Schechter, Dr. S., 364 _n._ 1
Scheil, Father, on Elamite inscriptions, 367 _n._ 3
_Schmeckostern_ in Germany and Austria, 268 _sq._
Schönthal, the abbot of, 105
Schönwert, village of Bohemia, 161
Schrader, O., 326 _n._
Schuyler, E., 45
Schwaz, on the Inn, the “grass-ringers” at, 247
Scorpion’s bite, cure for, 49 _sq._
Scotch witch, 38 _sq._
Scotland, the Highlands of, 20;
cure of warts in, 48;
witches burnt in, 165;
Abbot of Unreason in, 331.
_See also_ Highlands
Scourgings, mutual, of South American Indians, 262
Scythian kings married the wives of their predecessors, 368 _n._ 1
Scythians, revellers disguised as, 355
Sea, scapegoats cast into the, 254 _sq._
—— Dyaks of Sarawak, their Festival of Departed Spirits, 154
Sea-god, sacrifice to, 255
—— -slugs, ceremonies at the annual appearance of, 141 _sqq._
Secret Societies in North-Western America, 377 _sq._
Sedna, Mistress of the Nether World, among the Esquimaux, 125 _sq._
Seed-time, annual expulsion of demons at, 138
Selangor, demons of disease expelled in a ship from, 187 _sq._
Selemnus, the river, 3
Seler, E., 277
Seleucia, 64
Semiramis, mythical and historical, 369 _sqq._;
the mounds of, 370, 371, 373, 388 _n._ 1;
the sad fate of her lovers, 371;
burnt herself on a pyre, 407 _n._ 2
Sena-speaking people, 7
Senegambia, 16;
the Banmanas of, 261
Senseless Thursday in Carnival, 248
September, expulsion of evils by the Incas of Peru in, 128
Serpents and lizards supposed to renew their youth by casting their skins,
302 _sqq._
Servians, their precaution against vampyres, 153 _n._ 1
Set, the birth of, 341
Sham fight at New Year, 184;
as religious rite, 289
Shaman, function of the, 79 _sq._
Shamans, necessity of, 99, 100;
expel demons, 126;
among the Esquimaux, 379, 380
Shammuramat and Semiramis, 370 _n._ 1
Shampoo, the fatal, 42
Shans of Kengtung, their expulsion of demons, 116 _sq._;
of Southern China, their annual expulsion of the fire-spirit, 141
Shawms blown to ban witches, 160
Sheepskins, people beaten with, 265
Shepherd beloved by Ishtar, 371
Shetland Islands, Yule in the, 167 _sqq._
Shinto priest, 116
Ship, sicknesses expelled in a, 185 _sqq._;
demons expelled in a, 201 _sq._
Shogun’s palace in Japan, 144
“Shooting the Witches,” 164
Shropshire, 182;
the sin-eater in, 44;
fires on Twelfth Night in, 321
Shrove Tuesday, the tug-of-war on, 182 _sq._;
dances to promote the growth of the crops on, 239, 347
Siam, the Laosians of, 97;
annual expulsion of demons in, 149 _sqq._;
human scapegoats in, 212
Siamese year of twelve lunar months, 149 _n._ 2
Sicily, Ascension Day in, 54
Sickness transferred to animals in Europe, 49 _sqq._;
ascribed to demons, 109 _sqq._
Sicknesses expelled in a ship, 185 _sqq._
Sihanaka, the, of Madagascar, 2
Sikhim, cairns in, 26;
demonolatry in, 94
Silence, compulsory, to deceive demons, 132 _sq._, 140.
_Compare_ 142
Silesia, expulsion of witches on Good Friday in, 157;
precautions against witches in, 162 _sq._, 164;
“Easter Smacks” in, 268, 269;
mode of reckoning the Twelve Days in, 327
Silili, a Babylonian goddess, 371
Sin-eater, the, 43 _sq._
Sin-eating in Wales, 43 _sq._
Singalang Burong, a Dyak war-god, 383
Sins, confession of, 36, 127;
transferred to a buffalo calf, 36 _sq._;
transferred vicariously to human beings, 39 _sqq._;
of people transferred to animals, 210;
Delaware Indian remedies for, 263
Sirius associated with Ishtar, 359 _n._ 1
Situa, annual festival of the Incas, 128
Siyins, of N. E. India, their belief in demons, 93
Skin disease, supposed remedy for, 266;
Mexican remedy for, 298
Skins, creatures that slough their, supposed to renew their youth, 302
_sqq._
—— of human victims, worn by men in Mexico, 265 _sq._, 288, 290, 294
_sq._, 296 _sqq._, 301 _sq._
—— of sacrificial victims used to beat people, 265
Sky-goddess, the Egyptian, 341
Sladen, Colonel, 141
Slave Coast, 74
—— women, religious ceremony performed by, 258
Slaves, license granted to, at the Saturnalia, 307 _sq._, 350 _sq._, 351
_sq._;
feasted by their masters, 308, 350 _sq._;
feasted by their mistresses, 346
Slavonia, Good Friday custom in, 268
Slavonic custom of “carrying out Death,” 230
—— peoples, “Easter Smacks” among the, 268
—— year, the beginning of the, 228
Slavs, black god and white god among the, 92
Sleeman, General Sir William, 191
Sloth, the animal, imitated by masker, 381
Sloughing the skin supposed to be a mode of renewing youth, 302 _sqq._
Smallpox, cure for, 6;
attributed to a devil, 117, 119, 120, 123;
expelled in a proa, 186
——, demon of, 172;
sent away in a canoe, 188 _sq._
Smell, foul, used to drive demons away, 112
Smith, W. Robertson, on Semiramis, 369 _sq._
Smut in wheat, ceremony to prevent, 318
Snails as scapegoats, 52, 53
Snake or lizard in annual ceremony for the riddance of evils, 208
Snipe as scapegoat, 51
Social ranks, inversion of, at festivals, 350, 407
Socrates, church historian, 394
Sods, freshly cut, a protection against witches, 163
Soldiers, Roman, celebration of the Saturnalia by, 308 _sq._
Solomon Islanders, their expulsion of demons, 116
—— Islands, 9
Solstice, the winter, ceremony after the, 127
Soma, worship of, 90
Songs, liturgical, revealed by gods, 381
—— and dances, how they originate, 378 _sq._
Sonnenberg, popular cure for gout in, 56
Soracte, Mount, 311
Sorcerers as protectors against demons, 94;
exorcise demons, 113
_Soule_, a ball contended for in Normandy, 183
Souls of the dead received once a year by their relations, 150 _sqq._
South American Indians, 12, 20
Sow as scapegoat, 33
Sowing, prayer at, 138;
expulsion of demons at, 225;
the god of, 232;
dances at, 234 _sqq._;
Saturn the god of, 346;
in Italy, season of the spring, 346
Sown fields, fire applied to, on Eve of Twelfth Night, 316, 318, 321
Spain, the Boy Bishop in, 338
Spear, sacred, 218
Spears used to expel demons, 115, 116
Spirits, retreat of the army of, 72 _sq._;
guardian, 98;
good and evil, personated by children, 139;
Festival of Departed, 154
Spitting as a mode of transferring evil, 3, 10, 11;
as a mode of transferring disease, 187;
at ceremony for expulsion of evils, 208
Spittle as a protection against demons, 118
Spring, rites to ensure the revival of life in, 400
Squills used to beat human scapegoats, etc., 255 _sq._
Star, the Morning, personated by a man, 238;
of Bethlehem, 330
Steele, Sir Richard, quoted, 333
Sternberg, L., quoted, 101 _sq._
Sticks, fertilizing virtue attributed to certain, 264 _sq._
—— and stones, evils transferred to, 8 _sqq._;
piled on the scene of crimes, 13 _sqq._
_See also_ Throwing
Stinging young people with ants and wasps, custom of, 263
Stone-throwing at Mecca, rite of, 24;
in ancient Greece, 24 _sq._
Stones heaped up near shrines of saints, 21;
communion by means of, 21 _sq._;
thrown at demons, 131, 146, 152
—— and sticks, evil transferred to, 8 _sqq._;
piled on the scene of crimes, 13 _sqq._
_See also_ Throwing
Stoning, execution by, 24 _n._ 2
—— human scapegoats, 253, 254
_Stopfer_, maskers in Switzerland, 239
Stow, John, on Lords of Misrule, quoted, 331 _sq._
Strabo, on the Sacaea, 355, 369;
on the worship at Zela, 370 _n._ 4;
on the sanctuary at Zela, 421 _n._ 1
Strack, H. L., 395 _n._ 3
Stratification of religious beliefs among the Malays, 90 _n._ 1
Straw wrapt round fruit-trees as a protection against evil spirits, 164
Strehlitz, in Silesia, 157
Strudeli and Strätteli, 165
Substitutes in human sacrifice, 396 _sq._, 408
Sucla-Tirtha in India, expulsion of sins in, 202
Suffering, principle of vicarious, 1 _sq._
Suffolk cure for ague, 68
Suicides, ghosts of, feared, 17 _sq._
Sukandar river, 60
Sumatra, the Battas or Bataks of, 87, 213
Sun, appeal to the, 3;
charm to prevent the sun from setting, 30 _n._ 2;
reappearance of, in the Arctic regions, ceremonies at, 124 _sq._, 125
_n._ 1;
temple of the, at Cuzco, 129;
spirit who lives in the, 186;
hearts of human victims offered to the, 279, 298;
Mexican story of the creation of the, 410;
Syrian custom of saluting the rising, 416
—— -god, Christmas, an old pagan festival of the, 328;
the Egyptian, 341
Sunderland, cure for cough in, 52
_Süntevögel_ or _Sunnenvögel_, 159 _n._ 1
Superhuman power supposed to be acquired by actors in sacred dramas, 382,
383
Supplementary days of the year, 171
Supreme Being in West Africa, 74 _sq._
—— God of the Oraons, 92 _sq._
Susa, capital of the Elamites, 366
Swabia, the “Twelve Lot Days” in, 322
Swahili, the, of East Africa, their New Year’s Day, 226 _n._ 1
Swallow dance, 381
Swallows as scapegoats, 35
Sweden, 14, 20, 27
Sweeping misfortune out of house with brooms, 5
—— out the town, annual ceremony of, 135
Swords used to ward off or expel demons, 113, 118, 119, 120, 123, 203;
carried by mummers, 245
Syria, 17, 21;
Aphrodite and Adonis in, 386
Syro-Macedonian calendar, 358 _n._ 1
Tagbanuas of the Philippines, their custom of sending spirits of disease
away in little ships, 189
Tahiti, transference of sins in, 45 _sq._
Tahitians, the, 80
Taigonos Peninsula, 126
Taleins, the, of Burma, their worship of demons, 96
Talmud, the, on Purim, 363
Tamanachiers, Indian tribe of the Orinoco, 303
_Tamanawas_, dramatic performances of myths, 376, 377
Tamarisk branches used to beat people ceremonially, 263
_Tambaran_, demons, 82, 83
Tammuz, the lover of Ishtar, 371, 373;
annual death and resurrection of, 398;
at Jerusalem, the weeping for, 400.
