more
spirits than one expelled at a time.” He adds: “I have noticed
frequently a connection between the quantity of grain that could be
spared for making beer, and the frequency of gatherings for the
purging of evils.”
M85 General expulsion of demons in Minahassa, Halmahera, and the Kei
Islands.
318 [P. N. Wilken], “De godsdienst en godsdienstplegtigheden der
Alfoeren in de Menahassa op het eiland Celebes,” _Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch Indië_, December 1849, pp. 392-394; _id._, “Bijdragen
tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der Alfoeren in de
Minahassa,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, vii. (1863) pp. 149 _sqq._; J. G. F. Riedel,
“De Minahasa in 1825,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en
Volkenkunde_, xviii. (1872) pp. 521 _sq._ Wilken’s first and fuller
account is reprinted in N. Graafland’s _De Minahassa_ (Rotterdam,
1869), i. 117-120. A German translation of Wilken’s earlier article
is printed in _Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde_, N.F., x. (1861)
pp. 43-61.
319 J. G. F. Riedel, “Galela und Tobeloresen,” _Zeitschrift für
Ethnologie_, xvii. (1885) p. 82; G. A. Wilken, “Het Shamanisme bij
de Volken van de Indischen Archipel,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land-
en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indie_, xxxvi. (1887) p. 484; _id._,
_Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), iii. 383. When smallpox
is raging, the Toradjas of Central Celebes abandon the village and
live in the bush for seven days in order to make the spirit of
smallpox believe that they are all dead. But it does not appear that
they forcibly expel him from the village. See N. Adriani en Alb. C.
Kruijt, _De Bare’e-sprekende Toradja’s van Midden-Celebes_, i.
(Batavia, 1912) p. 417.
320 C. M. Pleyte, “Ethnographische Beschrijving der Kei-eilanden,”
_Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_,
Tweede Serie, x. (1893) pp. 834 _sq._ A briefer account of the
custom had previously been given by J. G. F. Riedel (_De sluik- en
kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, The Hague, 1886, p.
239).
M86 Demons of sickness expelled in Nias.
321 J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het
eiland Nias,” _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van
Kunsten en Wetenschapen_, xxx. (Batavia, 1863) pp. 116 _sq._; H. von
Rosenberg, _Der Malayische Archipel_ (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 174 _sq._
Compare L. N. H. A. Chatelin, “Godsdienst en Bijgeloof der
Niassers,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_,
xxvi. (1880) p. 139; E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nías_ (Milan,
1890), pp. 195, 382. The Dyaks also drive the devil at the point of
the sword from a house where there is sickness. See C. Hupe, “Korte
verhandeling over de godsdienst, zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,”
_Tijdschrift voor Neérlands Indië_, 1846, dl. iii. p. 149.
M87 Spiritual quarantine against demons of sickness in Nias.
322 Fr. Kramer, “Der Götzendienst der Niasser,” _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) pp. 486-488.
323 Herodotus, i. 172.
M88 Demons of sickness expelled in the Solomon Islands, Burma, India,
China.
324 G. C. Wheeler, “Sketch of the Totemism and Religion of the People of
the Islands in the Bougainville Straits (Western Solomon Islands),”
_Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, xv. (1912) pp. 49, 51 _sq._
325 C. J. F. S. Forbes, _British Burma_ (London, 1878), p. 233; Shway
Yoe, _The Burman, his Life and Notions_ (London, 1882), i. 282, ii.
105 _sqq._; A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, ii. 98;
Max and Bertha Ferrars, _Burma_ (London, 1900), p. 128.
326 (Sir) J. George Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma
and the Shan States_, Part ii. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1901) p. 440.
327 T. H. Lewin, _Wild Tribes of South-Eastern India_ (London, 1870), p.
226.
328 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, vi. (Leyden,
1910) pp. 981 _sqq._; _id._, _The Religion of the Chinese_ (New
York, 1910), pp. 40 _sqq._
M89 Demons of sickness expelled in Japan, Corea and Tonquin.
329 This description is taken from a newspaper-cutting, which was sent
to me from the west of Scotland in October 1890, but without the
name or date of the paper. The account, which is headed “Exorcism of
the Pest Demon in Japan,” purports to be derived from a series of
notes on medical customs of the Japanese, which were contributed by
Dr. C. H. H. Hall, of the U.S. Navy, to the _Sei-I Kwai Medical
Journal_. Compare Lafcadio Hearn, _Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan_
(London, 1894), i. 147.
330 Masanao Koike, “Zwei Jahren in Korea,” _Internationales Archiv für
Ethnographie_, iv. (1891) p. 10; Mrs. Bishop, _Korea and her
Neighbours_ (London, 1898), ii. 240.
_ 331 Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition (Paris,
1780-1783), xvi. 206. It will be noticed that in this and the
preceding case the principle of expulsion is applied for the benefit
of an individual, not of a whole community. Yet the method of
procedure in both is so similar to that adopted in the cases under
consideration that I have allowed myself to cite them.
M90 Demons of sickness expelled in Africa, America.
332 G. Zündel, “Land und Volk der Eweer auf der Sclavenküste in
Westafrika,” _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin_,
xii. (1877) pp. 414 _sq._
333 H. Hecquard, _Reise an die Küste und in das Innere von West-Afrika_
(Leipsic, 1854), p. 43.
334 Dr. A. Plehn, “Beobachtungen in Kamerun, über die Anschauungen und
Gebräuche einiger Negerstämme,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xxxvi.
(1904) pp. 717 _sq._
335 Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die materielle
Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_ (Berlin, 1893), p. 177.
336 F. Gabriel Sagard, _Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, pp. 279
_sqq._ (195 _sq._ of the reprint, Paris, Libraire Tross, 1865).
Compare _Relations des Jésuites_, 1639, pp. 88-92 (Canadian reprint,
Quebec, 1858), from which it appears that each man demanded the
subject of his dream in the form of a riddle, which the hearers
tried to solve. The custom of asking riddles at certain seasons or
on certain special occasions is curious and has not yet, so far as I
know, been explained. Perhaps enigmas were originally
circumlocutions adopted at times when for certain reasons the
speaker was forbidden the use of direct terms. They appear to be
especially employed in the neighbourhood of a dead body. Thus in
Bolang Mongondo (Celebes) riddles may never be asked except when
there is a corpse in the village. See N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz,
“Allerlei over het land en volk van Bolaäng Mongondou,”
_Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xi.
(1867) p. 357. In the Aru archipelago, while a corpse is uncoffined,
the watchers propound riddles to each other, or rather they think of
things which the others have to guess. See J. G. F. Riedel, _De
sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, pp. 267
_sq._ In Brittany after a burial, when the rest have gone to partake
of the funeral banquet, old men remain behind in the graveyard, and
having seated themselves on mallows, ask each other riddles. See A.
de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_
(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 199. Among the Akamba of British East
Africa boys and girls at circumcision have to interpret certain
pictographs cut on sticks: these pictographs are called “riddles.”
See C. W. Hobley, _Ethnology of A-Kamba and other East African
Tribes_ (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 71 _sq._ In Vedic times the priests
proposed enigmas to each other at the great sacrifice of a horse.
See _The Satapatha Brahmana_, translated by J. Eggeling, Part v.
(Oxford, 1900), pp. 314-316 (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol.
xliv.); H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), p.
475. Compare O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der indogermanischen
Altertumskunde_ (Strasburg, 1901), pp. 647 _sq._ Among Turkish
tribes of Central Asia girls publicly propound riddles to their
wooers, who are punished if they cannot read them. See H. Vambery,
_Das Türkenvolk_ (Leipsic, 1885), pp. 232 _sq._ Among the Alfoors of
Central Celebes riddles may only be asked during the season when the
fields are being tilled and the crops are growing. People meeting
together at this time occupy themselves with asking riddles and
telling stories. As soon as some one has found the answer to a
riddle, they all cry out, “Make our rice to grow, make fat ears to
grow both in the valleys and on the heights.” But during the months
which elapse between harvest and the preparation of new land for
tillage the propounding of enigmas is strictly forbidden. The writer
who reports the custom conjectures that the cry “Make our rice to
grow” is addressed to the souls of the ancestors. See A. C. Kruijt,
“Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk leven van
den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 142 _sq._ Amongst the
Toboongkoo of Central Celebes riddles are propounded at harvest and
by watchers over a corpse. See A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische
aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen
van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) pp.
223, 228.
M91 Flight from the demons of sickness.
337 A. d’Orbigny, _Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale_, ii. (Paris and
Strasburg, 1839-1843) p. 190.
338 Pedro Lozano, _Description Chorographica del Terreno, Rios, Arboles,
y Animales de las dilatadissimas Provincias del Gran Chaco,
Gualamba_, etc. (Cordova, 1733) p. 100.
339 H. H. Bancroft, _Natives Races of the Pacific States_ (London,
1875-1876), i. 589 note 259, quoting Arlegui, _Chrón. de Zacatecas_,
pp. 152-3, 182.
340 Bertram S. Carey and H. N. Tuck, _The Chin Hills_, i. (Rangoon,
1896) p. 198.
M92 The periodic expulsion of evils. Annual expulsion of ghosts in
Australia.
341 Rev. W. Ridley, in J. D. Lang’s _Queensland_ (London, 1861), p. 441.
Compare Rev. W. Ridley, _Kamilaroi_ (Sydney, 1875), p. 149.
M93 Annual expulsion of Tuña among the Esquimaux of Alaska.
_ 342 Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow,
Alaska_ (Washington, 1885), pp. 42 _sq._ It is said that in Thule,
where the sun disappeared below the horizon for forty days every
winter, the greatest festival of the year was held when the luminary
reappeared. “It seems to me,” says Procopius, who records the fact,
“that though the same thing happens every year, these islanders are
very much afraid lest the sun should fail them altogether.” See
Procopius, _De bello Gothico_, ii. 15.
M94 Annual expulsion of Sedna among the Esquimaux of Baffin Land.
343 Fr. Boas, “The Eskimo,” _Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal
Society of Canada for 1887_, vol. v. (Montreal, 1888) sect. ii. 36
_sq._; _id._, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the
Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), pp. 603 _sq._ Elsewhere,
however, the writer mentions a different explanation of the custom
of harpooning Sedna. He says: “Sedna feels kindly towards the people
if they have succeeded in cutting her. If there is no blood on the
knife, it is an ill omen. As to the reason why Sedna must be cut,
the people say that it is an old custom, and that it makes her feel
better, that it is the same as giving a thirsty person drink.” See
Fr. Boas, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of
the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. (New York, 1901) p.
139. However, this explanation may well be an afterthought devised
to throw light on an old custom of which the original meaning had
been forgotten.
M95 Annual expulsion of demons among the Koryaks.
344 W. Jochelson, _The Koryak_ (Leyden and New York, 1908), p. 88 (_The
Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vi., _Memoir of the American
Museum of Natural History_).
M96 Annual expulsion of demons among the Iroquois and the Cherokees..
345 Above, p. 121.
_ 346 Relations des Jésuites_, 1656, pp. 26-28 (Canadian reprint, Quebec,
1858); J. F. Lafitau, _Mœurs des Sauvages Ameriquains_ (Paris,
1724), i. 367-369; Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, vi.
82 _sqq._; Timothy Dwight, _Travels in New England and New York_
(London, 1823), iv. 201 _sq._; L. H. Morgan, _League of the
Iroquois_ (Rochester, 1851), pp. 207 _sqq._; Mrs. E. A. Smith,
“Myths of the Iroquois,” _Second Annual Report of the Bureau of
Ethnology_ (Washington, 1883), pp. 112 _sqq._; Horatio Hale,
“Iroquois Sacrifice of the White Dog,” _American Antiquarian_, vii.
(1885) pp. 7 _sqq._; W. M. Beauchamp, “Iroquois White Dog Feast,”
_ibid._ pp. 235 _sqq._ “They had one day in the year which might be
called the Festival of Fools; for in fact they pretended to be mad,
rushing from hut to hut, so that if they ill-treated any one or
carried off anything, they would say next day, ‘I was mad; I had not
my senses about me.’ And the others would accept this explanation
and exact no vengeance” (L. Hennepin, _Description de la Louisiane_,
Paris, 1683, pp. 71 _sq._).
347 J. H. Payne, quoted in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee
Indians, by W. Bartram, 1789, with prefatory and supplementary notes
by E. G. Squier,” _Transactions of the American Ethnological
Society_, vol. iii. Part i. (1853) p. 78.
M97 Annual expulsion of evils among the Incas of Peru.
348 C. Gay, “Fragment d’un voyage dans le Chili et au Cusco patrie des
anciens Incas,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), ii.