_See also_ Adonis
—— and Ishtar, 399, 406
Tanganyika, Lake, 10
Tangkhuls of Assam, 177
Tanjore, Rajah of, 44
Taoism, 99
Tar to keep out ghosts and witches, 153 _n._ 1
—— -barrels burnt, 169
Tarahumares, the, of Mexico, 10;
their dances for the crops, 236 _sqq._
Taros, mode of fertilizing, 264
Tarsus in Cilicia, Sandan at, 388, 389, 391, 392
_Taupes et Mulots_, fire ceremony on Eve of Twelfth Night, 317
Tavernier, J. B., quoted, 148 _n._ 1
Taylor, Rev. J. C., quoted, 133, 211
Taylor, Rev. R., quoted, 81
Tellemarken in Norway, 14
Telugu remedy for a fever, 38
Temple, Sir Richard C., quoted, 88
Temple, the Inner and the Middle, Lords of Misrule in the, 333
—— church, Lord of Misrule in the, 333
Temporary king, 403 _sq._;
in Siam, 151
Tench as scapegoat, 52
Tenggerese of Java, their sham fight at New Year, 184
Tepehuanes, the, of Mexico, 10
Teshu Lama, the, 203
—— Lumbo in Tibet, 203
Teso people of Central Africa, their use of bells to exorcise fiends, 246
_sq._
Tezcatlipoca, great Mexican god, 276;
young man annually sacrificed in the character of, 276 _sqq._
Thales on spirits, 104
Thargelia, human scapegoats at the festival of the, 254, 255, 256, 257,
259, 272, 273
Thay, the, of Indo-China, their worship of spirits, 97 _sq._
Theal, G. McCall, on fear of demons, 77 _sq._
_Theckydaw_, expulsion of demons, 147 _sq._
_Then_, spirits, 97
Theodosius and Honorius, decree of, 392
Theory of sacrifice, the Brahmanical, 410 _sq._
Thompson Indians of British Columbia, their charms against ghosts, 154
_n._
Thorns, wreaths of, 140
Thrace, Abdera in, 254
Thrashing people to do them good, 262 _sqq._
_See also_ Beating _and_ Whipping
Thread, red, in popular cure, 55
Three Kings on Twelfth Day, 329 _sqq._
Threshold protected against witches by knives, 162;
by sods, 163
Throwing of sticks or stones interpreted as an offering or token of
respect, 20 _sqq._, 25 _sqq._;
as a mode of riddance of evil, 23 _sqq._
Thule, ceremony in Thule at the annual reappearance of the sun, 125 _n._ 1
Thunder, the first peal heard in spring, 144;
demon of, exorcised by bells, 246 _sq._
Thüringen, expulsion of witches in, 160;
custom of beating people on Holy Innocents’ Day in, 271
Tiamat, mythical Babylonian monster, 410
Tibet, demonolatry in, 94;
human scapegoats in, 218 _sqq._
Tiger-spirits, 199
Tikopia, island of, 189
Timbo in French Guinea, 235
Time, personification of periods of, 230
Timor, the island of, 8;
belief in the spirits of the dead in, 85
_Timor fecit deos_, 93
Timor-laut Islands, the tug-of-war in the, 176;
demons of sicknesses expelled in a proa from, 185 _sq._
Tinchebray in Normandy, 183
Tjingilli tribe of Central Australia, 2
Tlacaxipeualiztli, Mexican festival, 296
Tlaloc, temple of, in Mexico, 284, 292
Tlemcen in Algeria, 31
Toad as scapegoat, 193, 206 _sq._
Toboongkoo, the, of Central Celebes, riddles among the, 112 _n._
Toci, Mexican goddess, 289
Todas, the, of the Neilgherry Hills, 37
Togoland, 3; the Hos of, 134, 206;
the negroes of, their remedy for influenza, 193
Tokio, annual expulsion of demons at, 213
Tomb of Moses, 21
Tonan, Mexican goddess, 287;
woman sacrificed in the character of, 287 _sq._
Tonocotes. _See_ Lules
Tonquin, demon of sickness expelled in, 119;
annual expulsion of demons in, 147 _sq._
Toothache, cure for, 6, 57, 58, 59 _sq._, 62, 63, 71
Toradjas, the, of Central Celebes, 34;
their cure by beating, 265
Torches used in the expulsion of demons, 110, 117, 120, 130, 131, 132, 133
_sq._, 139, 140, 146, 157, 171;
used in the expulsion of witches, etc., 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 163,
165, 166;
carried in procession by maskers, 243;
applied to fruit-trees on Eve of Twelfth Night, 316 _sq._
Torquemada, J. de, Spanish historian of Mexico, 279 _n._ 1, 286 _n._ 1,
300 _n._ 1
Totec, Mexican god, 297, 298;
personated by a man wearing the skin of a human victim, 300
Totonacs, their worship of the corn-spirit, 286 _n._ 1
Tototectin, men clad in skins of human victims, 298
Toxcatl, fifth month of old Mexican year, 149 _n._ 2;
Mexican festival, 276
Trajan, Pliny’s letter to, 420
Transference of evil, 1 _sqq._;
to other people, 5 _sqq._;
to sticks and stones, 8 _sqq._;
to animals, 31 _sqq._;
to men, 38 _sqq._;
in Europe, 47 _sqq._
Transformation of animals into men, 380
Transylvania, the Roumanians of, 16, 106 _sq._
Travancore, Rajah of, 42 _sq._;
demon-worship in, 94
Tree, disease transferred to, 6;
use of stick cut from a fruitful, 264
Trees, evils transferred to, 52, 54 _sqq._
Trieste, St. Sylvester’s Eve at, 165
Trinity, the Batta, 88 _n._ 1
—— College, Cambridge, Lord of Misrule at, 332
_Trinouxtion_, 343 _n._
Tripoli, mode of laying ghosts in, 63
Troezenians, their festival resembling the Saturnalia, 350
Trows in Shetland, 168 _sq._
Trumpets blown to expel demons, 116, 117, 156;
blown at the feast of Purim, 394
_Tsuina_, expulsion of demons in Japan, 212 _sq._
Tsûl, a Berber tribe, 179
Tuaran district of British North Borneo, 200
Tug-of-war as a religious or magical rite, 173 _sqq._;
as a charm to produce rain, 175 _sq._, 178 _sq._
Tul-ya’s e’en in Shetland, 168
Tullus Hostilius, 345 _n._ 1
Tumleo, annual fight in, 142 _sq._
Tuna, a spirit, expulsion of, 124 _sq._
Tung ak, a powerful spirit, 79, 80
Turkestan, 45;
Ferghana in, 184
Turkish tribes of Central Asia, riddles among the, 122 _n._
Turner, L. M., quoted, 79 _sq._
Tuscan Romagna, the, 167
Twelfth Day, serious significance of, 315;
the Three Kings on, 329 _sqq._
_See also_ Twelfth Night
—— Day, Eve of, 318;
expulsion of witches, etc., on, 166 _sq._
—— Night, expulsion of the powers of evil on, 165 _sqq._;
dances on, 238;
Perchta’s Day, 244;
(Epiphany), the King of the Bean on, 313 _sqq._
_See also_ Twelfth Day
—— Night, Eve of, 316;
old Mrs. Perchta on, 240, 241;
ceremonial fires on, 316 _sqq._
Twelve Days, weather of the twelve months supposed to be determined by the
weather of the, 322 _sqq._;
in Macedonia, superstitions as to the, 320;
in ancient India, 324 _sq._;
accounted a miniature of the year, 324;
in the Highlands of Scotland, 324;
difference of opinion as to the date of the, 324, 327;
probably an old intercalary period at midwinter, 338 _sq._, 342
—— Days from Christmas to Twelfth Night (Epiphany), precautions against
witches during the, 158 _sqq._, 164 _sqq._
—— Days or Twelve Nights not of Christian origin, 326 _sqq._
—— fires on Eve of Twelfth Day, 318 _sq._, 321 _sq._
Two-faced mask worn by image of goddess, 287
Typhon, the birth of, 341
Tyre and Sidon, 17
Tyrol, annual “Burning out of the Witches” in the, 159 _sq._;
the _Perchten_ in the, 240, 242 _sq._;
Senseless Thursday in the, 248
Uganda Protectorate, 6, 42;
funeral ceremony in, 45 _n,_ 2;
human scapegoats in, 194 _sq._
_See also_ Baganda
Unalashka, one of the Aleutian Islands, 16
Unkareshwar, the goddess of cholera at, 194
Unreason, Abbot of, in Scotland, 331
Up-helly-a’ in Shetland, 168 _sq._
Urquhart, Sir Thomas, quoted, 332
Usener, H., 167 _n._ 1, 229 _n._ 2
Utch Kurgan, in Turkestan, 45
Vampyres, charms against, 153 _n._ 1
Vashti and Esther, temporary queens, 401
—— and Haman the duplicates of Esther and Mordecai, 406
Vedic times, 3;
cure for consumption in, 51;
the creed of the, 90;
riddles in, 122 _n._;
the Aryans of the, 324
Vegetation, Mars a deity of, 229 _sq._;
out-worn deity of, 231;
processions representing spirits of, 250
—— -god, Easter an old vernal festival of the, 328
Vehicle, expulsion of evils in a material, 185 _sqq._, 198 _sqq._, 224
Vehicles, material, of immaterial things (fear, misfortune, disease,
etc.), 1 _sqq._, 22 _n._ 2, 23 _sqq._
Venus and Adonis, 406.
_See also_ Adonis, Aphrodite
Verrall, A. W., 391 _n._ 4
Vicarious suffering, principle of, 1 _sq._
Vienne, the Boy Bishop at, 337 _n._ 1
Vieux-Pont, in Orne, 183 _n._ 3
Vitzilopochtli, great Mexican god, 280;
young man annually sacrificed in the character of, 280 _sq._
Vohumano or Vohu Manah, a Persian archangel, 373 _n._ 1
Voigtland, cure for toothache in, 59;
belief in witchcraft in, 160;
“Easter Smacks” in, 268;
young people beat each other at Christmas in, 271
Vosges, cure for toothache in the, 59
—— Mountains, dances on Twelfth Day in the, 315;
the Three Kings of Twelfth Day in the, 330
Vulsinii in Etruria, 67
Wagogo, the, of German East Africa, 6
Walpurgis Night, witches abroad on, 158 _sqq._;
annual expulsion of witches on, 159 _sqq._;
dances on, 238
Warramunga tribe of Central Australia, 2
Warts, transference of, 48 _sq._;
popular cures for, 54, 57
Washamba, the, of German East Africa, 29
Wasps, stinging people with, 263
Wassailing on Eve of Twelfth Day, 319
Wax figures in magic, 47
Weapons turned against spiritual foes, 233
Weariness transferred to stones or sticks, 8 _sqq._
Weather of the twelve months determined by the weather of the Twelve Days,
322 _sqq._
Weber, A., on origin of the Twelve Days, 325 _n._ 3
Weeks, Rev. John H., quoted, 76 _sq._
Weights and measures, false, corrected in time of epidemic, 115
Weinhold, K., 327 _n._ 4
Welsh cure for cough, 51
—— custom of sin-eating, 43 _sq._
Wendland, P., on the crucifixion of Christ, 412 _sq._, 418 _n._ 1
Wends of Saxony, their precautions against witches, 163
Westermarck, Dr. Edward, 180
Westphalia, 266
Westphalian form of the expulsion of evil, 159 _n._ 1
Whale represented dramatically as a mystery, 377
Whipping people to rid them of ghosts, 260 _sqq._
Whips used in the expulsion of demons and witches, 156, 159, 160, 161,
165, 214;
used by maskers, 243, 244
White as a colour to repel demons, 115
—— and black in relation to human scapegoats, 220;
figs worn by human scapegoats, 253, 257, 272
—— cock, disease transferred to, 187;
as scapegoat, 210 _n._ 4
—— crosses made by the King of the Bean, 314
—— dog, sacrifice of, 127;
as scapegoat, 209 _sq._
—— god and black god among the Slavs, 92
—— Nile, the Dinkas of the, 193
Whitsuntide, 359
Whydah, the King of, 234
Widow, bald-headed, in cure, 38
Widows, cleansing of, 35 _sq._
Wild Huntsman, 164, 241
Willcock, Dr. J., 169 _n._ 2
William of Wykeham, 338
Williams, Monier, quoted, 91 _sq._
Willow used to beat people with at Easter and Christmas, 269, 270
—— -trees in popular remedies, 56, 58, 59
Willow-wood used against witches, 160
Winchester College, Boy Bishop at, 338
Wind, charm to produce a rainy or dry, 176, 178 _sq._
Winnowing-basket beaten at ceremony, 145
Winter, ceremony at the end of, 124;
dances performed only in, 376;
ceremony of the expulsion of, 404 _sq._;
effigies of, destroyed, 408 _sq._
—— solstice, ceremony after the, 126
Witch, fire to burn old, on Twelfth Day, 319
Witchcraft in Scotland, 38 _sq._;
on the Congo, dread of, 77 _n._ 2;
permanence of the belief in, 89;
in Moravia, precautions against, 162
Witches burnt alive, 19;
the burning out of the, in the Tyrol, 158 _sq._;
in Bohemia, 161;
in Silesia and Saxony, 163;
special precautions against, at certain seasons of the year, 157 _sqq._;
annually expelled in Calabria, Silesia, and other parts of Europe, 157
_sqq._;
active during the Twelve Days from Christmas to Twelfth Night, 158
_sqq._;
shooting the, 164;
driving out the, 164;
burnt in Scotland, 165;
beaten with buckthorn, 266;
rob cows of milk on May Day, 267
Wives of a king taken by his successor, 368 _n._ 1
Woman’s ornaments, scapegoat decked with, 192
Women impregnated by ghosts, 18;
fertilized by effigy of a baby, 245, 249;
mode of fertilizing, 264;
put to death in the character of goddesses in Mexico, 283 _sqq._
Wood, King of the, at Aricia, 409
World conceived as animated, 90 _sq._;
daily created afresh by the self-sacrifice of the deity, 411
Worship of the dead, 97;
paid to human representatives of gods in Mexico, 278, 282, 289, 293
Wotyaks of Russia, annual expulsion of Satan among the, 155 _sq._
Wuttke, A., 327 _n._ 4
Xerxes identified with Ahasuerus, 360
Xilonen, Mexican goddess of the Young Maize, 285;
woman annually sacrificed in the character of, 285 _sq._
Xipe, Mexican god, 297, 298, 299;
statuette of, 291 _n._ 1;
his festival, 296 _sqq._;
his image, 297
Xixipeme, men clad in skins of human victims, 298, 299
Yabim of German New Guinea, their custom of sending disease away in a
small canoe, 188 _sq._
Yams, ceremonies before eating the new, 134
Year, burning out the Old, 165, 230 _n._ 7;
the old Roman, began in March, 229;
supposed representatives of the old, 230.
_See also_ New Year
——, lunar, of old Roman calendar, 232;
equated to solar year by intercalation, 325, 342 _sq._
——, solar, intercalation of the, 407 _n._ 1
—— -man, the, in Japan, 144
Years named after eponymous magistrates, 39 _sq._
——, the King of the, 220, 221
Yellow the royal colour among the Malays, 187
Yopico, temple in Mexico, 299
York, the Boy Bishop at, 337, 338
Yoruba negroes of West Africa, their use of human scapegoats, 211 _sq._
Younghusband, Sir Francis, 13
Youth supposed to be renewed by sloughing of skin, 302 _sqq._
Yucatan, the Mayas of, 171, 340
Yukon River, the Lower, 380
Yules, the, in Shetland, 168
_Yumari_, a dance of the Tarahumare Indians, 237 _sq._
Zakmuk or Zagmuk, the Babylonian festival of the New Year, 356 _sqq._
—— and the Sacaea, 399
Zambesi, the river, 7, 11
Zela in Pontus, Anaitis and the Sacaea at, 370, 372, 373, 421 _n._ 1;
Omanos and Anadates at, 373 _n._ 1
Zeus, cake with twelve knobs offered to, 351;
an upstart at Olympia, 352;
identified with the Babylonian Bel, 389
——, Laphystian, associated with human sacrifices, 354
——, Lycaean, human sacrifices to, 353, 354
——, Olympian, his temple at Athens, 351
——, Pelorian, 350
Zimmern, H., 358 _n._, 359 _n._ 1, 361 _n._ 4, 406 _n._ 2
Zoganes, a mock king at Babylon, 355, 357, 365, 368, 369, 387, 388, 406
Zoroaster, 389
Zündel, G., on demonolatry in West Africa, 74 _sqq._
Zuni sacrifice of turtle, 217
FOOTNOTES
M1 The principle of vicarious suffering.
M2 Transference of evil to things. Evils swept away by rivers.
1 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), pp. 266 _sq._, 305, 357 _sq._; compare
_id._, pp. 141, 340.
2 Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _The Northern Tribes of Central
Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 474.
3 J. Pearse, “Customs connected with Death and Burial among the
Sihanaka,” _The Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine_, vol.
ii., _Reprint of the Second four Numbers_ (Antananarivo, 1896), pp.
146 _sq._
4 Ivan Petroff, _Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources
of Alaska_, p. 158.
5 H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 322.
6 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), p. 800.
7 Pausanias, vii. 23. 3.
8 P. J. de Arriaga, _Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Piru_ (Lima,
1621), p. 29.
M3 Transference of evil to things.
9 This I learned from my friend W. Robertson Smith, who mentioned as
his authority David of Antioch, _Tazyin_, in the story “Orwa.”
10 R. Andree, _Ethnographische Parallele und Vergleiche_ (Stuttgart,
1878), pp. 29 _sq._
11 “Lettre du curé de Santiago Tepehuacan à son évêque sur les mœurs et
coutumes des Indiens soumis à ses soins,” _Bulletin de la Société de
Géographie_ (Paris), Deuxième Série, ii. (1834) p. 182.
12 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 309 _sq._
M4 Dyak transference of evil to things.
13 C. Hupe, “Korte Verhandeling over de Godsdienst, Zeden enz. der
Dajakkers,” _Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands Indië_, 1846, dl. iii. pp.
149 _sq._; F. Grabowsky, “Die Theogonie der Dajaken auf Borneo,”
_Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, v. (1892) p. 131.
M5 Evils transferred to other persons through the medium of things.
14 J. Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_ (Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide,
1881), p. 59.
15 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), i. 164 _sq._
16 Rev. J. Roscoe, “The Bahima, a Cow Tribe of Enkole,” _Journal of the
Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxvii. (1907) p. 103.
17 Rev. J. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” _Journal
of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxiii. (1902) p. 313.
M6 Evils transferred to images. Mongol transference of evil to things.
18 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 343 _sq._
19 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), p. 146.
_ 20 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, iii., _Draft Articles on
Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1907), p. 63.
21 M. v. Beguelin, “Religiöse Volksbräuche der Mongolen,” _Globus_,
lvii. (1890) pp. 209 _sq._
M7 Fatigue transferred to stones, sticks, or leaves.
22 J. G. F. Riedel, “Die Landschaft Dawan oder West-Timor,” _Deutsche
geographische Blätter_, x. 231.
23 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 340.
24 R. H. Codrington, D.D., _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 186.
M8 Heaps of stones or sticks among the American Indians.
25 G. F. de Oviedo, _Histoire du Nicaragua_ (Paris, 1840), pp. 42 _sq._
(Ternaux-Compans, _Voyages, Relations et Mémoires originaux, pour
servir à l’Histoire de la Découverte de l’Amérique_).
26 P. J. de Arriaga, _Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Piru_ (Lima,
1621), pp. 37, 130. As to the custom compare J. J. von Tschudi,
_Peru_ (St. Gallen, 1846), ii. 77 _sq._; H. A. Weddell, _Voyage dans
le Nord de la Bolivia et dans les parties voisines du Pérou_ (Paris
and London, 1853), pp. 74 _sq._ These latter writers interpret the
stones as offerings.
27 Baron E. Nordenskiöld, “Travels on the Boundaries of Bolivia and
Argentina,” _The Geographical Journal_, xxi. (1903) p. 518.
28 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), ii. 282.
29 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique
et de l’Amérique-Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), ii. 564; compare iii.
486. Indians of Guatemala, when they cross a pass for the first
time, still commonly add a stone to the cairn which marks the spot.
See C. Sapper, “Die Gebräuche und religiösen Anschauungen der
Kekchi-Indianer,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, viii.
(1895) p. 197.
M9 Heaps of stones or sticks among the natives of Africa.