Série, xix. (1843) pp. 29 _sq._
349 Garcilasso de la Vega, _Royal Commentaries of the Yncas_, translated
by (Sir) Clements R. Markham (Hakluyt Society, London, 1869-1871),
Part i. bk. vii. ch. 6, vol. ii. pp. 228 _sqq._; Molina, “Fables and
Rites of the Yncas,” in _Rites and Laws of the Yncas_ (Hakluyt
Society, 1873), pp. 20 _sqq._; J. de Acosta, _History of the
Indies_, bk. v. ch. 28, vol. ii. pp. 375 _sq._ (Hakluyt Society,
London, 1880). The accounts of Garcilasso and Molina are somewhat
discrepant, but this may be explained by the statement of the latter
that “in one year they added, and in another they reduced the number
of ceremonies, according to circumstances.” Molina places the
festival in August, Garcilasso and Acosta in September. According to
Garcilasso there were only four runners in Cuzco; according to
Molina there were four hundred. Acosta’s account is very brief. In
the description given in the text features have been borrowed from
all three accounts, where these seemed consistent with each other.
M98 Annual expulsion of demons among the negroes of Guinea.
350 W. Bosman, “Description of the Coast of Guinea,” in J. Pinkerton’s
_Voyages and Travels_, xvi. (London, 1814) p. 402; Pierre Bouche,
_La Côte des Esclaves_ (Paris, 1885), p. 395.
351 Rev. J. Leighton Wilson, _Western Africa_ (London, 1856), p. 217.
M99 Annual expulsion of demons in Benin.
_ 352 Narrative of Captain James Fawckner’s Travels on the Coast of
Benin, West Africa_ (London, 1837), pp. 102 _sq._
M100 Annual expulsion of demons at Cape Coast Castle.
353 “Extracts from Diary of the late Rev. John Martin, Wesleyan
Missionary in West Africa, 1843-1848,” _Man_, xii. (1912) pp. 138
_sq._ Compare Major A. J. N. Tremearne, _The Tailed Head-hunters of
Nigeria_ (London, 1912), pp. 202 _sq._
M101 Annual expulsion of evils on the Niger and in Abyssinia.
354 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_
(London, 1859), p. 320.
355 Mansfield Parkyns, _Life in Abyssinia_, Second Edition (London,
1868), pp. 285 _sq._
M102 Annual expulsion of spirits at the yam harvest in New Guinea. Annual
expulsion of demons among the Hos of West Africa before eating the
new yams.
356 George Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and Polynesian_ (London, 1910), pp.
413 _sq._
357 As to the ceremony of eating the new yams, see _Spirits of the Corn
and of the Wild_, ii. 58 _sqq._
358 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 305-307. At
Kotedougou a French officer saw a number of disguised men called
_dou_ dancing and performing various antics about the houses, under
the trees, and in the fields. Hemp and palm leaves were sewn on
their garments and they wore caps of hemp surmounted by a crest of
red-ochred wood, sometimes by a wooden beak of a bird. He gathered
that the ceremony takes place at the beginning of winter, and he
thought that the processions “are perhaps intended to drive away the
evil spirits at the season of tillage or perhaps also to procure
rain.” See Le Capitaine Binger, _Du Niger au Golfe de Guinée par le
pays de Kong et le Mossi_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 378-380.
M103 Annual expulsion of demons among the Hos of North-Eastern India at
harvest.
359 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872),
pp. 196 _sq._ We have seen that among the Pondos of South Africa the
harvest festival of first-fruits is in like manner a period of
licence and debauchery. See _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_,
ii. 66 _sq._
M104 Annual expulsion of demons among the Hindoo Koosh tribes at harvest.
Annual expulsion of demons among the Khonds at sowing.
360 Major J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_ (Calcutta, 1880), p.
103.
361 W. Macpherson, _Memorials of Service in India from the
Correspondence of the late Major S. C. Macpherson_ (London, 1865),
pp. 357 _sq._ Possibly this case belongs more strictly to the class
of mediate expulsions, the devils being driven out upon the car.
Perhaps, however, the car with its contents is regarded rather as a
bribe to induce them to go than as a vehicle in which they are
actually carted away. Anyhow it is convenient to take this case
along with those other expulsions of demons which are the
accompaniment of an agricultural festival.
M105 Annual expulsion of disease in Chota Nagpur. Annual expulsion of
demons among the Mossos of China.
362 H. C. Streatfield, “Ranchi,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal_, lxxii. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1904) p. 36.
_ 363 Le Tour du Monde_, iii. (Paris, 1897) pp. 227 _sq._, quoting _Aux
sources de l’Irraouaddi, d’Hanoï à Calcutta par terre_, par M. E.
Roux, Troisième Partie.
M106 Periodical expulsion of demons in Bali.
364 R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch Indië_, N.S., viii. (1879) pp. 58-60. Van Eck’s account
is reprinted in J. Jacobs’s _Eenigen tijd onder de Baliërs_
(Batavia, 1883), pp. 190 _sqq._ According to another writer, each
village may choose its own day for expelling the devils, but the
ceremony must always be performed at the new moon. A necessary
preliminary is to mark exactly the boundaries of the village
territory, and this is done by stretching the leaves of a certain
palm across the roads at the boundaries. See F. A. Liefrinck,
“Bijdrage tot de kennis van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) pp. 246 _sq._
As to the “dark moon” it is to be observed that some eastern
nations, particularly the Hindoos and the Burmese, divide the
monthly cycle of the moon into two parts, which they call the light
moon and the dark moon respectively. The light moon is the first
half of the month, when the luminary is waxing; the dark moon is the
second half of the month, when the luminary is waning. See Francis
Buchanan, “On the Religion and Literature of the Burmas,” _Asiatick
Researches_, vi. (London, 1801) p. 171. The Balinese have no doubt
derived the distinction, like much else, from the Hindoos.
M107 Annual expulsion of the fire-spirit among the Shans. Annual ceremony
in Fiji. Annual ceremony in Tumleo.
365 J. Anderson, _Mandalay to Momien_ (London, 1876), p. 308.
_ 366 United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology_, by
H. Hale (Philadelphia, 1846), pp. 67 _sq._; Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative
of the U.S. Exploring Expedition_, New Edition (New York, 1851),
iii. 90 _sq._, 342. According to the latter writer, the sea-slug was
eaten by the men alone, who lived during the four days in the
temple, while the women and boys remained shut up in their houses.
As to the annual appearance and catch of the sea-slug in the seas of
Fiji, see further B. Seeman, _Viti, an Account of a Government
Mission to the Vitian or Fijian Islands in the Years 1860-1862_
(Cambridge, 1862), pp. 59-61; Basil Thomson, _The Fijians_ (London,
1908), pp. 324-327. A somewhat different account of the appearance
of the slug (_Palolo veridis_) in the Samoan Sea is given from
personal observation by Dr. George Brown. He says: “This annelid, as
far as I can remember, is about 8 or 12 inches long, and somewhat
thicker than ordinary piping-cord. It is found only on two mornings
in the year, and the time when it will appear and disappear can be
accurately predicted. As a general rule only a few _palolo_ are
found on the first day, though occasionally the large quantity may
appear first; but, as a rule, the large quantity appears on the
second morning. And it is only found on these mornings for a very
limited period, viz. from early dawn to about seven o’clock, _i.e._
for about two hours. It then disappears until the following year,
except in some rare instances, when it is found for the same limited
period in the following month after its first appearance. I kept
records of the time, and of the state of the moon, for some years,
with the following result: that it always appeared on two out of the
following three days, viz. the day before, the day of, and the day
after the last quarter of the October moon.” See George Brown, D.D.,
_Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), pp. 135 _sq._ The slug
is also caught in the sea off Samoa, according to one account, at
intervals of six months. One of its appearances takes place on the
eighth day after the new moon of October. So regular are the
appearances of the creature that the Samoans reckon their time by
them. See E. Boisse, “Les îles Samoa, Nukunono, Fakaafo, Wallis et
Hoorn,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), vi. Série,
x. (1875) pp. 430 _sq._ In antiquity every year vast shoals of a
small fish used to ascend the river Olynthiac from the lake of Bolbe
in Macedonia, and all the people of the neighbourhood caught and
salted great store of them. They thought that the fish were sent to
them by Bolbe, the mother of Olynthus, and they noted it as a
curious fact that the fish never swam higher up than the tomb of
Olynthus, which stood on the bank of the river Olynthiac. The shoals
always made their appearance in the months of Anthesterion and
Elaphebolion, and as the people of Apollonia (a city on the bank of
the lake) celebrated their festival of the dead at that season,
formerly in the month of Elaphebolion, but afterwards in the month
of Anthesterion, they imagined that the fish came at that time on
purpose. See Athenaeus, viii. 11, p. 334 F.
367 M. J. Erdweg, “Die Bewohner der Insel Tumleo Berlinhafen,
Deutsch-New-Guinea,” _Mittheilungen der anthropologischen
Gesellschaft in Wien_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 329 _sq._
M108 Annual expulsion of demons in Japan.
368 A. Humbert, _Le Japon illustré_ (Paris, 1870), ii. 326.
369 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, v. (Jena, 1869) p.
367.
370 W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), p. 309.
371 Lafcadio Hearn, _Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan_ (London, 1894), ii.
498 _sq._ The writer agrees with Mr. Aston as to the formula of
exorcism—“_Oni wa soto! fuku wa uchi_”, “Devils out! Good fortune
in!”
M109 Annual expulsion of poverty and demons in China, India, and Persia.
372 Eitel, “Les Hak-ka,” _L’Anthropologie_, iv. (1893) pp. 175 _sq._
_ 373 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. pp. 146 _sq._, § 792 (June, 1885);
D. C. J. Ibbetson, _Outlines of Panjab Ethnography_ (Calcutta,
1883), p. 119; W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern
India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 188, 295 _sq._
374 John Richardson, _Dictionary of Persian, Arabic, and English_, New
Edition (London, 1829), p. liii.
M110 Annual expulsion of demons in China at the end of the year.
375 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, vi. (Leyden,
1910) pp. 977 _sq._
376 J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ vi. 978.
377 J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ vi. 979.
378 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, vi. 944 _sqq._;
_id._, _The Religion of China_ (New York, 1910), pp. 38 _sq._; J. H.
Gray, _China_ (London, 1878), i. 251 _sq._
379 W. Woodville Rockhill, “Notes on some of the Laws, Customs, and
Superstitions of Korea,” _The American Anthropologist_, iv. (1891)
p. 185.
M111 Annual expulsion of demons in Tonquin.
380 S. Baron, “Description of the Kingdom of Tonqueen,” in J.
Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, ix. (London, 1811) pp. 673, 695
_sq._; compare Richard, “History of Tonquin,” _ibid._ p. 746. The
account of the ceremony by Tavernier (whom Baron criticises very
unfavourably) is somewhat different. According to him, the expulsion
of wicked souls at the New Year is combined with sacrifice to the
honoured dead. “At the beginning of every year they have a great
solemnity in honour of the dead, who were in their lives renowned
for their noble actions and valour, reckoning rebels among them.
They set up several altars, some for sacrifices, others for the
names of the persons they design to honour; and the king, princes,
and mandarins are present at them, and make three profound
reverences to the altars when the sacrifices are finished; but the
king shoots five times against the altars where the rebels’ names
are; then the great guns are let off, and the soldiers give vollies
of small shot, to put the souls to flight. The altars and papers
made use of at the sacrifices are burnt, and the bonzes and sages go
to eat the meat made use of at the sacrifice” (Tavernier, in John
Harris’s _Collection of Voyages and Travels_, vol. i. (London, 1744)
p. 823). The translation is somewhat abridged. For the French
original, see J. B. Tavernier, _Voyages en Turquie, en Perse, et aux
Indes_ (The Hague, 1718), iii. 230 _sq._
M112 Annual expulsion of demons in Cambodia and Siam.
381 É. Aymonier, _Notice sur le Cambodge_ (Paris, 1875), p. 62.
382 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, iii. (Jena, 1867) pp.
237, 298, 314, 529 _sq._; Mgr. Pallegoix, _Description du Royaume
Thai ou Siam_ (Paris, 1854), i. 252. Bastian (p. 314), with whom
Pallegoix seems to agree, distinctly states that the expulsion takes
place on the last day of the year. Yet both say that it occurs in
the fourth month of the year. According to Pallegoix (i. 253) the
Siamese year is composed of twelve lunar months, and the first month
usually begins in December. Hence the expulsion of devils would
commonly take place in March, as in Cambodia. In Laos the year
begins in the fifth month and it ends in the fifth month of the
following year. See Lieutenant-Colonel Tournier, _Notice sur le Laos
Français_ (Hanoi, 1900), p. 187. According to Professor E. Seler the
festival of Toxcatl, celebrated in the fifth month, was the old
Mexican festival of the New Year. See E. Seler, _Altmexikanische
Studien_, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 153, 166 _sq._ (_Veröffentlichungen
aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde_, vi. Heft 2/4). Hence it
appears that in some calendars the year is not reckoned to begin
with the first month.
383 Ernest Young, _The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe_ (Westminster, 1898),
pp. 135 _sq._
384 “Lettre de Mgr. Bruguière, évêque de Capse, à M. Bousquet,
vicaire-général d’Aire,” _Annales de l’Association de la Propagation
de la Foi_, v. (Paris and Lyons, 1831) p. 188. As to the temporary
king of Siam, his privileges and the ceremony of ploughing which he
performs, see _The Dying God_, pp. 149-151.
M113 Annual reception and expulsion of the spirits of the dead in Japan.
385 Charlevoix, _Histoire et description generale du Japon_ (Paris,
1736), i. 128 _sq._; C. P. Thunberg, _Voyages au Japon_ (Paris,
1796), iv. 18-20; A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, v.
(Jena, 1869) p. 364; Beaufort, in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xv. (1886) p. 102; A. Morgan, in _Journal of American
Folk-lore_, x. (1897) pp. 244 _sq._; Lafcadio Hearn, _Glimpses of
Unfamiliar Japan_ (London, 1894), i. 106-110, ii. 504 _sq._ The
custom of welcoming the souls of the dead back to their old homes
once a year has been observed in many lands. See _Adonis, Attis,
Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 301 _sqq._
M114 Annual reception and expulsion of the spirits of the dead in ancient
Greece and Rome.
386 Above, pp. 123 _sq._
387 Hesychius, _s.v._ μιαραὶ ἡμέραι; τοῦ Ἀνθεστηριῶνος μηνός, ἐν αἶς τὰς
ψυχὰς τῶν κατοιχομένων ἀνιέναι ἐδόκουν. Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.vv._
Θύραζε Κᾶρες; οὐκέτ᾽ Ἀνθεστήρια ... τινὲς δὲ οὕτως τὴν παροιμίαν
φασί; Θύραζε Κῆρες οὐκέτ᾽ Ἀνθεστήρια; ὡς κατὰ τὴν πόλιν τοῖς
Ἀνθεστηρίοις τῶν ψυχῶν περιερχομένων. _Id._, _s.vv._ μιαρὰ ἡμέρα; ἐν
τοῖς Χουσὶν Ἀνθεστηριῶνος μηνός, ἐν ᾧ δοκοῦσιν αἱ ψυχαὶ τῶν
τελευτησάντων ἀνιέναι, ῥάμνῳ ἕωθεν ἐμασῶντο καὶ πίττῃ τὰς θύρας
ἔχριον. Pollux, viii. 141: περισχοινίσαι τὰ ἱερὰ ἔλεγον ἐν ταῖς
ἀποφράσι καί τὸ παραφράξαι. As to the closing of the temples, see
further Athenaeus, x. 49, p. 447 C. As to the Anthesteria in
general, see E. Rohde, _Psyche_3 (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903), i.
236 _sqq._, who rightly adopts Hesychius’s second explanation of
Κῆρες. The reasons given by August Mommsen for rejecting that
explanation betray an imperfect acquaintance with popular
superstition (_Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_, Leipsic, 1898, p.
386, note 1). Compare Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study
of Greek Religion_, Second Edition (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 32 _sqq._
The Greeks thought that branches of buckthorn (_rhamnus_) fastened
to doors or windows kept out witches (Dioscorides, _De materia
medica_, i. 119). A similar virtue was attributed to buckthorn or
hawthorn by the ancient Romans and modern European peasants. See A.
Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2 (Güterslöh,
1886), pp. 209 _sq._; J. Murr, _Pflanzenwelt in der griechischen
Mythologie_ (Innsbruck, 1890), pp. 104-106; _The Magic Art and the
Evolution of Kings_, ii. 54 _sq._, 191. According to Mr. Murr,
_rhamnus_ is _Lycium europaeum_ L. I learn from Miss J. E. Harrison
that Sir Francis Darwin believes it to be buckthorn (_Rhamnus
catharticus_). In some parts of Bosnia, when peasant women go to pay
a visit in a house where a death has occurred they put a little
hawthorn (_Weissdorn_) behind their headcloth, and on returning from
the house they throw it away on the street. They think that if the
deceased has turned into a vampyre, he will be so occupied in
picking up the hawthorn, that he will not be able to follow them to
their homes. See F. S. Krauss, “Vampyre im südslavischen
Volksglauben,” _Globus_, lxi. (1892) p. 326. At childbirth also the
Greeks smeared pitch on their houses to keep out the demons (εἰς
ἀπέλασιν τῶν δαιμόνων) who attack women at such times (Photius,
_Lexicon_, _s.v._ ῥάμνος). To this day the Bulgarians try to keep
wandering ghosts from their houses by painting crosses with tar on
the outside of their doors, while on the inside they hang a tangled
skein composed of countless broken threads. The ghost cannot enter
until he has counted all the threads, and before he has done the sum
the cock crows and the poor soul must return to the grave. See A.
Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), p. 454. The Servians paint
crosses with tar on the doors of houses and barns to keep out
vampyres. See F. S. Krauss, “Vampyre im südslavischen Volksglauben,”
_Globus_, lxi. (1892) p. 326. In the Highlands of Scotland it was
believed that tar put on a door kept witches away. See J. G.
Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands
of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), p. 13. The Thompson Indians of British
Columbia used to bar their houses against ghosts by means not unlike
those adopted by the Athenians at the Anthesteria. When a death had
happened, they hung a string of deer-hoofs across the inside of the
house, and an old woman often pulled at the string to make the hoofs
rattle. This kept the ghost out. They also placed branches of
juniper at the door or burned them in the fire for the same purpose.
See James Teit, “The Thompson Indians of British Columbia” (April
1900), p. 332 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the
American Museum of Natural History_). With the Athenian use of ropes
to keep ghosts out of the temples at the Anthesteria we may compare
the Siamese custom of roping demons out of the city at the New Year
(above, p. 149). Ropes of rice-straw, which are supposed to repel
demoniacal and evil influences, are hung by the Japanese in front of
shrines, and at the New Year they hang them also before ordinary
houses. See W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), pp. 335 _sq._ Some
of the Kayans of Borneo stretch ropes round their houses to keep out
demons of disease; in order to do so more effectually leaves of a
certain plant or tree are fastened to the rope. See A. W.
Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. (Leyden, 1904) p. 448.
388 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 218.
389 J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of
the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 14, December 1884, pp. 296-298.
390 Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 419-486; Varro, quoted by Nonius Marcellus, p. 135
(p. 142 ed. Quicherat), _s.v._ “Lemures”; Festus, p. 87 ed. C. O.
Müller, _s.v._ “Fabam.” Ovid, who is our chief authority for the
ceremony, speaks as if the festival lasted only one day (the ninth
of May). But we know from the inscribed calendars that it lasted
three days. See W. Warde Fowler, _The Roman Festivals of the period
of the Republic_ (London, 1899), pp. 106 _sqq._
M115 Annual expulsion of Satan among the Wotyaks and Cheremiss of Russia.
391 Max Buch, _Die Wotjäken_ (Stuttgart, 1882), pp. 153 _sq._
392 A. Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_ (Leipsic, 1860), ii. 94;
P. v. Stenin, “Ein neuer Beitrag zur Ethnographie der
Tscheremissen,” _Globus_, lviii. (1890) p. 204.
M116 Annual expulsion of witches and other powers of evil in Christian
Europe.
393 Vincenzo Dorsa, _La tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle
credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore_ (Cosenza, 1884), pp. 42
_sq._
394 Vincenzo Dorsa, _La tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle
credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore_, p. 48.
395 J. G. von Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_ (Jena, 1854), i. 160. Compare
_The Dying God_, pp. 264 _sq._
396 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,
1903-1906), i. 86.
M117 Widespread fear of witches and wizards in Europe.
397 As to the activity of the evil powers on the twelve days from
Christmas to Twelfth Night, see Gustav Bilfinger, _Das germanische
Julfest_ (Stuttgart, 1901), pp. 74 _sqq._; as to witches on St.
George’s Eve, May Eve, and Midsummer Eve, see _The Magic Art and the
Evolution of Kings_, ii. 52 _sqq._, 127, 334 _sqq._
M118 Annual expulsion of witches on Walpurgis Night (the Eve of May Day),
on May Day in the Tyrol.
398 G. Bilfinger, _Das germanische Julfest_ (Stuttgart, 1901), p. 76.
399 J. M. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich,
1857), pp. 260 _sq._ Compare J. E. Waldfreund, “Volksgebräuche und
Aberglauben,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_,
iii. (1855) p. 339. A Westphalian form of the expulsion of evil is
the driving out the _Süntevögel_, _Sunnenvögel_, or _Sommervögel_,
that is, the butterfly. On St. Peter’s Day, 22nd February, children
go from house to house knocking on them with hammers and singing
doggerel rhymes in which they bid the _Sommervögel_ to depart.
Presents are given to them at every house. Or the people of the
house themselves go through all the rooms, knocking on all the
doors, to drive away the _Sunnenvögel_. If this ceremony is omitted,
it is thought that various misfortunes will be the consequence. The
house will swarm with rats, mice, and other vermin, the cattle will
be sick, the butterflies will multiply at the milk-bowls, etc. See
J. F. L. Woeste, _Volksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark_
(Iserlohn, 1848), p. 24; J. W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen
Mythologie_, i. (Göttingen and Leipsic, 1852) p. 87; A. Kuhn,
_Westfälische Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. pp.
119-121, §§ 366-374; Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste,
Volksbräuche, und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), pp. 21
_sq._; U. Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und
Viehzucht_ (Breslau, 1884), pp. 94-96.
M119 Annual expulsion of witches on Walpurgis Night in Bavaria and
Voigtland.
_ 400 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich,
1860-1866), ii. 272, iii. 302 _sq._, 934; O. Freiherr von
Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), p. 137.
_ 401 Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth Edition, xx. 493.
402 R. Eisel, _Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes_ (Gera, 1871), p. 210.
403 August Witzschel, _Sitten, Sagen und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_
(Vienna, 1878), pp. 262 _sq._
M120 Annual “Burning of the Witches” on Walpurgis Night in Bohemia.
404 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_
(Prague, preface dated 1861), pp. 210-212; _id._, _Das festliche
Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), p. 137; Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und
Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), pp. 70-73.
405 Alois John, _op. cit._ p. 71.
406 Willibald Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_
(Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), p. 324.
M121 Annual “Burning of the Witches” on Walpurgis Night in Silesia.
407 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,
1903-1906), i. 108-110. With regard to the dance of the witches in
the snow, it is a common saying in the northern district of the Harz
Mountains that the witches must dance the snow away on the top of
the Blocksberg on the first of May. See A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz,
_Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 376.
At Dabelow in Mecklenburg all utensils are removed from the
fireplace on Walpurgis Night, lest the witches should ride on them
to the Blocksberg. See A. Kuhn and W. Schwartz, _l.c._
M122 Annual “Burning of the Witches” on Walpurgis Night among the Wends
of Saxony.
408 R. Wuttke, _Sächsische Volkskunde_ (Dresden, 1901), p. 359.
409 Lady Agnes Macdonell, in _The Times_, May 3rd, 1913, p. 6. In a
letter to me (dated 31, Kensington Park Gardens, May 5th [1913])
Lady Macdonell was kind enough to give me some further particulars
as to the custom. It seems that the boys use their horns on May Day
as well as on the thirtieth of April. Processions of boys and girls
decorated with flowers and leaves, and carrying flags and horns,
went about Penzance on May Day of the present year (1913). The horns
are straight; some of them terminate in a bell-shaped opening,
others have no such appendage. The latter and plainer are the older
pattern.
M123 Annual expulsion of witches during the Twelve Days from Christmas to
Epiphany. “Burning out the Old Year” at Biggar.
410 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,
1903-1906), i. 15-18. With regard to the superstitions attached to
these twelve days or twelve nights, as the Germans call them, see
further A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und
Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), pp. 408-418; A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche
und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 111-117; L.
Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_
(Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 28 _sqq._; M. Toeppen, _Aberglauben aus
Masuren_2 (Danzig, 1867), pp. 61 _sqq._; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche
Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), pp. 61 _sqq._, § 74; E. Mogk,
“Mythologie,” in H. Paul’s _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_,2
iii. (Strasburg, 1900) pp. 260 _sq._; Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und
Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), pp. 11 _sqq._
411 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_
(Prague, preface dated 1861), p. 602.
412 W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), p. 312, referring to Lady
Burton’s life of her husband.
413 T. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 506.
414 J. G. Dalyell, _The Darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh,
1834), p. 670.
M124 Annual expulsion of witches and demons in Switzerland and France.
415 H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N.F., xxx.
(1875) p. 198; _id._, _Kleine Schriften_, iv. (Leipzic and Berlin,
1913), p. 109; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Bräuche des
Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich, 1913), p. 101.
416 H. Herzog, _Schweizerische Volksfeste, Sitten und Gebräuche_ (Aaran,
1884), pp. 212 _sq._
417 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes, et Traditions des Provinces de
France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 81, 85.