30 F. F. R. Boileau, “The Nyasa-Tanganyika Plateau,” _The Geographical
Journal_, xiii. (1899) p. 589. In the same region Mr. L. Decle
observed many trees or rocks on which were placed little heaps of
stones or bits of wood, to which in passing each of his men added a
fresh stone or bit of wood or a tuft of grass. “This,” says Mr. L.
Decle, “is a tribute to the spirits, the general precaution to
ensure a safe return” (_Three Years in Savage Africa_, London, 1898,
p. 289). A similar practice prevails among the Wanyamwezi (_ibid._
p. 345). Compare J. A. Grant, _A Walk across Africa_ (Edinburgh and
London, 1864), pp. 133 _sq._
31 Cowper Rose, _Four Years in Southern Africa_ (London, 1829), p. 147.
32 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), p. 264.
M10 The heaps of stones or sticks generally on the tops of mountains or
passes.
33 S. Kay, _Travels and Researches in Caffraria_ (London, 1833), pp.
211 _sq._; Rev. H. Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, i.
66; D. Leslie, _Among the Zulus and Amatongas_ (Edinburgh, 1875),
pp. 146 _sq._ Compare H. Lichtenstein, _Reisen im südlichen Africa_
(Berlin, 1811-1812), i. 411.
34 W. Gowland, “Dolmens and other Antiquities of Corea,” _Journal of
the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895) pp. 328 _sq._; Mrs.
Bishop, _Korea and her Neighbours_ (London, 1898), i. 147, ii. 223.
Both writers speak as if the practice were to spit on the cairn
rather than on the particular stone which the traveller adds to it;
indeed, Mrs. Bishop omits to notice the custom of adding to the
cairns. Mr. Gowland says that almost every traveller carries up at
least one stone from the valley and lays it on the pile.
35 D. Forbes, “On the Aymara Indians of Peru and Bolivia,” _Journal of
the Ethnological Society of London_, ii. (1870) pp. 237 _sq._; G. C.
Musters, “Notes on Bolivia,” _Journal of the Royal Geographical
Society_, xlvii. (1877) p. 211; T. T. Cooper, _Travels of a Pioneer
of Commerce_ (London, 1871), p. 275; J. A. H. Louis, _The Gates of
Thibet, a Bird’s Eye View of Independent Sikkhim, British Bhootan,
and the Dooars_ (Calcutta, 1894), pp. 111 _sq._; A. Bastian, _Die
Völker des östlichen Asien_, ii. (Leipsic, 1866) p. 483. So among
the Mrus of Aracan, every man who crosses a hill, on reaching the
crest, plucks a fresh young shoot of grass and lays it on a pile of
the withered deposits of former travellers (T. H. Lewin, _Wild Races
of South-Eastern India_, London, 1870, pp. 232 _sq._).
M11 Fatigue let out with the blood.
36 A. d’Orbigny, _Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale_, ii. (Paris and
Strasburg, 1839-1843) pp. 92 _sq._
M12 Piles of stones or sticks on the scene of crimes. The Liar’s Heap.
37 (Sir) F. E. Younghusband, “A Journey across Central Asia,”
_Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, x. (1888) p. 494.
38 F. Liebrecht, _Zur Volkskunde_ (Heilbronn, 1879), pp. 274 _sq._
39 F. Liebrecht, _Zur Volkskunde_, p. 274; J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,”
_Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_,
vii. (1872) p. 73.
40 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_2 (London,
1863), i. 88.
41 E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo_
(London, 1911), pp. 66 _sq._
42 Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, _The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_ (London,
1912), i. 123.
M13 Heaps of stones, sticks, or leaves on scenes of murder. Heaps of
stones or sticks on graves.
43 A. C. Haddon, “A Batch of Irish Folk-lore,” _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893)
pp. 357, 360; Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre
de la France_ (Paris, 1875), ii. 75, 77; J. Brand, _Popular
Antiquities_, ii. 309; Hylten-Cavallius, quoted by F. Liebrecht,
_Zur Volkskunde_, p. 274; K. Haupt, _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_
(Leipsic, 1862-1863), ii. 65; K. Müllenhoff, _Sagen, Märchen und
Lieder der Herzogthümer Schleswig, Holstein und Lauenburg_ (Kiel,
1845), p. 125; A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin,
1843), p. 113; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen
und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 85; A. Treichel, “Reisighäufung
und Steinhäufung an Mordstellen,” _Am Ur-Quelle_, vi. (1896) p. 220;
Georgeakis et Pineau, _Folk-lore de Lesbos_, p. 323; A. Leared,
_Morocco and the Moors_ (London, 1876), pp. 105 _sq._; E. Doutté,
“Figuig,” _La Géographie, Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_
(Paris), vii. (1903) p. 197; _id._, _Magie et Religion dans
l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), pp. 424 _sq._; A. von
Haxthausen, _Transkaukasia_ (Leipsic, 1856), i. 222; C. T. Wilson,
_Peasant Life in the Holy Land_ (London, 1906), p. 285; W. Crooke,
_Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster,
1896), i. 267 _sq._; J. Bricknell, _The Natural History of North
Carolina_ (Dublin, 1737), p. 380; J. Adair, _History of the American
Indians_ (London, 1775), p. 184; K. Martin, _Bericht über eine Reise
nach Nederlandsch West-Indien_, Erster Theil (Leyden, 1887), p. 166;
G. C. Musters, “Notes on Bolivia,” _Journal of the Royal
Geographical Society_, xlvii. (1877) p. 211; B. F. Matthes, _Einige
Eigenthümlichkeiten in den Festen und Gewohnheiten der Makassaren
und Büginesen_, p. 25 (separate reprint from _Travaux de la 6e
Session du Congrès International des Orientalistes à Leide_, vol.
ii.); R. A. Cruise, _Journal of a Ten Months’ Residence in New
Zealand_ (London, 1823), p. 186.
44 Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_,
New Edition (New York, 1851), iii. 50.
45 Captain James Cook, _Voyages_ (London, 1809), vi. 479.
46 E. Gerard, _The Land beyond the Forest_ (Edinburgh and London,
1888), i. 311, 318.
47 H. Lichtenstein, _Reisen im Südlichen Africa_ (Berlin, 1811-1812),
i. 349 _sq._; Sir James E. Alexander, _Expedition of Discovery into
the Interior of Africa_ (London, 1838), i. 166; C. J. Andersson,
_Lake Ngami_, Second Edition (London, 1856), p. 327; W. H. I. Bleek,
_Reynard the Fox in South Africa_ (London, 1864), p. 76; Th. Hahn,
_Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi_ (London, 1881), p.
56. Compare _The Dying God_, p. 3.
48 Th. Hahn, “Die Buschmänner,” _Globus_, xviii. 141.
49 Th. Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, ii. (Leipsic, 1860) p.
195, referring to Raffenel, _Nouveau Voyage dans le pays des nègres_
(Paris, 1856), i. 93 _sq._
50 Eijūb Abēla, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss abergläubischer Gebräuche in
Syrien,” _Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palaestina-Vereins_, vii. (1884)
p. 102.
51 Note by G. P. Badger, on _The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema_,
translated by J. W. Jones (Hakluyt Society, 1863), p. 45. For more
evidence of the custom in Syria see W. M. Thomson, _The Land and the
Book_ (London, 1859), p. 490; F. Sessions, “Some Syrian Folklore
Notes,” _Folk-lore_, ix. (1898) p. 15; A. Jaussen, _Coutumes des
Arabes au pays de Moab_ (Paris, 1908), p. 336.
M14 Stones and sticks hurled as missiles at dangerous ghosts and demons.
Missiles to ward off dangerous ghosts.
52 A. Treichel, “Reisig- und Steinhäufung bei Ermordeten oder
Selbstmördern,” _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für
Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, 1888_, p. (569) (bound
up with _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xx. 1888).
53 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 20 _sq._, 46
_sq._, 124 _sq._, 126 _sq._, 289 _sq._ Stones are not mentioned
among the missiles hurled at ghosts, probably because stones are
scarce in Uganda. See J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ p. 5.
54 Father Finaz, S.J., in _Les Missions Catholiques_, vii. (1875) p.
328.
55 “Der Muata Cazembe und die Völkerstämme der Maraves, Chevas,
Muembas, Lundas, und andere von Süd-Afrika,” _Zeitschrift für
allgemeine Erdkunde_, vi. (1856) p. 287.
_ 56 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxxii. Part iii.
(Calcutta, 1904) p. 87.
57 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _In Centraal Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 146.
58 Euripides, _Electra_, 327 _sq._
59 Propertius, v. 5. 77 _sq._
M15 But the stones and sticks thrown on heaps cannot always be explained
as missiles discharged at spiritual foes. Cairns raised in honour of
Moslem saints.
60 M. Merker, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1904), p. 193.
61 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), pp. 305 _sq._
62 E. D. Clarke, _Travels in various Countries of Europe and Asia_, vi.
(London, 1823) p. 165.
63 W. H. D. Rouse, “Notes from Syria,” _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) p. 173.
Compare F. Sessions, “Some Syrian Folklore Notes, gathered on Mount
Lebanon,” _Folk-lore_, ix. (1898) p. 15.
64 E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’ Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers,
1908), pp. 420-422.
M16 Stones as channels of communication with saints, living or dead.
65 E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_, p. 440,
quoting De Ségonzac, _Voyage au Maroc_, p. 82.
66 I follow the exposition of E. Doutté, whose account of the sanctity
or magical influence (_baraka_) ascribed to the persons of living
Mohammedan saints (marabouts) is very instructive. See his _Magie et
Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_, pp. 438 _sqq._ Mr. E. S. Hartland
had previously explained the custom of throwing stones and sticks on
cairns as acts of ceremonial union with the spirit who is supposed
to reside in the cairn. See his _Legend of Perseus_, ii. (London,
1895) p. 128. While this theory offers a plausible explanation of
some cases of the custom, I do not think that it will cover them
all. M. René Dussaud argues that the stones deposited at shrines of
holy men are simply material embodiments of the prayers which at the
same time the suppliants address to the saints; and he holds that
the practice of depositing stones at such places rests on a
principle entirely different from that of throwing stones for the
purpose of repelling evil spirits. See René Dussaud, “La
matérialisation de la prière en Orient,” _Bulletins et Mémoires de
la Société d’ Anthropologie de Paris_, V. Série, vii. (1906) pp.
213-220. If I am right, the fundamental idea in these customs is
neither that the stones or sticks are offerings presented to good
spirits nor that they are missiles hurled at bad ones, but that they
embody the evil, whether disease, misfortune, fear, horror, or what
not, of which the person attempts to rid himself by transferring it
to a material vehicle. But I am far from confident that this
explanation applies to all cases. In particular it is difficult to
reconcile it with the custom, described in the text, of throwing a
marked stone at a holy man and then recovering it. Are we to suppose
that the stone carries away the evil to the good man and brings back
his blessing instead? The idea is perhaps too subtle and
far-fetched.