M125 Befana in the Piazza Navona at Rome, in the Tuscan Romagna.
418 As to Befana and her connexion with Epiphany, see J. Grimm,
_Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 234. The personified Befana, an ugly but
good-natured old woman, is known in Sicily as well as Italy. See G.
Pitrè, _Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane_ (Palermo, 1881), p.
167. As to the ceremony in the Piazza Navona, see H. Usener,
“Italische Mythen,” _Kleine Schriften_, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin,
1913) pp. 108 _sqq._, who rightly compares it to the Swiss
ceremonies observed at and near Brunnen on Twelfth Night. I
witnessed the noisy scene in the Piazza Navona in January, 1901.
419 P. Fabbri, “Canti popolari raccolti sui monti della
Romagna-Toscana,” _Archivio per lo Studio delle Tradizioni
Popolari_, xxii. (1903) pp. 356 _sq._; H. Usener, _Kleine
Schriften_, iv. 108 note 62. In the Abruzzi, on the evening before
Epiphany, musicians go from house to house serenading the inmates
with songs and the strains of fiddles, guitars, organs, and so
forth. They are accompanied by others carrying lanterns, torches, or
burning branches of juniper. See Antonio de Nino, _Usi e Costumi
Abruzzesi_ (Florence, 1879-1883), ii. 178-180; G. Finamore,
_Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), pp. 88 _sq._
Such house to house visitations may be a relic of an old expulsion
of witches and demons.
M126 Expulsion of the Trows in Shetland on Up-helly-a’, the twenty-fourth
day after Christmas.
420 Rev. Biot Edmondston and Jessie M. E. Saxby, _The Home of a
Naturalist_ (London, 1888), p. 136. Compare _County Folk-lore_, vol.
iii. _Orkney and Shetland Islands_, collected by G. F. Black
(London, 1903), p. 196. As to the Trows, whose name is doubtless
identical with the Norse Trolls (Swedish _troll_, Norwegian
_trold_), see Edmondston and Saxby, _op. cit._ pp. 189 _sqq._; John
Jamieson, _Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New
Edition, edited by J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson (Paisley,
1879-1882), iv. 630 _sq._, who observes that “while the Fairies are
uniformly represented as social, cheerful, and benevolent beings,
the _Trows_ are described as gloomy and malignant, ever prone to
injure men.”
421 Rev. Biot Edmondston and Jessie M. E. Saxby, _The Home of a
Naturalist_ (London, 1888), p. 146. Compare _County Folk-lore_, vol.
iii. _Orkney and Shetland Islands_, collected by G. F. Black
(London, 1903), pp. 202 _sq._
_ 422 The Shetland News_, February 1st, 1913, p. 5. As January 5th is
reckoned Christmas in Shetland, the celebration of Up-helly-a’ falls
on January 29th. See J. Nicolson, in _The World’s Work and Play_,
February, 1906, pp. 283 _sqq._ For further information relating to
the ceremony I am indebted to the kindness of Sheriff-Substitute
David J. Mackenzie (formerly of Lerwick, now of Kilmarnock).
According to one of his correspondents, the Rev. Dr. J. Willcock of
Lerwick, the present elaborate form of the ceremony dates only from
1882, when the Duke of Edinburgh visited Lerwick on naval business,
and Up-helly-a’ was celebrated in his honour on a grander scale than
ever before. Yet Dr. Willcock apparently does not deny the antiquity
of the festival in a simpler form, for in his letter he says: “In
former times an old boat filled with tar was set on fire and dragged
about, as were also lighted tar-barrels.” Another authority on
Shetland antiquities, Mr. Gilbert Goudie, writes to Sheriff
Mackenzie that “the kicking about and burning a tar-barrel is very
old in Lerwick.” Compare _County Folk-lore_, iii. _Orkney and
Shetland Islands_, collected by G. F. Black (London, 1903), p. 205:
“Formerly, blazing tar-barrels were dragged about the town, and
afterwards, with the first break of morning, dashed over the knab
into the sea.” Up-helly-a’, the Shetland name for Antinmas, is no
doubt the same with Uphalyday, which Dr. J. Jamieson (_Dictionary of
the Scottish Language_, New Edition, iv. 676) defines as “the first
day after the termination of the Christmas holidays,” quoting two
official documents of A.D. 1494 and 1541 respectively.
I have to thank my friend Miss Anderson of Barskimming, Mauchline,
Ayrshire, for kindly calling my attention to this interesting relic
of the past.
M127 Annual expulsion of witches and demons in Europe.
M128 The expulsion of embodied evils.
M129 Expulsion of demons personified by men among the American Indians.
Expulsion of a demon embodied in an image among the Mayas of
Yucatan.
423 Stephen Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), p. 159.
424 G. Catlin, _North American Indians_, Fourth Edition (London, 1844),
i. 166 _sqq._; _id._, _O-kee-pa, a Religious Ceremony, and other
Customs of the Mandans_ (London, 1867).
425 Diego de Landa, _Relation des Choses de Yucatan_ (Paris, 1864), pp.
203-205, 211-215; E. Seler, “The Mexican Chronology,” _Bureau of
American Ethnology, Bulletin 28_ (Washington, 1904), p. 17. As to
the Maya calendar see further Cyrus Thomas, _The Maya Year_
(Washington, 1894), pp. 19 _sqq._ (_Smithsonian Institution, Bureau
of Ethnology_).
M130 Expulsion of a demon personified by a man among the aborigines of
Queensland. Expulsion of demons embodied in effigies in India and
Russia. Expulsion of demons embodied in animals or boys in Esthonia
and Spain.
426 W. E. Roth, _Ethnological Studies among the North-West-Central
Queensland Aborigines_ (Brisbane and London, 1897), pp. 120-125.
427 J. Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1883), i. 172. Compare
above, p. 149.
428 R. H. Elliot, _Experiences of a Planter in the Jungles of Mysore_
(London, 1871), i. 60 _sq._
429 A. C. Winter, “Russische Volksbräuche bei Seuchen,” _Globus_, lxxix.
(1901) p. 302. For the Russian ceremony of drawing a plough round a
village to keep out the cattle plague, see also W. R. S. Ralston,
_Songs of the Russian People_, Second Edition (London, 1872), pp.
396 _sqq._
430 J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and
Leipsic, 1841), ii. 278.
_ 431 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) p. 174.
M131 Annual expulsion of the demon of plague among the Khasis of Assam.
The Tug of War probably a contest with demons represented by human
beings. The Tug of War at funerals in Chittagong and Burma.
432 Major P. R. T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_ (London, 1907), p. 157; A.
Bastian, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für
Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte_, 1881, p. 151; _id._,
_Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra_ (Berlin, 1883), pp. 6 _sq._
433 Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau
of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 605. See _The Dying God_, p.
259.
434 Capt. T. H. Lewin, _Wild Races of South-Eastern India_ (London,
1870), p. 185.
435 Father Sangermano, _Description of the Burmese Empire_ (Rangoon,
1885), p. 98; Capt. C. J. F. S. Forbes, _British Burma_ (London,
1878), pp. 216 _sq._; Shway Yoe, _The Burman, his Life and Notions_
(London, 1882), ii. 334 _sq._, 342.
M132 The Tug of War as a rain-making ceremony in Burma and else where.
436 F. E. Sawyer, “S. Swithin and Rainmakers,” _The Folk-lore Journal_,
i. (1883) p. 214.
437 Francis Buchanan, “On the Religion and Literature of the Burmas,”
_Asiatick Researches_, vi. (London, 1801) pp. 193 _sq._ Compare
Lieut.-General A. Fytche, _Burma Past and Present_ (London, 1878),
i. 248 note 1; Max and Bertha Ferrars, _Burma_ (London, 1900), p.
184; (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma
and the Shan States_ (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part ii. vol. ii. pp. 95,
279.
438 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Celebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 282.
439 For particulars as to the winds of Assam I am indebted to my friend
Mr. J. D. Anderson, formerly of the Indian Civil Service, who
resided many years in that country.
M133 The Tug of War between the sexes. The Tug of War in Kamtchatka and
New Guinea.
_ 440 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 98 _sq._
441 G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoevell, “Leti-eilanden,” _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) p. 207.
However, it is not quite clear from the writer’s words (“_Immers de
mannen en vrouwen in twee partijeen verdeelt en elk een stuk van de
roten in de hande houdende bootsen toch ook door’t voor- en
achteroverbuigen van’t lichaam de bewegingen van cohabitie na_”)
whether the men and women take opposite sides or are distributed
between the two.
442 T. C. Hodson, _The Naga Tribes of Manipur_ (London, 1911), p. 168;
compare 64. “The Chirus have six crop festivals, one of which, that
before the crops are cut, is marked by a rope-pulling ceremony of
the same nature as that observed among the Tangkhuls” (_op. cit._ p.
172). The headman (_khullākpa_) “is a sacrosanct person, the
representative of the village in all religious rites, and surrounded
by special alimentary, social and conjugal _gennas_” or taboos (_op.
cit._ p. 110).
443 Stewart Culin, _Korean Games_ (Philadelphia, 1895), p. 35; A. C.
Haddon, _The Study of Man_ (London and New York, 1898), p. 274.
444 G. W. Steller, _Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka_ (Frankfort
and Leipsic, 1774), pp. 327 _sq._
445 H. von Rosenberg, _Der malayisch Archipel_ (Leipsic, 1878), p. 462.
M134 The Tug of War in Morocco to procure rain or sunshine.
446 Edward Westermarck, “The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in
Morocco,” _Folk-lore_, xxii. (1911) pp. 158 _sq._; _id._,
_Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of
the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco_ (Helsingfors, 1913), p.
122.
M135 Games of ball in Morocco to procure rain or sunshine.
447 E. Westermarck, _Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture,
Certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco_
(Helsingfors, 1913). pp. 121 _sq._
M136 The Tug of War in Morocco to ensure prosperity.
448 E. Westermarck, “The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in Morocco,”
_Folk-lore_, xxii. (1911) p. 159.
M137 Spiritual significance of the Tug of War. The Tug of War in French
Guiana, in North-Western India.
449 H. Coudreau, _Chez nos Indiens, Quatre Années dans la Guayane
Française_ (Paris, 1895), p. 234.
450 Major Forbes, _Eleven Years in Ceylon_ (London, 1840), i. 358.
451 Sir Henry M. Elliot, _Memoirs on the History, Folk-lore, and
Distribution of the Races of the North-Western Provinces of India_,
edited, revised, and re-arranged by John Beames (London, 1869), i.
235.
452 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), ii. 321.
453 E. Westermarck, “The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in Morocco,”
_Folk-lore_, xxii. (1911) p. 158.
M138 The Tug of War in Shropshire and Radnorshire. Contests for a ball
(_soule_) in Normandy.
454 John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_, New Edition
(London, 1883), i. 92; Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson,
_Shropshire Folk-lore_ (London, 1883), pp. 319-321.
455 C. S. Burne and G. F. Jackson, _op. cit._ p. 321.
456 Jules Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau,
1883-1887), i. 13, ii. 153-165. Compare Laisnel de la Salle,
_Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_ (Paris, 1875), i. 86
_sqq._; and as to the game of _soule_, see Guerry, in _Mémoires des
Antiquaires de France_, viii. (1829) pp. 459-461.
457 In the parish of Vieux-Pont, in the department of Orne, the man who
is last married before the first Sunday in Lent must throw a ball
from the foot of the cross. The village lads compete with each other
for its possession. To win it the lad must carry it through three
parishes without being overtaken by his rivals. See A. de Nore,
_Coutumes, Mythes, et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and
Lyons, 1846), pp. 244 _sq._
M139 Annual sham fights may represent contests with demons.
458 J. H. F. Kohlbrugge, “Die Tenggeresen, ein alter Javanischer
Volksstamm,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van
Nederlandsch-Indië_, liii. (1901) pp. 140 _sq._
459 Edouard Chavannes, _Documents sur les Tou-Kiue (Turcs) Occidentaux_
(St. Petersburg, 1903), p. 148.
M140 Demons of sickness expelled in a small ship in Ceram.
460 François Valentyn, _Oud- en nieuw Ost-Indiën_ (Dordrecht and
Amsterdam, 1724-1726), iii. 14. L. de Backer (_L’Archipel Indien_,
Paris, 1874, pp. 377 _sq._) copies from Valentyn.
M141 Demons of sickness expelled in a small ship in Timor-laut, in a ship
in Buru, removed from the persons of the sufferers.
461 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), pp. 304 _sq._
462 J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ pp. 25 _sq._
_ 463 Ibid._ p. 141.
464 See above, p. 155.
465 J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ p. 78.
_ 466 Ibid._ p. 357.
_ 467 Ibid._ pp. 266, 304 _sq._, 327, 357; H. Ling Roth, _Natives of
Sarawak and British North Borneo_ (London, 1896), i. 284.
468 Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, _The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_ (London,
1912), ii. 122 _sq._
M142 Demons of disease expelled in a ship in Selangor.
469 W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900), pp. 433-435. For other
examples of sending away plague-laden boats in the Malay region see
J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ pp. 181, 210; R. van Eck, “Schetsen van
het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië_, N.S., viii.
(1879) p. 104; A. Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. 147; C. Hupe, “Korte
verhandeling over de godsdienst, zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,”
_Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands Indië_, 1846, dl. iii. 150; C. F. H.
Campen, “De godsdienstbegrippen der Halmaherasche Alfoeren,”
_Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxvii.
(1882) p. 441; _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society_, No. 12, pp. 229-231; A. L. van Hasselt, _Volksbeschrijving
van Midden-Sumatra_ (Leyden, 1882), p. 98; C. M. Pleyte,
“Ethnographische Beschrijving der Kei-Eilanden,” _Tijdschrift van
het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x.
(1893) p. 835; H. Ling Roth, “Low’s Natives of Sarawak,” _Journal of
the Anthropological Institute_, xxii, (1893) p. 25; C. Snouck
Hurgronje, _De Atjehers_ (Batavia and Leyden, 1893-1894), i. 461
_sq._; J. A. Jacobsen, _Reisen in der Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres_
(Berlin, 1896), p. 110.
M143 Demons of sickness expelled in small ships in New Guinea, the
Philippines, Tikopia, and the Nicobar Islands.
470 H. Zahn, “Die Jabim,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.
(1911) pp. 329 _sq._
471 F. Blumentritt, “Über die Eingeborenen der Insel Palawan und der
Inselgruppe der Talamianen,” _Globus_, lix. (1891) p. 183.
472 J. Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du monde et à la recherche de La
Pérouse, sur la corvette Astrolabe_ (Paris, 1832-1833), v. 311.
473 Roepstorff, “Ein Geisterboot der Nicobaresen,” _Verhandlungen der
Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und
Urgeschichte_ (1881), p. 401; W. Svoboda, “Die Bewohner des
Nikobaren-Archipels,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vi.
(1893) pp. 10 _sq._
474 P. Denjoy, “An-nam, Médecins et Sorciers, Remèdes et Superstitions,”
etc., _Bulletins de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_, v. (1894)
pp. 409 _sq._ Compare É. Aymonier, _Voyage dans le Laos_ (Paris,
1895-1897), i. 121. For Siamese applications of the same principle
to the cure of individuals, see A. Bastian, _Die Völker des
östlichen Asien_, iii. (Jena, 1867) pp. 295 _sq._, 485 _sq._
M144 Demons of sickness expelled in the form of animals in India.
_ 475 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. p. 48, § 418 (January, 1884).
_ 476 Id._, iii. p. 81, § 373 (February 1886).
477 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), i. 142. Bulls are used as scapegoats for
cholera in Cashmeer (H. G. M. Murray-Aynsley, in _Folk-lore_, iv.
(1893) pp. 398 _sq._).
478 Major-General Sir W. H. Sleeman, _Rambles and Recollections of
Indian Official_, New Edition (Westminster, 1893), i. 203.
479 Major-General Sir W. H. Sleeman, _op. cit._ i. 198.
M145 Goats and cocks employed as scapegoats in various parts of India.
480 F. Fawcett, “On the Saoras (or Savaras), an Aboriginal Hill People
of the Eastern Ghats,” _Journal of the Anthropological Society of
Bombay_, i. 213, note.
481 Mr. Y. V. Athalye, in _Journal of the Anthropological Society of
Bombay_, i. 37.
482 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), i. 169 _sq._; _id._, _Tribes and Castes of the
North-Western Provinces and Oudh_ (Calcutta, 1896), iii. 445.
_ 483 Kausika Sutra_, xiv. 22 (W. Caland, _Altindisches Zauberritual_,
Amsterdam, 1900, p. 29); H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_
(Berlin, 1894), p. 498.
_ 484 Kausika Sutra_, xviii. 16 (W. Caland, _Altindisches Zauberritual_,
pp. 44 _sq._).
M146 Cows, toads, and llamas as scapegoats in Africa and America.
485 Dom Daniel Sour Dharim Dena (a Dinka convert), in _Annales de la
Propagation de la Foi_, lx. (1888) pp. 57 _sq._
486 H. Seidel, “Krankheit, Tod, und Begräbnis bei den Togonegern,”
_Globus_, lxxii. (1897) p. 24.
487 D. Forbes, “On the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru,” _Journal of
the Ethnological Society of London_, vol. ii. No. 3 (October, 1870),
p. 237.
M147 Goddess of disease expelled in a toy chariot.
488 Jivangi Jimshedji Modi, B.A., “On the Chariot of the Goddess, a
Supposed Remedy for driving out an Epidemic,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Society of Bombay_, vol. iv. No. 8 (Bombay, 1899),
pp. 420-424; Captain C. Eckford Luard, in _Census of India, 1901_,
vol. xix., _Central India_ (Lucknow, 1902), p. 78.
M148 Human scapegoats in Uganda.
489 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 342.
490 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 109, 200. As to the perpetual
fire at the entrance to a king’s enclosure, see _id._ pp. 103, 197,
202 _sq._
M149 Human scapegoats in China and India. Indian ceremony of sliding down
a rope.
491 J. H. Gray, _China_ (London, 1878), ii. 306.
_ 492 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. p. 75, § 598 (April, 1884); W.
Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), i. 170.
493 Rev. F. Hahn, “Some Notes on the Religion and Superstitions of the
Orāōs” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxxii. Part iii.
(Calcutta, 1904) p. 17; compare H. C. Streatfield, _ibid._ p. 37.
_ 494 North Indian Notes and Queries_, i. pp. 55, 74 _sq._, 77, §§ 417,
499, 516 (July and August, 1891), quoting G. W. Traill, _Statistical
Sketch of Kumaun_, pp. 68 sq., and Moorcroft and Trebeck, _Travels
in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjáb_, i. 17 _sq._
Compare E. T. Atkinson, _The Himalayan Districts of the
North-Western Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884), pp. 834
_sq._
M150 Tibetan New Year ceremony of sliding down a rope.
495 W. Woodville Rockhill, “Tibet, A Geographical, Ethnographical, and
Historical Sketch, derived from Chinese Sources,” _Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society for 1891_ (London, 1891), p. 209. Compare Hue,
_Souvenirs d’un Voyage dans la Tartarie et le Thibet_, Sixième
Édition (Paris, 1878), ii. 379 _sq._ For a description of Potala
Hill and its grand palace, see L. Austine Waddell, _Lhasa and its
Mysteries_ (London, 1905), pp. 330 _sqq._, 387 _sqq._
M151 Periodic expulsion of evils in a material vehicle. Periodic
expulsion of spirits in rafts from Perak.
_ 496 Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Notes and Queries_,
No. 3 (Singapore, 1886), pp. 80 _sq._
M152 Annual expulsion of evils in small ships in the Indian Archipelago.
497 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 393.
498 A. Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_ (Leipsic, 1860), ii. 93.
499 Ivor H. N. Evans, “Notes on the Religious Beliefs, Superstitions,
Ceremonies and Tabus of the Dusuns of the Tuaran and Tempassuk
Districts, British North Borneo,” _Journal of the Royal
Anthropological Institute_, xlii. (1912) pp. 382-384.
M153 Annual expulsion of demons in little ships in the Nicobar Islands.
500 A. Bastian, _op. cit._ ii. 91.
501 V. Solomon, “Extracts from Diaries kept in Car Nicobar,” _Journal of
the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 228 _sq._
M154 Annual expulsion of embodied evils in India, China, and Corea.
Annual expulsion or destruction of demons embodied in images in
Tibet.
502 Captain F. Wilford, “An Essay on the Sacred Isles in the West,”
_Asiatic Researches_, ix. (London, 1809) pp. 96 _sq._
503 J. H. Gray, _China_ (London, 1878), ii. 306 _sq._
504 W. Woodville Rockhill, “Notes on some of the Laws, Customs, and
Superstitions of Corea,” _The American Anthropologist_, iv. (1891)
p. 185; Mrs. Bishop, _Korea and her Neighbours_ (London, 1898), ii.
56.
505 Stewart Culin, _Korean Games_ (Philadelphia, 1895), p. 12.
_ 506 Narratives of the Mission of George Bogle to Tibet and of the
Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa_, edited by (Sir) Clements R.
Markham (London, 1876), pp. 106 _sq._ Compare Sarat Chandra Das,
_Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet_ (London, 1902), p. 116.
507 Missionary Fage, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xxix.
(1857) p. 321.
M155 Biennial expulsion of demons embodied in effigies at Old Calabar.
508 T. J. Hutchinson, _Impressions of Western Africa_ (London, 1858), p.
162; Rev. J. Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), pp.
105-107; Hugh Goldie, _Calabar and its Mission_, New Edition
(Edinburgh and London, 1901), pp. 49 _sq._; Miss Mary H. Kingsley,
_Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), p. 495; Major A. G.
Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London, 1906), pp.
449-451. The ceremony takes place both in Creek Town and Duke Town.
The date of it, according to Miss Kingsley, is either every November
or every second November; but with the exception of Mr. Macdonald,
who does not mention the period, the other authorities agree in
describing the ceremony as biennial. According to Major Leonard it
is celebrated usually towards the end of the year. Miss Kingsley
speaks of the effigies being set up in the houses themselves; but
all the other writers say or imply that they are set up at the doors
of the houses in the streets. According to Mr. Goldie the spirits
expelled are “all the ghosts of those who have died since the last
lustration.” He makes no mention of devils.
M156 Annual expulsion of demons embodied in effigies at Porto Novo.
509 Missionary F. Terrien, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_,
liv. (1882) pp. 375-377.
M157 Annual expulsion of embodied evils among the Hos of Togoland.
_ 510 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 58 _sqq._
511 Jakob Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 305-307. We have
seen (above, p. 193) that these people used a toad as a scapegoat to
free them from the influenza.
M158 Annual expulsion of embodied evils among the gypsies.
512 H. von Wlislocki, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Zigeuner_
(Münster i. W., 1891), pp. 65 _sq._
M159 Annual expulsion of evils in an animal scapegoat among the Garos of
Assam.
513 Major A. Playfair, _The Garos_ (London, 1909), p. 92.
M160 Dogs as scapegoats in India, Scotland and America. The Jewish
scapegoat.
514 E. T. Atkinson, “Notes on the History of Religion in the Himalaya of
the North-West Provinces,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal_, liii. Pt. i. (1884) p. 62; _id._, _The Himalayan Districts
of the North-Western Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p.
871.
_ 515 Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, from the MSS. of
John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, edited by Alex. Allardyce (Edinburgh,
1888), ii. 439.
516 W. M. Beauchamp, “The Iroquois White Dog Feast,” _American
Antiquarian_, vii. (1885) p. 237.
_ 517 Ibid._ p. 236; T. Dwight, _Travels in New England and New York_
(London, 1823), iv. 202.
518 Above, p. 127.
519 Leviticus xvi. The word translated “scapegoat” in the Authorised
Version is Azazel, which appears rather to be the name of a bad
angel or demon, to whom the goat was sent away. “In later Jewish
literature (Book of Enoch) Azazel appears as the prince of the
fallen angels, the offspring of the unions described in Gen. vi. 1
ff. The familiar rendering ‘scapegoat,’ _i.e._ the goat which is
allowed to escape, goes back to the _caper emissarius_ of the
Vulgate, and is based on an untenable etymology” (Professor A. R. S.
Kennedy, in his commentary on Leviticus xvi. 8, in the _Century
Bible_). There is some ground for thinking that the animal was
killed by being thrown over a certain crag that overhangs a rocky
chasm not far from Jerusalem. See _Encyclopædia Biblica_, ed. T. K.
Cheyne and J. S. Black, vol. i. (London, 1899) coll. 394 _sqq._,
_s.v._ “Azazel.” Modern Jews sacrifice a white cock on the eve of
the Day of Atonement, nine days after the beginning of their New
Year. The father of the family knocks the cock thrice against his
own head, saying, “Let this cock be a substitute for me, let it take
my place, let death be laid upon this cock, but a happy life
bestowed on me and on all Israel.” Then he cuts its throat and
dashes the bird violently on the ground. The intestines are thrown
on the roof of the house. The flesh of the cock was formerly given
to the poor. See J. Buxtorf, _Synagoga Judaica_ (Bâle, 1661), ch.
xxv. pp. 508 _sqq._
M161 Human scapegoats formerly put to death every year in Africa.
520 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_
(London, 1859), pp. 343-345. Compare J. F. Schön and S. Crowther,
_Journals_ (London, 1848), pp. 48 _sq._ The account of the custom by
J. Africanus B. Horton (_West African Countries and Peoples_, pp.
185 _sq._) is taken entirely from Taylor.