The word _baraka_, which in North Africa describes the powerful and
in general beneficent, yet dangerous, influence which emanates from
holy persons and things, is no doubt identical with the Hebrew
_bĕrakhah_ (ברכה) “blessing.” The importance which the ancient
Hebrews ascribed to the blessing or the curse of a holy man is
familiar to us from many passages in the Old Testament. See, for
example, Genesis xxvii., xlviii. 8 _sqq._; Deuteronomy xxvii. 11
_sqq._, xxviii. 1 _sqq._
M17 The rite of throwing sticks or stones is perhaps best explained as a
mode of purification, the evil being thought to be embodied in the
missile which is thrown away.
67 E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers,
1908), pp. 430 sq.; J. Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentums_2
(Berlin, 1897), p. 111. The explanation given in the text is
regarded as probable by Professor M. J. de Goeje (_Internationales
Archiv für Ethnographie_, xvi. ,1904, p. 42.)
M18 This interpretation of stone-throwing agrees with ancient Greek and
Indian tradition and custom.
_ 68 Etymologicum Magnum_, _s.v._ Ἑρμαῖον, pp. 375 _sq._; Eustathius on
Homer, _Odyssey_, xvi. 471. As to the heaps of stones see Cornutus,
_Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 16; Babrius, _Fabulae_, xlviii. 1
_sq._; Suidas, _s.v._ Ἑρμαῖον; Scholiast on Nicander, _Ther._ 150;
M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 388 _sqq._
The method of execution by stoning may perhaps have been resorted to
in order to avoid the pollution which would be entailed by contact
with the guilty and dying man.
69 Plato, _Laws_, ix. 12, p. 873 A-C λίθον ἕκαστος φέρων ἐπὶ τὴν
κεφαλὴν τοῦ νεκροῦ βάλλων ἀφοσιούτω τὴν πόλιν ὅλην.
_ 70 Satapatha Brahmana_, ix. 1. 2. 9-12, Part iv. p. 171 of J.
Eggeling’s translation (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xliii.,
Oxford, 1897). As to Nirriti, the Goddess of Destruction, see H.
Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 323, 351,
354, 489 note 3.
M19 The throwing of sticks or stones on piles is sometimes explained as
a sacrifice. Certainly the throwing of stones is sometimes
accompanied by sacrifices. Heaps of sticks at the fords of rivers in
Africa.
71 See, for example, O. Baumann, _Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle_
(Berlin, 1894), p. 214; G. M. Dawson, “Notes on the Shuswap People
of British Columbia,” _Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada_,
ix. (1891) section ii. p. 38; F. Liebrecht, _Zur Volkskunde_
(Heilbronn, 1879), pp. 267 _sq._, 273 _sq._, 276, 278 _sq._; R.
Andree, _Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche_ (Stuttgart,
1878), p. 48; Catat, in _Le Tour du Monde_, lxv. (1893), p. 40. Some
of these writers have made a special study of the practices in
question. See F. Liebrecht, “Die geworfenen Steine,” _Zur
Volkskunde_, pp. 267-284; R. Andree, “Steinhaufen,” _Ethnographische
Parallelen und Vergleiche_, pp. 46-58; E. S. Hartland, _The Legend
of Perseus_, ii. (London, 1895) pp. 204 _sqq._; E. Doutté, _Magie et
Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), pp. 419 _sqq._
With the views of the last of these writers I am in general
agreement.
72 However, at the waterfall of Kriml, in the Tyrol, it is customary
for every passer-by to throw a stone into the water; and this
attention is said to put the water-spirits in high good humour; for
they follow the wayfarer who has complied with the custom and guard
him from all the perils of the dangerous path. See F. Panzer,
_Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 236
_sq._
73 J. A. H. Louis, _The Gates of Thibet_, Second Edition (Calcutta,
1894), pp. 111 _sq._
74 L. A. Waddell, _Among the Himalayas_ (Westminster, 1899), pp. 115,
188.
75 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des nations civilisées du Mexique
et de l’Amérique-Centrale_, ii. 564.
76 C. Sapper, “Die Gebräuche und religiösen Anschauungen der
Kekchí-Indianer,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, viii.
(1895) pp. 197 _sq._
77 D. Forbes, “On the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru,” _Journal of
the Ethnological Society of London_, ii. (1870) pp. 237 _sq._; G. C.
Musters, “Notes on Bolivia,” _Journal of the Royal Geographical
Society_, xlvii. (1877) p. 211; Baron E. Nordenskiöld, “Travels on
the Boundaries of Bolivia and Argentina,” _The Geographical
Journal_, xxi. (1903) p. 518.
78 P. J. de Arriaga, _Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Piru_ (Lima,
1621), pp. 37, 130.
79 F. Liebrecht, _Zur Volkskunde_, p. 274; Brett, “Dans la Corée
Septentrionale,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxxi. (1899) p. 237.
80 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), i. 115. “In some parts of Bilaspore there may
be seen heaps of stones, which are known as _kuriyā_, from the word
_kurhonā_, meaning to heap or pile-up. Just how and why the practice
was started the people cannot explain; but to this day every one who
passes a _kuriyā_ will take up a stone and throw it on the pile.
This, they say, has been done as long as they can remember” (E. M.
Gordon, _Indian Folk Tales_, London, 1908, p. 14).
81 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), i. 267 _sq._
82 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 163.
83 P. Amaury Talbot, _In the Shadow of the Bush_ (London, 1912), p.
242. As to the goddess Nimm, see _id._, pp. 2 _sq._
84 P. Amaury Talbot, _op. cit._ p. 91.
85 A. Karasek, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Waschambaa,”
_Baessler-Archiv_, i. (1911) p. 194.
86 M. Martin, “A Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in
John Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1808-1814), iii.
691.
M20 The throwing of stones and sticks is sometimes accompanied by
prayers. Gradual transformation of an old magical ceremony into a
religious rite.
87 E. Aymonier, _Notes sur le Laos_ (Saigon, 1885), p. 198.
88 E. T. Atkinson, _The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western
Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 832.
89 T. T. Cooper, _Travels of a Pioneer of Commerce_ (London, 1871), p.
275. Compare W. W. Rockhill, _The Land of the Lamas_ (London, 1891),
pp. 126 _sq._
90 Rev. J. Macdonald, “Manners, Customs, Superstitions, and Religions
of South African Tribes,” _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 126.
91 Sir James E. Alexander, _Expedition of Discovery into the Interior
of Africa_ (London, 1838), i. 166.
92 S. Kay, _Travels and Researches in Caffraria_ (London, 1833), pp.
211 _sq._ When the Bishop of Capetown once passed a heap of stones
on the top of a mountain in the Amapondo country he was told that
“it was customary for every traveller to add one to the heap that it
might have a favourable influence on his journey, and enable him to
arrive at some kraal while the pot is yet boiling” (J. Shooter, _The
Kaffirs of Natal_, London, 1857, p. 217). Here there is no mention
of a prayer. Similarly a Basuto on a journey, when he fears that the
friend with whom he is going to stay may have eaten up all the food
before his guest’s arrival, places a stone on a cairn to avert the
danger (E. Casalis, _The Basutos_, London, 1861, p. 272). The reason
alleged for the practice in these cases is perhaps equivalent to the
one assigned by the Melanesians and others; by ridding the traveller
of his fatigue it enables him to journey faster and so to reach his
destination before supper is over. But sometimes a travelling
Mowenda will place a stone, not on a cairn, but in the fork of a
tree, saying, “May the sun not set before I reach my destination.”
See Rev. E. Gottschling, “The Bawenda,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 381. This last custom is
a charm to prevent the sun from setting. See _The Magic Art and the
Evolution of Kings_, i. 318. In Senegal the custom of throwing
stones on cairns by the wayside is said to be observed “in order to
ensure a speedy and prosperous return.” See Dr. Bellamy, “Notes
ethnographiques recueillies dans le Haut-Sénégal,” _Revue d’
Ethnographie_, v. (1886) p. 83. In the Fan country of West Africa
the custom of adding a leafy branch to a heap of such branches in
the forest was explained by a native, who said that it was done to
prevent the trees and branches from falling on the traveller’s head,
and their roots from wounding his feet. See Father Trilles, “Mille
lieues dans l’inconnu,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxxiv. (1902) p.
142.
93 Th. Hahn, “Die Buschmänner,” _Globus_, xviii. 141. As to the cairn
in question, see above, p. 16.
M21 Evils transferred to animals in Africa.
94 J. Smith, _Trade and Travels in the Gulph of Guinea_ (London, 1851),
p. 77.
95 O. Dapper, _Description de l’Afrique_ (Amsterdam, 1686), p. 117.
96 A. Leared, _Morocco and the Moors_ (London, 1876), p. 301. Compare
E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers,
1908), p. 454.
97 E. Doutté, _op. cit._ pp. 454 _sq._
98 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), p. 261.
99 Rev. John Campbell, _Travels in South Africa_ (London, 1822), ii.
207 _sq._
100 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 342 _sq._
101 P. Cayzac, “La religion des Kikuyu,” _Anthropos_, v. (1910) p. 311.
102 Rev. J. Roscoe, “The Bahima, a Cow Tribe of Enkole,” _Journal of the
Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxvii. (1907) p. 111.
M22 Evils transferred to animals in various parts of the world.
103 Dr. R. F. Kaindl, “Zauberglaube bei den Huzulen,” _Globus_, lxxvi.
(1899) p. 254.
104 J. Goldziher, _Muhammedanische Studien_ (Halle a. S., 1888-1890), i.
34.
105 E. Diguet, _Les Annamites_ (Paris, 1906), pp. 283 _sq._
106 W. Müller, “Über die Wildenstämme der Insel Formosa,” _Zeitschrift
für Ethnologie_, xlii. (1910) p. 237. The writer’s use of the
pronoun (_sie_) is ambiguous.
107 Father E. Amat, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, lxx.
(1898) pp. 266 _sq._
M23 Vehicles for the transference of evils in Madagascar.
108 Rev. W. Ellis, _History of Madagascar_ (London, N.D.), i. 422 _sq._;
compare _id._, pp. 232, 435, 436 _sq._; Rev. J. Sibree, _The Great
African Island_ (London, 1880), pp. 303 _sq._ As to divination by
the _sikidy_, see J. Sibree, “Divination among the Malagasy,”
_Folk-lore_, iii. (1892) pp. 193-226.
109 W. Ellis, _op. cit._ i. 374; J. Sibree, _The Great African Island_,
p. 304; J. Cameron, in _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine,
Reprint of the First Four Numbers_ (Antananarivo, 1885), p. 263.
M24 Extraction of kleptomania by spiders and crabs. Evils transferred to
birds, which fly away with them.
110 N. Adriani en Alb. C. Kruijt, _De Bare’e-sprekende Toradja’s van
Midden-Celebes_, i. (Batavia, 1912) p. 399.
111 W. Ködding, “Die Batakschen Götter,” _Allgemeine
Missions-Zeitschrift_, xii. (1885) p. 478; Dr. R. Römer, “Bijdrage
tot de Geneeskunst der Karo-Batak’s,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische
Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, l. (1908) p. 223.
112 W. E. Maxwell, “The Folklore of the Malays,” _Journal of the Straits
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 7 (June, 1881), p. 27; W.
W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900), pp. 534 _sq._
113 Dio Chrysostom, _Orat._ liii. vol. ii. pp. 164 _sq._ ed. L. Dindorf
(Leipsic, 1857). Compare Plato, _Republic_, iii. 9, p. 398 A, who
ironically proposes to dismiss poets from his ideal state in the
same manner. These passages of Plato and Dio Chrysostom were pointed
out to me by my friend Professor Henry Jackson. There was a Greek
saying, attributed to Pythagoras, that swallows should not be
allowed to enter a house (Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ viii. 7, 1).
114 Dr. R. F. Kaindl, “Zauberglaube bei den Huzulen,” _Globus_, lxxvi.
(1899) pp. 255 _sq._
115 Leviticus xiv. 7, 53.
116 J. Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_ (Berlin, 1887), p.
156; W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, New Edition
(London, 1894), pp. 422, 428.
M25 Evils transferred to animals in India.
117 W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and
Oudh_ (Calcutta, 1896), iii. 434.
118 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909),
i. 113-117; _id._, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_ (Madras,
1906), pp. 192-196; Captain H. Harkness, _Description of a Singular
Aboriginal Race inhabiting the Summit of the Neilgherry Hills_
(London, 1832), p. 133; F. Metz, _The Tribes inhabiting the
Neilgherry Hills_, Second Edition (Mangalore, 1864), p. 78; Jagor,
“Ueber die Badagas im Nilgiri-Gebirge,” _Verhandlungen der Berliner
Gesellschaft für Anthropologie_ (1876), pp. 196 _sq._ At the Badaga
funerals witnessed by Mr. E. Thurston “no calf was brought near the
corpse, and the celebrants of the rites were satisfied with the mere
mention by name of a calf, which is male or female according to the
sex of the deceased.”
119 H. Harkness, _l.c._
120 J. W. Breeks, _An Account of the Primitive Tribes and Monuments of
the Nīlagiris_ (London, 1873), pp. 23 _sq._; W. H. R. Rivers, _The
Todas_ (London, 1906), pp. 376 _sq._
121 E. T. Atkinson, _The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western
Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) pp. 927 _sq._ In other
parts of North-Western India on the eleventh day after a death a
bull calf is let loose with a trident branded on its shoulder or
quarter “to become a pest.” See (Sir) Denzil C. J. Ibbetson, _Report
on the Revision of Settlement of the Panipat Tahsil and Karnal
Parganah of the Karnal District_ (Allahabad, 1883), p. 137. In
Behar, a district of Bengal, a bullock is also let loose on the
eleventh day of mourning for a near relative. See G. A. Grierson,
_Bihār Peasant Life_ (Calcutta, 1885), p. 409.
M26 Evils transferred to human beings in India and elsewhere.
122 W. Caland, _Altindisches Zauberritual_ (Amsterdam, 1900), p. 83;
_Hymns of the Atharva-Veda_, translated by Maurice Bloomfield
(Oxford, 1897), pp. 308 _sq._ (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol.
xlii.).
123 M. N. Venketswami, “Telugu Superstitions,” _The Indian Antiquary_,
xxiv. (1895) p. 359.
124 A. Grünwedel, “Sinhalesische Masken,” _Internationales Archiv für
Ethnographie_, vi. (1893) pp. 85 _sq._
125 J. G. Dalyell, _Darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1834),
pp. 104 _sq._ I have modernised the spelling.
126 J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of
the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 10 (December 1882), p. 232.
M27 Sins and misfortunes transferred to human scapegoats in New Zealand
and Manipur. Annual eponyms in Manipur. Eponymous magistrates as
public scapegoats.
127 Rev. Richard Taylor, _Te Ika A Maui, or New Zealand and its
Inhabitants_, Second Edition (London, 1870), p. 101.
128 T. C. Hodson, “The Native Tribes of Manipur,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) p. 302; _id._, _The
Meitheis_ (London, 1908), pp. 106 _sq._
129 T. C. Hodson, “The Native Tribes of Manipur,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) p. 302.
130 T. C. Hodson, _The Meitheis_ (London, 1908), pp. 104-106.
131 Compare _The Dying God_, pp. 116 _sq._
M28 Indian story of the transference of sins to a holy man.
_ 132 The Jataha or Stories of the Buddha’s former Births_, vol. v.,
translated by H. T. Francis (Cambridge, 1905), pp. 71 _sq._
M29 Transference of evils to human scapegoats in Uganda.
133 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 342.
M30 Transference of sins to a Brahman in Travancore. Transference of
sins to a Sin-eater in England.
134 Rev. S. Mateer, _Native Life in Travancore_ (London, 1883), p. 136.
135 J. Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (Folk-lore Society,
London, 1881), pp. 35 _sq._
136 Bagford’s letter in Leland’s _Collectanea_, i. 76, quoted by J.
Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 246 _sq._, Bohn’s edition (London,
1882-1883).
137 In _The Academy_, 13th Nov. 1875, p. 505, Mr. D. Silvan Evans stated
that he knew of no such custom anywhere in Wales; and the custom
seems to be now quite unknown in Shropshire. See C. S. Burne and G.
F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_ (London, 1883), pp. 307 _sq._
138 The authority for the statement is a Mr. Moggridge, reported in
_Archaeologia Cambrensis_, second series, iii. 330. But Mr.
Moggridge did not speak from personal knowledge, and as he appears
to have taken it for granted that the practice of placing bread and
salt upon the breast of a corpse was a survival of the custom of
“sin-eating,” his evidence must be received with caution. He
repeated his statement, in somewhat vaguer terms, at a meeting of
the Anthropological Institute, 14th December 1875. See _Journal of
the Anthropological Institute_, v. (1876) pp. 423 _sq._
M31 Transference of sins to a sin-eater in India.
139 J. A. Dubois, _Mœurs des Peuples de l’Inde_ (Paris, 1825), ii. 32
_sq._
140 R. Richardson, in _Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. p. 86, § 674 (May,
1884).
_ 141 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. p. 86, § 674, ii. p. 93, § 559
(March, 1885). Some of these customs have been already referred to
in a different connexion. See _The Dying God_, p. 154. In Uganda the
eldest son used to perform a funeral ceremony, which consisted in
chewing some seeds which he took with his lips from the hand of his
dead father; some of these seeds he then blew over the corpse and
the rest over one of the childless widows who thereafter became his
wife. The meaning of the ceremony is obscure. The eldest son in
Uganda never inherited his father’s property. See the Rev. J.
Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 117.
_ 142 Panjab Notes and Queries_, iii. p. 179, § 745 (July, 1886).
143 E. Schuyler, _Turkistan_ (London, 1876), ii. 28.
M32 Transference of sins in Tahiti.
144 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London,
1832-1836), i. 401 _sqq._
145 The Welsh custom of “sin-eating” has been interpreted by Mr. E. S.
Hartland as a modification of an older custom of eating the corpse.
See his article, “The Sin-eater,” _Folk-lore_, iii. (1892) 145-157;
_The Legend of Perseus_, ii. 291 _sqq._, iii. p. ix. I cannot think
his interpretation probable or borne out by the evidence. The Badaga
custom of transferring the sins of the dead to a calf which is then
let loose and never used again (above, pp. 36 _sq._), the Tahitian
custom of burying the sins of a person whose body is carefully
preserved by being embalmed, and the Manipur and Travancore customs
of transferring the sins of a Rajah before his death (pp. 39, 42
_sq._) establish the practice of transferring sins in cases where
there can be no question of eating the corpse. The original
intention of such practices was perhaps not so much to take away the
sins of the deceased as to rid the survivors of the dangerous
pollution of death. This comes out to some extent in the Tahitian
custom.
M33 Transference of evils in ancient Greece. The transference of warts.
Transference of sickness in Scotland, Germany, and Austria.
146 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 86.
147 Plato, _Laws_, xi. 12, p. 933 B.
148 Ἐφημερὶς ἀρχαιολογική, 1883, col. 213, 214; G. Dittenberger,
_Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 802, lines 48 _sqq._ (vol.
ii. pp. 652 _sq._).
149 Marcellus, _De medicamentis_, xxxiv. 102. A similar cure is
described by Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxii. 149); you are to touch the
warts with chick-peas on the first day of the moon, wrap the peas in
a cloth, and throw them away behind you. But Pliny does not say that
the warts will be transferred to the person who picks up the peas.
On this subject see further J. Hardy, “Wart and Wen Cures,”
_Folk-lore Record_, i. (1878) pp. 216-228.
150 Z. Zanetti, _La Medicina delle nostre donne_ (Città di Castello,
1892), pp. 224 _sq._; J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_
(Paris, 1679), p. 321; B. Souché, _Croyances, présages et traditions
diverses_ (Niort, 1880), p. 19; J. W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen
Mythologie_ (Göttingen, 1852-1857), i. 248, § 576; Dr. R. F. Kaindl,
“Aus dem Volksglauben der Rutenen in Galizien,” _Globus_, lxiv.
(1893) p. 93; J. Harland and T. T. Wilkinson, _Lancashire Folk-lore_
(Manchester and London, 1882), p. 157; G. W. Black, _Folk-medicine_
(London, 1883), p. 41; W. Gregor, _Folk-lore of the North-East of
Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 49; J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and
Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow,
1902), pp. 94 _sq._
151 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_
(Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 71, § 85; E. Monseur, _Le Folklore Wallon_
(Brussels, N.D.), p. 29; H. Zahler, _Die Krankheit im Volksglauben
des Simmenthals_ (Bern, 1898), p. 93; R. Andree, _Braunschweiger
Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), p. 306.
152 A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau,
1861-1862), i. 483.
153 Thiers, Souché, Strackerjan, Monseur, _ll.cc._; J. G. Campbell,
_Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of
Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), p. 95.
154 Ch. Rogers, _Social Life in Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1884-1886), iii.
226.
155 G. Lammert, _Volksmedizin und medizinischer Aberglaube in Bayern_
(Würzburg, 1869), p. 264.
_ 156 Ibid._ p. 263.