521 Major A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London,
1906), pp. 446 _sqq._
522 An Igbodu is a sacred grove in which oracles are given. It is
divided into three compartments by fences of palm branches and the
_omu_ shrub. Into the first compartment women and uninitiated men
may enter; into the other two only priestly officials are permitted,
according to their rank in the hierarchy, to enter. See Bishop James
Johnson, “Yoruba Heathenism,” quoted by R. E. Dennett, _At the Back
of the Black Man’s Mind_ (London, 1906), p. 254.
523 Bishop James Johnson, _op. cit._ p. 263. Bishop Johnson is a native
African. It does not appear whether the sacrifice which he describes
is occasional or periodical.
M162 Human scapegoats formerly put to death every year in Siam. Annual
human scapegoats in Japan and Sumatra.
524 Turpin, “History of Siam,” in J. Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_
(London, 1808-1814), ix. 579.
525 The _oho-harahi_ or “Great Purification” is a ceremony, which used
to be performed in the Japanese capital twice every year, namely on
the last days of the sixth and twelfth month. It included a
preliminary lustration, expiatory offerings, and the recital of a
_norito_ or formula (not a prayer), in which the Mikado, by virtue
of an authority transmitted to him from the Sun-goddess, pronounced
to his ministers and people the absolution and remission of their
sins. See W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), pp. 294 _sqq._ The
writer adds (p. 295): “The Chinese had an _oho-harahi_, defined by
Mr. Giles in his _Chinese Dictionary_ as ‘a religious ceremony of
purification performed in spring and autumn, with a view to secure
divine protection for agricultural interests.’ ” The popular
celebrations of the first of May and the first of November in Europe
seem to be relics of similar biennial purifications.
526 W. G. Aston, _Shinto_, pp. 308 _sq._
527 W. Ködding, “Die Batakschen Götter und ihr Verhältnis zum
Brahmanismus,” _Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_, xii. (1885) pp.
476, 478.
M163 Annual human scapegoats in Europe. The expulsion of Posterli in
Switzerland.
528 Aeneas Sylvius, _Opera_ (Bâle, 1571), pp. 423 _sq._
529 H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N.F., xxx.
(1875) p. 198; _id._, _Kleine Schriften_, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin,
1913) pp. 109 _sq._ The custom seems to have been revived in the
latter part of the nineteenth century; perhaps it may still be
observed. See H. Herzog, _Schweizerische Volksfeste, Sitten und
Gebräuche_ (Aarau, 1884), pp. 293 _sq._; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste
und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich, 1913), p. 101.
M164 Annual expulsion of the devil, personified by a man, from Munich on
Ascension Day.
530 L. Curtius, “Christi Himmelfahrt,” _Archiv für
Religionswissenschaft_, xiv. (1911) p. 307, quoting the _Münchener
Neuesten Nachrichten_, No. 235, May 21st, 1909.
M165 The pardoned criminal at Rouen on Ascension Day may have been a
public scapegoat.
_ 531 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 164 _sqq._
532 On the use of eponymous magistrates as annual scapegoats see above,
pp. 39-41.
M166 Divine animals as scapegoats in India and ancient Egypt.
533 J. Thomas Phillips, _Account of the Religion, Manners, and Learning
of the People of Malabar_ (London, 1717), pp. 6, 12 _sq._
534 Herodotus, ii. 39.
535 Herodotus, ii. 38-41; Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs
of the Ancient Egyptians_, New Edition (London, 1878), iii. 403
_sqq._
536 Herodotus, _l.c._ As to the worship of sacred bulls in ancient
Egypt, see further _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 34
_sqq._
_ 537 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 175 _sqq._, 314 _sq._
M167 Divine men as scapegoats among the Gonds of India and the Albanians
of the Caucasus.
_ 538 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. p. 54, § 335 (December, 1884).
539 Strabo, xi. 4. 7, p. 503. For the custom of standing upon a
sacrificed victim, compare Demosthenes, _Or._ xxiii. 68, p. 642;
Pausanias, iii. 20. 9.
M168 Annual human scapegoats in Tibet. The Jalno, the temporary ruler of
Lhasa.
M169 The Jalno and the King of the Years. Expulsion of the King of the
Years.
540 The ceremony referred to is perhaps the one performed on the tenth
day, as described in the text.
541 “Report of a Route Survey by Pundit—from Nepal to Lhasa,” etc.,
_Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_, xxxviii. (1868) pp.
167, 170 _sq._; “Four Years Journeying through Great Tibet, by one
of the Trans-Himalayan Explorers,” _Proceedings of the Royal
Geographical Society_, N.S. vii. (1885) pp. 67 _sq._; W. Woodville
Rockhill, “Tibet, a Geographical, Ethnographical, and Historical
Sketch, derived from Chinese Sources,” _Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society for 1891_ (London, 1891), pp. 211 _sq._; L. A. Waddell, _The
Buddhism of Tibet_ (London, 1895), pp. 504 _sqq._, 512 _sq._; J. L.
Dutreuil de Rhins, _Mission Scientifique dans la Haute Asie
1890-1895: Récit du Voyage_ (Paris, 1897), pp. 257 _sq._ The
accounts supplement each other, though they differ in some
particulars. I have endeavoured to combine them. According to Mr.
Rockhill’s account, which is drawn from Chinese sources, at one
point of the ceremonies the troops march thrice round the temple and
fire volleys of musketry to drive away the devil. With the like
intent they discharge a great old cannon, which bears the
inscription, “My power breaks up and destroys rebellion.” The same
account speaks of a fencing with battle-axes by a troop of
boy-dancers, a great illumination of the cathedral with lanterns,
and its decoration with figures made out of butter and flour to
represent men, animals, dragons, etc.; also it makes mention of a
horse-race and a foot-race, both run by boys. The clerical invasion
of the capital at this season is graphically described by an
eye-witness. See Huc, _Souvenirs d’un Voyage dans la Tartarie et le
Thibet_, Sixième Édition (Paris, 1878), ii. 380 _sq_.
M170 The Grand Lama, the Jalno, and the King of the Years in their
relations to each other. Probability that of old the Tibetan
scapegoat was put to death as a substitute for the Grand Lama.
M171 General remarks.
M172 First, the immediate and the mediate expulsions of evil are
identical in intention.
M173 Second, the annual expulsion of evil generally coincides with some
well-marked change of season, such as the beginning or end of
winter, the beginning or end of the rainy season, etc.
M174 Third, the annual expulsion of evil is commonly preceded or followed
by a period of general license.
542 In the Dassera festival, as celebrated in Nepaul, we seem to have
another instance of the annual expulsion of demons preceded by a
time of license. The festival occurs at the beginning of October and
lasts ten days. “During its continuance there is a general holiday
among all classes of the people. The city of Kathmandu at this time
is required to be purified, but the purification is effected rather
by prayer than by water-cleansing. All the courts of law are closed,
and all prisoners in jail are removed from the precincts of the
city.... The Kalendar is cleared, or there is a jail-delivery always
at the Dassera of all prisoners.” This seems a trace of a period of
license. At this time “it is a general custom for masters to make an
annual present, either of money, clothes, buffaloes, goats, etc., to
such servants as have given satisfaction during the past year. It is
in this respect, as well as in the feasting and drinking which goes
on, something like our ‘boxing-time’ at Christmas.” On the seventh
day at sunset there is a parade of all the troops in the capital,
including the artillery. At a given signal the regiments begin to
fire, the artillery takes it up, and a general firing goes on for
about twenty minutes, when it suddenly ceases. This probably
represents the expulsion of the demons. “The grand cutting of the
rice-crops is always postponed till the Dassera is over, and
commences all over the valley the very day afterwards.” See the
description of the festival in H. A. Oldfield’s _Sketches from
Nipal_ (London, 1880), ii. 342-351. On the Dassera in India, see J.
A. Dubois, _Mœurs, Institutions et Cérémonies des Peuples de l’Inde_
(Paris, 1825), ii. 329 _sqq._ The Besisi of the Malay Peninsula hold
a regular carnival at the end of the rice-harvest, when they are
said to be allowed to exchange wives. See W. W. Skeat and C. O.
Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_ (London, 1906), ii.
70, 76, 145, compare 120 _sq._ Amongst the Swahili of East Africa
New Year’s Day was formerly a day of general license, “every man did
as he pleased. Old quarrels were settled, men were found dead on the
following day, and no inquiry was instituted about the matter.” See
Ch. New, _Life, Wanderings, and Labours in Eastern Africa_ (London,
1873), p. 65; and _The Golden Bough_,2 iii. 250. An annual period of
anarchy and license, lasting three days, is reported by Borelli to
be observed by some of the Gallas. See Ph. Paulitschke,
_Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die geistige Cultur der Danâkil,
Galla und Somal_ (Berlin, 1896), p. 158. In Ashantee the annual
festival of the new yams is a time of general license. See _Spirits
of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 62.
M175 Fourth, the use of a divine man or animal as a scapegoat is
remarkable.
M176 Why a dying god should serve as a scapegoat.
M177 The use of a divinity as scapegoat explains an ambiguity in the
ceremony of “Carrying out Death.”
543 See _The Dying God_, pp. 233 _sqq._, 264.
544 Above, pp. 186, 189, 201.
545 H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N.F. (1875)
xxx. 194; _id._, _Kleine Schriften_, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1913)
p. 105.
M178 Annual expulsion of “the Old Mars” in the month of March in ancient
Rome.
546 Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iii. 29, iv. 36. Lydus places the
expulsion on the Ides of March, that is 15th March. But this seems
to be a mistake. See H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” _Rheinisches
Museum_, xxx. (1875) pp. 209 _sqq._; _id._, _Kleine Schriften_, iv.
(Leipsic and Berlin, 1913) pp. 122 _sqq._ Again, Lydus does not
expressly say that Mamurius Veturius was driven out of the city, but
he implies it by mentioning the legend that his mythical prototype
was beaten with rods and expelled the city. Lastly, Lydus only
mentions the name Mamurius. But the full name Mamurius Veturius is
preserved by Varro, _De lingua latina_, vi. 45; Festus, ed. C. O.
Müller, p. 131; Plutarch, _Numa_, 13. Mr. W. Warde Fowler is
disposed to be sceptical as to the antiquity of the ceremony of
expelling Mamurius. See his _Roman Festivals of the period of the
Republic_ (London, 1899), pp. 44-50.
547 H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” pp. 212 _sq._; _id._, _Kleine
Schriften_, iv. 125 _sq._; W. H. Roscher, _Apollon und Mars_
(Leipsic, 1873), p. 27; L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_3 (Berlin,
1881-1883), i. 360; A. Vaniček, _Griechisch-lateinisches
etymologisches Wörterbuch_ (Leipsic, 1877), p. 715. The three latter
scholars take Veturius as = _annuus_, because _vetus_ is
etymologically equivalent to ἔτος. But, as Usener argues, it seems
quite unallowable to take the Greek meaning of the word instead of
the Latin.
548 Cato, _De agri cultura_, 141.
549 Varro, _De lingua latina_, v. 85.
550 See the song of the Arval Brothers in _Acta Fratrum Arvalium_, ed.
G. Henzen (Berlin, 1874), pp. 26 _sq._; J. Wordsworth, _Fragments
and Specimens of Early Latin_ (Oxford, 1874), p. 158; H. Dessau,
_Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, ii. Pars i. (Berlin, 1902) p. 276.
_ 551 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 42 _sqq._
552 Cato, _De agri cultura_, 83.
_ 553 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 50 _sq._, 55, 124
_sq._
554 L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_,3 i. 360; W. H. Roscher, _Apollon
und Mars_, p. 49; _id._, _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_,
ii. 2408 _sq._; H. Usener, _op. cit._ The ceremony also closely
resembles the Highland New Year ceremony already described. See
_Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 322 _sqq._
555 But the Biyârs, a mixed tribe of North-Western India, observe an
annual ceremony which they call “burning the old year.” The old year
is represented by a stake of the wood of the cotton-tree, which is
planted in the ground at an appointed place outside of the village,
and then burned on the day of the full moon in the month of Pûs.
Fire is first put to it by the village priest, and then all the
people follow his example, parch stalks of barley in the fire, and
afterwards eat them. Next day they throw the ashes of the burnt wood
in the air; and on the morrow the festival ends with a regular
saturnalia, at which decency and order are forgotten. See W. Crooke,
_Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh_
(Calcutta, 1896), ii. 137 _sq._ Compare _id._, _Popular Religion and
Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 319.
556 Propertius, v. 2. 61 _sq._; H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” p. 210;
_id._, _Kleine Schriften_, iv. 123.
M179 “The Old Mars” seems to have been beaten by the Salii, the dancing
priests of Mars. The dances of the Salii in spring and autumn were
perhaps intended to quicken the growth of the corn sown at these
seasons. The armed processions of the Salii may have been intended
to rout out and expel the demons lurking in the city.