157 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_
(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 167, § 1180.
158 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_
(Oldenburg, 1867), i. 71, § 85.
M34 Sickness transferred to asses, frogs, dogs, and other animals.
_ 159 Geoponica_, xiii. 9, xv. 1; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 155. The
authorities for these cures are respectively Apuleius and
Democritus. The latter is probably not the atomic philosopher. See
J. G. Frazer, “The Language of Animals,” _The Archæological Review_,
vol. i. (May, 1888) p. 180, note 140.
160 Marcellus, _De medicamentis_, xii. 24.
161 W. G. Black, _Folk-medicine_ (London, 1883), pp. 35 _sq._
162 Marcellus, _De medicamentis_, xvii. 18.
163 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxx. 61; Marcellus, _De medicamentis_, xxvii.
33. The latter writer mentions (_op. cit._ xxviii. 123) that the
same malady might similarly be transferred to a live frog.
164 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxx. 64; Marcellus, _De medicamentis_, xxviii.
132.
165 Marcellus, _De medicamentis_, xxix. 35.
166 W. Henderson, _Folk-lore of the Northern Counties_ (London, 1879),
p. 143; W. G. Black, _Folk-medicine_, p. 35; Marie Trevelyan,
_Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), p. 226.
167 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_
(Oldenburg, 1867), i. 72, § 86.
M35 Sickness transferred to birds, snails, fish, and fowls.
168 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_
(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 166, § 1173, quoting Kuhn’s
translation of _Rig-veda_, x. 97. 13. A slightly different
translation of the verse is given by H. Grassmann, who here follows
R. Roth (_Rig-veda übersetzt_, vol. ii. p. 379). Compare _Hymns of
the Rigveda_, translated by R. T. H. Griffith (Benares, 1889-1892),
iv. 312.
169 L. Strackerjan, _op. cit._ i. 72, § 87.
170 W. Henderson, _Folk-lore of the Northern Counties_ (London, 1879),
p. 143.
171 J. D. H. Temme, _Die Volkssagen der Altmark_ (Berlin, 1839), p. 83;
A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 384, § 62.
172 R. Wuttke, _Sächsische Volkskunde_2 (Dresden, 1901), p. 372.
173 J. V. Grohmann, _op. cit._ p. 230, § 1663. A similar remedy is
prescribed in Bavaria. See G. Lammert, _Volksmedizin und
medizinischer Aberglaube in Bayern_ (Würzburg, 1869), p. 249.
174 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 375; W. G. Black,
_Folk-medicine_, p. 46.
175 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,
1909), pp. 229 _sq._
M36 Sickness and ill-luck transferred to inanimate objects.
176 B. Schmidt, _Das Volksleben der Neugriechen_ (Leipsic, 1871), p. 82.
177 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 386.
178 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_
(Oldenburg, 1867), i. 74, § 91.
M37 Sickness and trouble transferred to trees and bushes.
179 F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äussern Leben der Ehsten_ (St.
Petersburg, 1876), pp. 451 _sq._
_ 180 Le Tour du Monde_, lxvii. (1894) p. 308; _id._, Nouvelle Série, v.
(1899) p. 521.
181 F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_
(Münster i. W., 1890), pp. 35 _sq._
182 F. S. Krauss, _op. cit._ p. 39.
183 A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), p. 400, compare p. 401.
_ 184 Blackwood’s Magazine_, February 1886, p. 239.
185 Z. Zanetti, _La medicina delle nostre donne_ (Città di Castello,
1892), p. 73.
186 J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), pp. 323
_sq._
187 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_
(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 167, § 1178. A Belgian cure of the
same sort is reported by J. W. Wolf (_Beiträge zur deutschen
Mythologie_, Göttingen, 1852-1857, i. 223 (wrongly numbered 219), §
256).
M38 Sickness transferred to trees by means of knots.
188 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_
(Oldenburg, 1867), i. 74, § 90.
189 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_4 (Berlin, 1875-1878), ii. 979.
_ 190 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iv. 2
(Munich, 1867), p. 406.
191 A. Schleicher, _Volkstümliches aus Sonnenberg_ (Weimar, 1858), p.
150; A. Witschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_
(Vienna, 1878), p. 283, § 82.
192 W. Kolbe, _Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebrauche_2 (Marburg, 1888),
pp. 88 _sq._
M39 Sickness transferred to trees by means of the patient’s hair or
nails.
193 C. Meyer, _Der Aberglaube des Mittelalters_ (Bâle, 1884), p. 104.
194 H. Zahler, _Die Krankheit im Volksglauben des Simmenthals_ (Bern,
1898), p. 94.
195 W. G. Black, _Folk-medicine_, p. 38.
196 F. Chapiseau, _Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_ (Paris,
1902), i. 213.
197 W. G. Black, _Folk-medicine_, p. 39.
M40 Toothache, headache, and fevers plugged up in trees.
198 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 310, §
490.
199 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_,
p. 165, § 1160.
200 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_,
ii. 74 _sq._, § 89.
201 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 979.
202 T. J. Pettigrew, _On Superstitions connected with the History and
Practice of Medicine and Surgery_ (London, 1844), p. 77; W. G.
Black, _Folk-medicine_, p. 37.
M41 Sickness and pain pegged or nailed into trees.
203 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_,
p. 167, § 1182.
204 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_,
i. 73, § 89; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_,2 pp. 309
_sq._, § 490.
205 L. F. Sauvé, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 40;
A. Meyrac, _Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et Contes des Ardennes_
(Charleville, 1890), p. 174; A. Schleicher, _Volkstümliches aus
Sonnenberg_ (Weimer, 1858), p. 149; J. A. E. Köhler, _Volksbrauch,
Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_
(Leipsic, 1867), p. 414; A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche
aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 283, § 79; H. Zahler, _Die
Krankheit im Volksglauben des Simmenthals_ (Bern, 1898), p. 93.
206 R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), p. 307.
207 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 384, § 66.
208 H. Zahler, _loc. cit._
209 P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_, i. (Wurzen, N.D.) p.
23.
M42 Ghosts and gods bunged up in India. Demon plugged up and ghost
nailed down.
210 E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers,
1908), p. 436.
211 W. Crooke, _The Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and
Oudh_ (Calcutta, 1896), iii. 436 _sq._; compare _id._, _Popular
Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), i.
43, 162. Compare E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_
(Madras, 1906), pp. 313, 331.
212 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), i. 102 _sq._
213 Mrs. Bishop, _Korea and her Neighbours_ (London, 1898), ii. 143
_sq._
214 P. Giran, _Magie et Religion Annamites_ (Paris, 1912), pp. 132 _sq._
M43 Evils nailed into stones, walls, door-posts, and so on.
215 R. C. Maclagan, “Notes on folk-lore Objects collected in
Argyleshire,” _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) p. 158.
216 R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), p. 307.
217 F. Chapiseau, _Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_ (Paris,
1902), i. 170.
218 E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers,
1908), pp. 228 _sq._
219 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_,
p. 116, § 1172.
M44 Devils and ghosts nailed down in Morocco, Tunis, and Egypt. Headache
nailed into a door or a wall. Plague pegged into a hole.
220 A. Leared, _Morocco and the Moors_ (London, 1876), pp. 275 _sqq._
221 R. C. Thompson, _Semitic Magic_ (London, 1908), p. 17. It would seem
that in Macedonia demons and ghosts can be hammered into walls. See
G. F. Abbott, _Macedonian Folklore_ (Cambridge, 1903), p. 221. In
Chittagong, as soon as a coffin has been carried out of the house, a
nail is knocked into the threshold “to prevent death from entering
the dwelling, at least for a time.” See Th. Bérengier, “Les
funérailles à Chittagong,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xiii. (1881)
p. 504.
222 E. W. Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (Paisley
and London, 1895), ch. x. p. 240.
223 R. C. Thompson, _Semitic Magic_ (London, 1908), p. 18.
224 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_,
ii. 120, § 428 _a_. A similar story is told of a house in Neuenburg
(_op. cit._ ii. 182, § 512 _c_).
225 Ammianus Marcellinus, xxiii. 6. 24.
M45 Plague nailed down in ancient Rome.
226 Livy, vii. 1-3. The plague raged from 365 to 363 B.C., when it was
happily stayed in the manner described in the text.
M46 Pestilence and civil discord nailed into a wall in Rome.
227 Livy, ix. 28. This happened in the year 313 B.C.
228 Livy, viii. 18. These events took place in 331 B.C.
M47 The annual ceremony of knocking in a nail at Rome.
229 Livy, vii. 3. Livy says nothing as to the place where the nails were
affixed; but from Festus (p. 56 ed. C. O. Müller) we learn that it
was the wall of a temple, and as the date of the ceremony was also
the date of the dedication of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol
(Plutarch, _Publicola_, 14), we may fairly conjecture that this
temple was the scene of the rite. It is the more necessary to call
attention to the uncertainty which exists on this point because
modern writers, perhaps misunderstanding the words of Livy, have
commonly stated as a fact what is at best only a more or less
probable hypothesis. Octavian seems to have provided for the
knocking of a nail into the temple of Mars by men who had held the
office of censor. See Dio Cassius, lv. 10, ἧλόν τε αὐτῷ ὑπὸ τῶν
τιμητευσάντων προσπήγνυσθαι.
M48 The ceremony was probably a purificatory rite designed to disarm and
disable all evils that might threaten the Roman state in the course
of the year. Roman cure for epilepsy.
230 Livy, vii. 3. Festus speaks (p. 56 ed. C. O. Müller) of “the annual
nail, which was fixed in the walls of temples for the purpose of
numbering the years,” as if the practice were common. From Cicero’s
passing reference to the custom (“_Ex hoc die clavum anni movebis_,”
_Epist. ad Atticum_, v. 15. 1) we see that it was matter of
notoriety. Hence we may safely reject Mommsen’s theory, which Mr. W.
Warde Fowler is disposed to accept (_The Roman Festivals of the
period of the Republic_, London, 1899, pp. 234 _sq._), that the
supposed annual custom never existed except in the brains of Roman
Dryasdusts.
231 See Livy and Festus, _ll.cc._
232 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 63.
_ 233 County Folk-lore, Suffolk_, edited by Lady E. C. Gurdon (London,
1893), p. 14. In the north-west Highlands of Scotland it used to be
customary to bury a black cock alive on the spot where an epileptic
patient fell down. Along with the cock were buried parings of the
patient’s nails and a lock of his hair. See (Sir) Arthur Mitchell,
_On various Superstitions in the North-West Highlands and Islands of
Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1862), p. 26; J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and
Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow,
1902), p. 97. Probably the disease was supposed to be buried with
the cock in the ground. The ancient Hindoos imagined that epilepsy
was caused by a dog-demon. When a boy fell down in a fit, his father
or other competent person used to wrap the sufferer in a net, and
carry him into the hall, not through the door, but through an
opening made for the purpose in the roof. Then taking up some earth
in the middle of the hall, at the place where people gambled, he
sprinkled the spot with water, cast dice on it, and laid the boy on
his back on the dice. After that he prayed to the dog-demon, saying,
“Doggy, let him loose! Reverence be to thee, barker, bender! Doggy,
let him loose! Reverence be to thee, barker, bender!” See _The
Grihya Sutras_, translated by H. Oldenberg, Part i. (Oxford, 1886)
pp. 296 _sq._; _id._ Part ii. (Oxford, 1892) pp. 219 _sq._, 286
_sq._ (_Sacred Books of the East_, vols. xxix. and xxx.). Apparently
the place where people gambled was for some reason supposed to be a
spot where an epileptic could divest himself most readily of his
malady. But the connexion of thought is obscure.
234 The analogy of the Roman custom to modern superstitious practices
has been rightly pointed out by Mr. E. S. Hartland (_Folk-lore_, iv.
(1893) pp. 457, 464; _Legend of Perseus_, ii. 188), but I am unable
to accept his general explanation of these and some other practices
as modes of communion with a divinity.
M49 Knocking nails into idols as a means of attracting the attention of
the deity or spirit.
235 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_ (Jena,
1874-1875), ii. 176.
236 A. Bastian, _op. cit._ ii. 175-178. Compare Father Campana, “Congo,
Mission Catholique de Landana,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxvii.
(1895) p. 93; _Notes Analytiques sur les Collections Ethnographiques
du Musée du Congo_, i. (Brussels, 1902-1906) pp. 153, 246; B. H.
Mullen, “Fetishes from Landana, South-West Africa,” _Man_, v. (1905)
pp. 102-104; R. E. Dennett, “Bavili Notes,” _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905)
pp. 382 _sqq._; _id._, _At the Back of the Black Man’s Mind_
(London, 1906), pp. 85 _sqq._, 91 _sqq._ The Ethnological Museum at
Berlin possesses a number of rude images from Loango and Congo,
which are thickly studded with nails hammered into their bodies. The
intention of the custom, as explained to me by Professor von
Luschan, is to pain the fetish and so to refresh his memory, lest he
should forget to do his duty.
237 Sir John Rhys, “Celtae and Galli,” _Proceedings of the British
Academy_, ii. (1905-1906) pp. 114 _sq._
238 Lafcadio Hearn, _Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan_ (London, 1894), ii.
598 _sq._, note.
M50 Two different spiritual applications of nails or pins.
M51 Attempts to get rid of the accumulated sorrows of a whole people.
M52 Sorrows conceived of as the work of demons.
M53 Primitive belief in the omnipresence of demons.
M54 Demons in Australia and West Africa.
239 A. Oldfield, “The Aborigines of Australia,” _Transactions of the
Ethnological Society of London_, N.S., iii. (1865) p. 228.
240 J. Büttikoffer, “Einiges über die Eingebornen von Liberia,”
_Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, i. (1888) p. 85.
241 Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897) pp. 442
_sq._
242 G. Zündel, “Land und Volk der Eweer auf der Sclavenküste in
Westafrika,” _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin_,
xii. (1877) pp. 412-414. Full details as to the religious creed of
the Ewes, including their belief in a Supreme Being (_Mawu_), are
given, to a great extent in the words of the natives themselves, by
the German missionary Jakob Spieth in his elaborate and valuable
works _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906) and _Die Religion der Eweer in
Süd-Togo_ (Leipsic, 1911). As to _Mawu_ in particular, the meaning
of whose name is somewhat uncertain, see J. Spieth, _Die
Ewe-Stämme_, pp. 421 _sqq._; _Die Religion der Eweer in Süd-Togo_,
pp. 15 _sqq._
M55 Demons on the Congo. Demons in South Africa.
243 Rev. J. H. Weeks, “Anthropological Notes on the Bangala of the Upper
Congo River,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xl.
(1910) p. 377.
244 Rev. John H. Weeks, _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), p. 261.
245 Rev. J. H. Weeks, “Anthropological Notes on the Bangala of the Upper
Congo River,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xl.
(1910) pp. 368, 370. The singular form of _mingoli_ is _mongoli_, “a
disembodied spirit.” Compare _id._, _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London,
1913), p. 252; and again _ibid._ p. 275. But great as is the fear of
evil spirits among the natives of the Congo, their dread of
witchcraft seems to be still more intense. See Rev. J. H. Weeks,
“Notes on some Customs of the Lower Congo People,” _Folk-lore_, xx.
(1909) pp. 51 _sq._: “The belief in witchcraft affects their lives
in a vast number of ways, and touches them socially at a hundred
different points. It regulates their actions, modifies their mode of
thought and speech, controls their conduct towards each other,
causes cruelty and callousness in a people not naturally cruel, and
sets the various members of a family against each other. A man may
believe any theory he likes about creation, about God, and about the
abode of departed spirits, but he must believe in witches and their
influence for evil, and must in unmistakable terms give expression
to that belief, or be accused of witchcraft himself.... But for
witchcraft no one would die, and the earnest longing of all
right-minded men and women is to clear it out of the country by
killing every discovered witch. It is an act of
self-preservation.... Belief in witches is interwoved into the very
fibre of every Bantu-speaking man and woman, and the person who does
not believe in them is a monster, a witch, to be killed as soon as
possible.” Could we weigh against each other the two great terrors
which beset the minds of savages all over the world, it seems
probable that the dread of witches would be found far to outweigh
the dread of evil spirits. However, it is the fear of evil spirits
with which we are at present concerned.
246 G. McCall Theal, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. (1901) pp.
405 _sq._
247 On this subject Mr. Dudley Kidd has made some judicious observations
(_Savage Childhood_, London, 1906, pp. 131 _sq._). He says: “The
Kafirs certainly do not live in everlasting dread of spirits, for
the chief part of their life is not spent in thinking at all. A
merrier set of people it would be hard to find. They are so
easy-going that it would seem to them too much burden to be for ever
thinking of spirits.”
M56 Demons in South America.
248 (Sir) E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_. (London, 1883),
pp. 356 _sq._ As to the dread which the Brazilian Indians entertain
of demons, see J. B. von Spix and C. F. Ph. von Martius, _Reise in
Brasilien_ (Munich, 1823-1831), iii. 1108-1111.
249 W. Barbrooke Grubb, _An Unknown People in an Unknown Land_ (London,
1911), pp. 118, 119.
M57 Demons in Labrador.
250 L. M. Turner, “Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay
Territory,” _Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_
(Washington, 1894), pp. 193 _sq._
M58 Demons in Polynesia. Demons in New Zealand.
251 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London,
1832-1836), i. 331.
252 W. Ellis, _op. cit._ i. 406.
_ 253 The Voyages of Captain James Cook round the World_ (London, 1809),
vi. 152.
254 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_,
Second Edition (London, 1870), p. 104.
M59 Demons in the Pelew Islands.
255 J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus
Volks- und Menschenkunde_ (Berlin, 1888), i. 46.
256 J. Kubary, “Die Bewohner der Mortlock-Inseln,” _Mittheilungen der
geographischen Gesellschaft in Hamburg_, 1878-79, p. 36.
M60 Demons in the Philippines and in Melanesia.
257 W. A. Reed, _Negritos of Zambales_ (Manilla, 1904), p. 65
(_Ethnological Survey Publications_, vol. ii. Part i.).
258 Mgr. Couppé “En Nouvelle-Poméranie,” _Les Missions Catholiques_,
xxiii. (1891) pp. 355 _sq._
259 P. A. Kleintitschen, _Die Küstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel_
(Hiltrup bei Münster, preface dated 1906), pp. 336 _sq._ Compare
Joachim Graf Pfeil, _Studien und Beobachtungen aus der Südsee_
(Brunswick, 1899), p. 159; _id._, in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxvii. (1898) pp. 183 _sq._
260 R. Parkinson, _Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee_ (Stuttgart, 1907), pp.
120, 121.
M61 Demons in Dutch New Guinea and German New Guinea.
261 J. L. van Hasselt, “Die Papuastämme an der Geelvinkbai
(Neu-guinea),” _Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu
Jena_, ix. (1891) p. 98. As to Mr. van Hasselt’s twenty-five years’
residence among these savages, see _id._, p. 22.
262 Stefan Lehner, “Bukaua,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.
(Berlin, 1911) pp. 414-416.
M62 Demons in British New Guinea.
263 W. G. Lawes, “Notes on New Guinea and its Inhabitants,” _Proceedings
of the Royal Geographical Society_, 1880, p. 615.
M63 Demons in Timor and Celebes.
264 J. G. F. Riedel, “Die Landschaft Dawan oder West-Timor,” _Deutsche
geographische Blätter_, x. 278 _sq._
265 G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoëvell, _Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de
Oeliasers_ (Dordrecht, 1875), p. 148.
266 N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, “Het heidendom en de Islam in Bolaang
Mongondou,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xi. (1867) p. 259.
M64 Demons in Bali and Java.
267 R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch Indië_, August, 1880, p. 83.
268 S. E. Harthoorn, “De Zending op Java en meer bepaald die van
Malang,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, iv. (1860) pp. 116 _sq._
M65 Demons in Borneo and Sumatra.
269 C. A. L. M. Schwaner, _Borneo, Beschrijving van het stroomgebied van
den Barito_ (Amsterdam, 1853-54), i. 176.
270 J. B. Neumann, “Het Pane- en Bila-stroomgebied,” _Tijdschrift van
het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, iii.
Afdeeling, meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2 (Amsterdam, 1886), p.
287.
271 B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” _Tijdschrift
voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxviii. (1883) p. 508.
The persons of the Batta Trinity are Bataraguru, Sori, and
Balabulan. The most fundamental distinction between the persons of
the Trinity appears to be that one of them is allowed to eat pork,
while the others are not (_ibid._ p. 505).
272 M. Joustra, “Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,”
_Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_,
xlvi. (1902) p. 412.
M66 Demons in the Nicobars, in the Malay Peninsula, and in Kamtchatka..
_ 273 The Census of India, 1901_, vol. iii. _The Andaman and Nicobar
Islands_, by Lieut.-Colonel Sir Richard C. Temple (Calcutta, 1903),
p. 206.
274 Borie, “Notice sur les Mantras, tribu sauvage de la péninsule
Malaise,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, x.
(1860) p. 434.
275 S. Krascheninnikow, _Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka_ (Lemgo,
1766), p. 215.
M67 Demons in India. The high gods come and go, but demons remain.