557 Varro, _De lingua latina_, vi. 45 ed. C. O. Müller; Festus, _s.v._
“Mamuri Veturi,” p. 131 ed. C. O. Müller; Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 389
_sqq._; Plutarch, _Numa_, 13.
558 Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 188, “_Cui [scil. Mamurio] et diem
consecrarunt, quo pellem virgis feriunt_”; Minucius Felix,
_Octavius_, 24, “_Nudi cruda hieme discurrunt, alii incedunt
pilleati, scuta vetera circumferunt, pelles caedunt_.” Neither
Servius nor Minucius Felix expressly mentions the Salii, but the
description given by the latter writer (“_pilleati, scuta vetera
circumferunt_”) proves that he alludes to them. The expression of
Minucius Felix _pelles caedunt_ is conclusive in favour of _pellem_
in the passage of Servius, where some would wrongly substitute
_peltam_, the reading of a single MS. That the beating of the
skin-clad representative of Mamurius was done by the Salii was long
ago rightly pointed out by Dr. W. H. Roscher (_Apollon und Mars_, p.
49).
559 Varro, _De lingua latina_, v. 85, “_Saliia salitando, quod facere in
comitio in sacris quotannis et solent et debent_.” Compare Ovid,
_Fasti_, iii. 387, “_Iam dederat Saliis a saltu nomina dicta_”;
Plutarch, _Numa_, 13; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquitates
Romanae_, ii. 70.
560 J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii.2 (Leipsic, 1885) p.
431; G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_2 (Munich, 1912), p.
144; W. Warde Fowler, _The Religious Experience of the Roman People_
(London, 1911), pp. 96 _sq._
561 Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, p. 325, “_Qui deus in saliaribus Saturnus
nominatur, videlicet a sationibus_.” In this passage Ritschl reads
_Saeturnus_ for _Saturnus_. The best MSS. of the epitome read
_Sateurnus_. See J. Wordsworth, _Fragments and Specimens of Early
Latin_ (Oxford, 1884), p. 405. As to Saturn in this capacity see
below, p. 306.
562 Columella, _De re rustica_, ii. 9. 6 _sq._
_ 563 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 137 _sqq._
564 J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii.2 (Leipsic, 1885) pp.
427 _sq._
565 L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), i. 359. As
to the lunar year of the old Roman Calendar see L. Ideler, _Handbuch
der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1825-1826),
ii. 38 _sqq._
566 As to their number and badge see Aulus Gellius, vi. (vii., ed. M.
Hertz) 7. 8; as to their function see Varro, _De lingua latina_, v.
85, “_Fratres Arvales dicti sunt, qui sacra publica faciunt
propterea ut fruges ferant arva, a ferendo et arvis fratres arvales
dicti_.”
567 Livy, i. 20. 4; Plutarch, _Numa_, 13; Dionysius Halicarnasensis,
_Antiquitates Romanae_, ii. 70. Livy only mentions the shields. From
an ancient relief we learn that the staves of the Salii terminated
in a knob at each end. Hence we may correct the statement of
Dionysius, who describes the weapon doubtfully as λόγχην ἣ ῥάβδον ἤ
τι τοιοῦθ ἕτερον. See J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_,
iii.2 432, note 6.
568 See above, pp. 113, 116, 117, 132, 139, 141, 147, 158, 159, 161,
163, 165, 166, 186, 191, 196, 200, 204, 214.
569 Livy, i. 20. 4; J. Marquardt, _op. cit._ iii.2 432 _sq._; W. Smith,
_Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_, Third Edition (London,
1891), vol. ii. p. 590, _s.v._ “Salii.”
570 See above, pp. 111 _sqq._
M180 The demons expelled by the Salii may have been above all the demons
of blight and infertility. This conjecture is supported by analogous
ceremonies performed by savages for the purpose of driving off the
demons that would harm the crops.
571 See above, p. 138.
572 Labat, _Voyage du Chevalier Des Marchais en Guinée, Isles voisines,
et à Cayenne_ (Amsterdam, 1731), ii. 80 (p. 99 of the Paris
edition).
573 Olivier de Sanderval, _De l’Atlantique au Niger par le
Foutah-Djallon_ (Paris, 1883), p. 230. The phrase which I have
translated “for exorcising the spirits” is “_pour conjurer les
esprits_.”
M181 Dances of masked men in India, Borneo, and South America to promote
the growth of the crops.
574 Ludovico di Varthema, _Travels in Egypt, Syria_, etc., translated by
J. W. Jones (Hakluyt Society, London, 1863), pp. 166 _sq._
_ 575 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 95, 186 _sq._
_ 576 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 111 _sq._
M182 Dances in Aracan for the sake of the crops. Dances of the Tarahumare
Indians of Mexico to procure rain for their crops.
_ 577 Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, liii. (1881) p. 178.
578 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), i. 330 _sq._
M183 Dances of the Tarahumare Indians to cause rain to fall, corn to
sprout, grass to grow, and animals to multiply.
579 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), i. 335 _sqq._, 352
_sq._
M184 Dance of the Cora Indians at the sowing festival.
580 K. Th. Preuss, _Die Nayarit-Expedition_, I. _Die Religion der
Cora-Indianer_ (Leipsic, 1912), pp. xcviii. _sq._, 61-63. As to the
sowing festival of the Mexican Indians, compare K. Th. Preuss, “Die
religiösen Gesänge und Mythen einiger Stämme der mexikanischen
Sierra Madre,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, xi. (1908) pp.
374 _sqq._
M185 Dances and leaps of European peasants to make the corn grow tall.
_ 581 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 137-139.
582 Dr. F. J. Vonbun, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie gesammelt in
Churrhaetien_ (Chur, 1862), p. 21, quoting J. Stumpf and Ulr.
Campell. As the passage is curious and the work probably rare, I
will quote the original in full: “_Sicherlich auch im zusammenhange
mit Donarcultus war ein brauch der leute in der Grub (in
Graubünden)._ ‘_Die landleute in der Grub haben noch etwas anererbte
bräuche, indem dass sie sich zu etlichen jahren (meistens zur zeit
der sonnenwende) besammelten, verbutzten (sich als masken
vermummten) und einander unbekannt machten, legten harnisch und
geweer an, und nahm jeder ein grossen kolben oder knüttel, zugen in
einer rott mit einander von einem dorf zum andern, triben hohe
sprünge und seltsame abentheur.—Sie luffen gestracks laufs
aneinander, stiessen mit kräften je einer den andern, dass es
erhillt, stiessen laut mit ihren grössen stöcken und knütteln,
deswegen sie vom landvolk genannt werden die Stopfer. Diese
thorechte abentheuer triben sie zum aberglauben, dass ihnen das korn
destobas gerathen sölle, haben aber anjetzo abgelassen, und sind
diese Stopfer in keiner achtung mehr_.’ (Joh. Stumpf). _Auch Ulr.
Campell erwähnt dieses volksbrauch (s. 11) und bemerkt_: ‘_mit
diesem gebrauche hing früher der glaube zusammen, dass dessen
ausübung ein fruchtbares jahr bringe._’ ” The word _Stopfer_ means
“stopper,” “rammer,” “crammer,” etc.
M186 Dances of mummers called _Perchten_ in Austria for the good of the
crops. The mythical old woman called Perchta.
583 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_4 (Berlin, 1875-1878), i. 226 _sqq._,
iii. 88 _sq._; Fr. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_
(Munich, 1848-1855), i. 247 _sq._, ii. 381; I. V. Zingerle, “Perahta
in Tirol,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie_, iii. (Göttingen,
1855), pp. 203-206; _id._, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des
Tiroler Volkes_2 (Innsbruck, 1871), pp. 128 _sq._, 138 _sq_.; J. M.
Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zürich, 1857), pp.
46-51, 63-65; _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs
Bayern_ (Munich, 1860-1867), i. 365; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche
Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), § 25, pp. 25-27; W. Mannhardt,
_Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme_ (Berlin,
1875), pp. 542 _sq._; Karl Weinhold, _Weinacht-Spiele und Lieder aus
Süddeutschland und Schlesien_ (Vienna, 1875), pp. 19 _sqq._; E.
Mogk, in H. Paul’s _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_,2 iii.
(Strasburg, 1900), pp. 280 _sq_. (where it is said that Perchta
“_spendet dem Acker Fruchtbarkeit und lässt das Vieh gedeihen_”); E.
H. Meyer, _Mythologie der Germanen_ (Strasburg, 1903), pp. 424
_sqq._; P. Herrmann, _Deutsche Mythologie_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 303
_sqq._; M. Andree-Eysen, _Volkskundliches aus dem
bayrisch-österreichischen Alpengebiet_ (Brunswick, 1910), pp. 156
_sqq._; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes_
(Zürich, 1913), pp. 118 _sqq._
M187 The running and leaping of the _Perchten_ mummers on Twelfth Night.
The Beautiful _Perchten_ and the Ugly _Perchten_.
584 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 231; I. V. Zingerle, _Sitten,
Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2 (Innsbruck, 1871), pp.
138 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 542 _sq._; J. M. Ritter
von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zürich, 1857), pp. 50
_sq._; K. Weinhold, _Weinacht-Spiele und Lieder aus Süddeutschland
und Schlesien_ (Vienna, 1875), pp. 21 _sqq._
M188 The Ugly _Perchten_ in Salzburg.
M189 The Beautiful _Perchten_ in Salzburg.
585 Marie Andree-Eysn, _Volkskundliches aus dem
bayrisch-österreichischen Alpengebiet_ (Brunswick, 1910), pp.
156-175.
M190 Mrs. Andree-Eysn on the _Perchten_; according to her, the
processions of Perchten are intended to promote fertility by
banishing the demons that would thwart it.
586 Marie Andree-Eysn, _Volkskundliches aus dem
bayrisch-österreichischen Alpengebiet_ (Brunswick, 1910), pp. 179
_sq._ The authoress kindly presented me with a copy of her valuable
work in May 1910, when I had the pleasure of visiting her and her
husband, the eminent anthropologist, the late Dr. Richard Andree, in
their home at Munich.
M191 The bells worn by the _Perchten_ mummers may be intended to ban
demons. Bells rung to make the grass grow in spring. Bells rung to
make the flax grow. Whips cracked to make the flax grow.
587 See P. Sartori, “Glockensagen und Glockenaberglaube,” _Zeitschrift
des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) pp. 360 _sqq._ The use in
classical antiquity of bells, gongs, and the clash of bronze
generally to ban the demon host has been learnedly illustrated by
Mr. A. B. Cook in his article, “The Gong at Dodona,” _Journal of
Hellenic Studies_, xxii. (1902) pp. 14 _sqq._
588 Rev. A. L. Kitching, _On the Backwaters of the Nile_ (London, 1912),
p. 264. As to the country of the Teso people, who do not belong to
the Bantu stock, see _id._, pp. 26 _sq._
589 Marie Andree-Eysn, _op. cit._ pp. 180-182. As to the custom of
“ringing-out the grass,” see further W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p.
540; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 343 _sq._
590 Marie Andree-Eysn, _op. cit._ p. 182.
591 Marie Andree-Eysn, _l.c._
592 K. Seifart, _Sagen, Märchen, Schwänke und Gebräuche aus Stadt und
Stift Hildesheim_2 (Hildesheim, 1889), p. 180. For more evidence of
the supposed fertilizing influence of bells, see P. Sartori,
“Glockensagen und Glockenaberglaube,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins für
Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) pp. 363 _sq._
593 I. V. Zingerle, Sitten, _Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2
(Innsbruck, 1871), pp. 135 _sq._, 139, § 1196, 1211, 1212.
594 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 268 _sq._
M192 Certain features in these processions or races of mummers seem to
shew that the mummers represent beneficent spirits of fertility, who
quicken the seed in the ground and offspring in the wombs of women.
The view of W. Mannhardt.
595 Marie Andree-Eysn, _op. cit._ pp. 182 _sq._
596 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 548.
597 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._
M193 Confirmations of this view. The use of bells and swords in these
ceremonies.
598 See above, p. 236.
_ 599 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 325 _sqq._
600 T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p.
32; _County Folk-lore, Printed Extracts, No. 3, Leicestershire and
Rutlandshire_, collected and edited by C. J. Billson (London, 1895),
pp. 93 _sq._
601 Mrs. Lilly Grove (Mrs. J. G. Frazer), _Dancing_ (London, 1895), pp.
147 _sqq._; E. K. Chambers, _The Mediaeval Stage_ (Oxford, 1903), i.
195 _sqq._
602 As to the swords carried by the _Perchten_ see above, p. 245; as to
those carried by the dancers on Plough Monday, see J. Brand,
_Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 505.
As to the sword-dance in general, see K. Müllenhoff, “Über den
Schwerttanz,” in _Festgaben für Gustav Homeyer_ (Berlin, 1871), pp.
111-147 (who compares the dances of the Salii); Mrs. Lilly Grove,
_op. cit._ pp. 189 _sqq._, 211 _sqq._; E. K. Chambers, _op. cit._ i.
182 _sqq._
603 See below, pp. 331 _sqq._
M194 These masquerades originally intended both to stimulate vegetation
in spring and to expel demons.
M195 Application of these conclusions to the expulsion of “the Old Mars”
in ancient Rome.
M196 Human scapegoats in ancient Greece. The “Expulsion of Hunger” at
Chaeronea.
604 Plutarch, _Quaest. conviv._ vi. 8.
605 See above, pp. 143 _sqq._, 209.
M197 Human scapegoats at Marseilles. Human scapegoats put to death at
Athens. Human scapegoats annually stoned to death at Abdera.
606 Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ iii. 57, following Petronius; Lactantius
Placidius, _Commentarii in Statii Thebaida_ x. 793, p. 452, ed. R.
Jahnke (Leipsic, 1898). According to the former writer, the
scapegoat was cast out (“_projiciebatur_”); according to the latter,
he was stoned to death by the people outside of the walls (“_extra
pomeria saxis occidebatur a populo_”). The statement of some modern
writers that he was killed by being hurled from a height rests on a
reading (“_praecipitabatur_” for “_projiciebatur_”) in the text of
Servius, which appears to have no manuscript authority and to be
merely a conjecture of R. Stephan’s. Yet the conjecture has been
inserted in the text by F. Buecheler in his edition of Petronius
(Third Edition, Berlin, 1882, p. 109) without any intimation that
all the MSS. present a different reading. See the critical edition
of Servius edited by G. Thilo and H. Hagen, vol. i. (Leipsic, 1881),
p. 346.
607 Helladius, in Photius, _Bibliotheca_, p. 534 A, ed. Im. Bekker
(Berlin, 1824); Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 734, and on
_Knights_, 1136; Hesychius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ φαρμακοὶ; compare
Suidas, _Lexicon_, _s.vv._ κάθαρμα, φαρμακός, and φαρμακούς; Lysias,
_Orat._ vi. 53. That they were stoned is an inference from
Harpocration. See next note. When the people of Cyrene sacrificed to
Saturn (Cronus), they wore crowns of fresh figs on their heads. See
Macrobius, _Saturn_, i. 7. 25.
608 Harpocration, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ φαρμακός, who says δύο ἄνδρας
᾽Αθήνησιν ἐξῆγον καθάρσια ἐσομένους τῆς πόλεως ἐν τοῖς Θαργηλίοις,
ἕνα μὲν ὑπὲρ τῶν ἀνδρῶν, ἕνα δὲ ὑπὲρ τῶν γυναικῶν. He does not
expressly state that they were put to death; but as he says that the
ceremony was an imitation of the execution of a mythical Pharmacus
who was stoned to death, we may infer that the victims were killed
by being stoned. Suidas (_s.v._ φαρμακός) copies Harpocration. As to
the human scapegoats employed by the Greeks at the Thargelia and on
other occasions see W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_
(Strasburg, 1884), pp. 124 _sqq._; J. Töpffer, _Beiträge zur
griechischen Altertumswissenschaft_ (Berlin, 1897), pp. 130 _sqq._;
August Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_ (Leipsic, 1898),
pp. 468 _sqq._; Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of
Greek Religion_, Second Edition (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 95 _sqq._; M.
P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 105 _sqq._; W.
R. Paton, “The φαρμακοί and the Story of the Fall,” _Revue
Archéologique_, iv. Série ix. (1907) pp. 51-57.
609 Ovid, _Ibis_, 467 _sq._:
“_Aut te devoveat certis Abdera diebus_
_ Saxaque devotum grandine plura petant_,”
with the two scholia quoted respectively by M. P. Nilsson,
_Griechische Feste_, p. 108 note 6, and by O. Schneider, in his
_Callimachea_ (Leipsic, 1870-1873), ii. 684. The scholiast refers to
Callimachus as his authority.
M198 Annual human scapegoats in Leucadia. Human scapegoats annually put
to death at the festival of the Thargelia in Asia Minor.
610 Strabo, x. 2. 9, p. 542; Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ Λευκάτης; L.
Ampelius, _Liber Memorialis_, viii. 4; Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._
iii. 279; Ptolemaeus Hephaest., _Nov. Histor._ in Photius,
_Bibliotheca_, cod. 190, p. 153, ed. Im. Bekker; _Mythographi
Graeci_, ed. A. Westermann (Brunswick, 1843), pp. 198 _sq._
According to the manuscript reading in Photius, _l.c._, the priests
flung themselves into the sea; but the reading has been altered by
the editors. As to the Kumaon ceremony see above, pp. 196 _sq._
611 Suidas and Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ περίψημα. The word which I
have translated “offscouring” (περίψημα) occurs in 1 Corinthians iv.
13, where it is similarly translated in the English version. It
means properly that on which something is wiped off, like a sponge
or a duster.
612 J. Tzetzes, _Chiliades_, v. 726-761 (ed. Th. Kiesseling, Leipsic,
1826). Tzetzes’s authority is the satirical poet Hipponax. The tune
which was played by the flutes while the man was being beaten is
mentioned by Hesychius, _s.v._ Κραδίης νόμος. Compare _id._, _s.v._
Κραδησίτης; Plutarch, _De musica_, 8.
613 This may be inferred from the verse of Hipponax, quoted by
Athenaeus, ix. 9, p. 370 B, where for φαρμάκου we should perhaps
read φαρμακοῦ with Schneidewin (_Poetae lyrici Graeci_,3 ed. Th.
Bergk, ii. 763).
M199 Mannhardt’s interpretation of the custom of beating the human
scapegoat on the genitals: it was intended to free his reproductive
energies from any restraint laid on them by demoniacal or other
malignant agency.
614 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 113
_sqq._, especially 123 _sq._, 133.
615 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xx. 101; Dioscorides, _De materia medica_, ii.
202; Lucian, _Necyom._ 7; _id._, Alexander, 47; Theophrastus,
_Superstitious Man_.
616 Theocritus, vii. 106 _sqq._ with the scholiast.
617 Compare Aug. Mommsen, _Heortologie_ (Leipsic, 1864), pp. 414 _sqq._,
_id._, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_ (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 468
_sq._, 479 _sqq._; M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic,
1906), pp. 105, iii _sqq._; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und
Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), p. 215.
618 At certain sacrifices in Yucatan blood was drawn from the genitals
of a human victim and smeared on the face of the idol. See Diego de
Landa, _Relation des choses de Yucatan_, texte espagnol et
traduction française par l’Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris, 1864),
p. 167. Was the original intention of this rite to transfuse into
the god a fresh supply of reproductive energy?
619 Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ ix. 26.
_ 620 The Dying God_, pp. 239 _sq._
_ 621 The Dying God_, p. 114.
M200 W. R. Paton’s view that the human scapegoats at the Thargelia
personated the spirits of fig-trees, and that the ceremony was a
magical rite for the fertilization of fig-trees, being copied from
the process of caprification.
622 On the other hand, W. Mannhardt regarded the victims as representing
the demons of infertility, dearth, and sickness, who in the persons
of their representatives were thus hounded with blows out of the
city. See his _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 129.
623 W. R. Paton, “The φαρμακοί and the Story of the Fall,” _Revue
Archéologique_, iv. Série, ix. (1907) pp. 51 _sqq._
M201 This theory is confirmed by a comparison with the Roman rites of the
_Nonae Caprotinae_.
_ 624 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 313 _sqq._
625 Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquitates Romanae_, ii. 56. 4.
Compare Livy, i. 16. 4; Plutarch, _Romulus_, 27.
_ 626 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 248. Compare _Adonis,
Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 331 _sqq._
627 See, for example, Helladius, cited by Photius, _Bibliotheca_, p. 534
_a_, ed. Im. Bekker, καὶ ἐκράτει τὸ ἔθος ἀεὶ καθαίρειν τὴν πόλιν
τοῖς φαρμακοῖς; Harpocration, _s.v._ φαρμακός (vol. i. p. 298, ed.
G. Dindorf), δύο ἄνδρας Ἀθήνησιν ἐξῆγον καθάρσια ἐσομένους τῆς
πόλεως; Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Knights_, 1136, δημοσίους δέ,
τοὺς λεγομένους φαρμακούς, οἵπερ καθαίρουσι τὰς πόλεις τῷ ἑαυτῶν
φόνῳ.
628 Mr. Paton ingeniously suggests that in the Biblical narrative of
Adam and Eve, who for eating a particular fruit were condemned to
death and driven out of the happy garden with aprons of fig-leaves
about their loins (Genesis iii.), we have a reminiscence of a custom
of fertilizing fig-trees by a pair of human scapegoats, who, like
the victims at the Thargelia, assimilated themselves to the tree by
wearing its foliage or fruit. See W. R. Paton, “The φαρμακοί and the
Story of the Fall,” _Revue Archéologique_, iv. Série, ix. (1907) pp.
55 _sq._
M202 Beating as a mode of dispelling evil influences.
629 Above, pp. 2, 186. Compare Plutarch, _Parallela_, 35, where a woman
is represented as going from house to house striking sick people
with a hammer and bidding them be whole.
630 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), i. 99, 155; _id._, _Tribes and Castes of the
North-Western Provinces and Oudh_ (Calcutta, 1896), iii. 333, 441,
445.
631 A. Certeux et E. H. Carnoy, _L’Algérie Traditionnelle_ (Paris and
Algiers, 1884), p. 189.
632 H. Kern, “Een Spanisch schrijver over den godsdienst der heidensche
Bikollers,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van
Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlvii. (1897) pp. 232 _sq._ The Spanish
authority is Father José Castaño. An ancient Egyptian relief from
Saqqarah represents a mummy at the entrance of the tomb, while the
women tear out their hair and the men wave palm-branches, apparently
to drive evil spirits away. The custom has been inherited by the
modern Arabs, who similarly beat off the invisible foes with
palm-branches. See A. Wiedemann, _Herodots Zweites Buch_ (Leipsic,
1890), p. 347. However, in these cases the blows seem to be
administered to the demons and not to the corpse.
M203 Beating people to rid them of clinging ghosts. Exorcism of ghosts by
means of leaves and pig’s blood.
633 J. M. van Baarda, “Ile de Halmaheira,” _Bulletins de la Société
d’Anthropologie de Paris_, Quatrième Série, iii. (1892) p. 545. As
to throwing a banana-trunk into the grave, see _Spirits of the Corn
and of the Wild_, ii. 97.
634 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), p.
550.
_ 635 Revue d’Ethnographie_, iii. (1885) pp. 395 _sq._
636 R. Schomburgk, _Reisen in Britisch-Guiana_ (Leipsic, 1847-1848), ii.
457 _sqq._; Rev. J. H. Bernau, _Missionary Labours in British
Guiana_ (London, 1847), p. 52; C. F. Ph. von Martius, _Zur
Ethnographie Amerika’s, zumal Brasiliens_ (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 694
_sq._; J. Crevaux, _Voyages dans l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1883),
p. 548.
637 Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ i. 329. For more evidence see C.
Boetticher, _Der Baumkultus der Hellenen_ (Berlin, 1856), pp. 369
_sqq._
638 See my note on Pausanias, ii. 31. 8, vol. ii. pp. 276 _sqq._
639 V. Solomon, “Extracts from Diaries kept in Car Nicobar,” _Journal of
the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 227.
M204 Beating practised by South American Indians and others as a mode of
conveying good qualities.
640 J. de Acosta, _History of the Indies_, vol. ii. p. 375 (Hakluyt
Society, London, 1880). See above, pp. 128 _sqq._
641 P. Lozano, _Descripcion Chorographica del terreno, rios, arboles, y
animales de las dilatadissimas provincias del Gran Chaco, Gualamba_,
etc. (Cordova, 1733), p. 67. The reappearance of the Pleiades
probably marked the beginning of the year for these people. See
_Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 307 _sqq._
642 G. Osculati, _Esplorazione delle regioni equatoriali lungo il Napo
ed il fiume delle Amazzoni_ (Milan, 1850), p. 118.
643 H. Coudreau, _Chez nos Indiens: quatre années dans la Guyane
Française_ (Paris, 1895), p. 544.
644 G. H. Loskiel, _History of the Mission of the United Brethren among
the Indians in North America_ (London, 1794), Part i. p. 37.
645 The _Satapatha Brahmana_, v. 4. 4. 7, translated by J. Eggeling,
Part iii. (Oxford, 1894) p. 108 (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol.
xli.).
646 D. Chwolsohn, _Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus_ (St. Petersburg,
1856), ii. 34.
M205 Beating people with instruments which possess and impart special
virtues.
647 On the positive benefits supposed in certain cases to flow from a
beating compare S. Reinach, “La flagellation rituelle,” _Cultes,
Mythes et Religions_, i. (Paris, 1905) pp. 180 _sqq._; E. S.
Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_ (London, 1909-1910), i. 102 _sqq._