METHODS OF PREPARING SECTIONS.[124]
The methods described will be those used in making rock sections. The
general principles involved are the same for both rock and crystal
sections; although more difficulties are encountered in making the
latter, due to the sections being required in some definite direction or
of some precise thickness, or on account of the possibly fragile or
brittle character of the crystals.
In the case of rock sections any section, taken “at will” through the
rock, will generally do.
Cutting and Grinding Machines.[125]
Many different kinds are used, the power being furnished by steam,
electric motor[126] or by the hand or foot.
The chip or fragment of rock to be sliced should be comparatively small
in size, and may be cut by either a vertical diamond saw or by a
horizontal emery-disc. The fragment is held in position by suitable
guides. The moistened emery can be kept in the tray and fed to the disc
by a spoon or some other device. Diamond saws are only needed in the
case of hard rocks.
For cutting sections of crystals in definite directions a form of small
hand apparatus[127] is shown in Fig. 76.
This cut shows how the plate, to which the crystal is cemented, can be
given definite rotation in two directions. The simpler crystal holder,
appearing loose on the stand, may be used when a section is required
parallel to the face of the crystal cemented to the holder.
In these machines the cutting is done with rotating saws of sheet-tin,
usually charged with either diamond dust or emery.
[Illustration:
FIG. 76.
]
In the case of a very small crystal a section, parallel to any desired
face, can be obtained by cementing this face to a suitable frame or
holder and grinding down by hand on a glass plate with emery, the final
polish being given with rouge. When the section required is not parallel
to a crystallographic face or cleavage it must be verified geometrically
with reference to other faces. If the crystals are soluble in water,
some other liquid, as α bromnaphthalin or benzine, must be used in
grinding; and very fragile crystals are rubbed down on a ground glass
plate without emery or rouge, simply using bromnaphthalin or some other
appropriate liquid.
When sections of a crystal are desired with strictly parallel faces, the
form of grinding apparatus shown in Fig. 77 can be used.
This apparatus consists of a cylinder, held within a suitable frame
supported on three set-screws, _a_{1}_, _a_{2}_ and _a_{3}_, of hard
steel. The lower surface of the frame and consequently the bottom of the
cylinder can be adjusted by the wedge _k_ and the set-screws so that it
is exactly parallel to the grinding surface of the glass plate. The
crystal to be ground down, _p_, is cemented to the bottom of the
cylinder, and the whole apparatus rubbed over the grinding surface of
the plate. The pressure of the hand on the upper part of the cylinder
regulates the pressure of the crystal on the grinding surface. In this
way a surface is obtained which is exactly parallel to the surface
cemented to the cylinder.
[Illustration:
FIG. 77.
]
Sections of definite thickness can also be obtained by using this
apparatus; for the adjustments with the wedge _k_ may be so arranged
that, when the stop _t_ in the cylinder has reached the bottom of the
slot in the frame, the lower surface of the cylinder will be the
required distance from the grinding surface of the glass plate. The
wedge is graduated so that the value of one division on the sloping top
is known in _mm._ of vertical distance.
Saws.
Saws,[128] of about six inches in diameter made from ¹⁄₃₆ inch
sheet-tin, are convenient for general work, and may be charged with
diamond dust by the operator as follows:[129] Crush one or two carats of
rough crystals of diamond-bort in a small steel mortar to about the
condition of fine sand, care being taken not to reduce the diamond to
powder. Transfer the dust to a piece of flat iron and, after collecting
it in a heap, moisten with a drop of oil. The cutting edge of the tin
disk must now be prepared by making a series of incisions (¹⁄₁₆ inch
deep) on the outer margin. This can be done by striking the disk with a
sharp, thin knife edge. The larger the number of incisions and the
closer they are together the better. Charging the saw is accomplished by
gently hammering the edge against the iron plate, upon which is the
paste of diamond dust and oil. The disk must be slowly rotated during
this charging process, which should be continued until all portions of
the edge have been gone over two or three times.
Instead of charging with diamond dust the saws may be used with emery.
The edges of the saws should first be “upset,” as just described, and
then while rotating charged with emery. The emery in the state of mud
can be applied with the thumb and fingers, or the saw can be allowed to
pass through a tray of emery mud. The finer grades of emery (Nos. 100 to
120) should be used.
The method of mounting saws, of course, depends on the way the saws and
spindles are constructed. It is well, however, to have the hole in the
center of the saw-disk sufficiently large to allow of adjustment for
accurate centering.
Cutting.
During the process of cutting a lubricant must be used on the saw.
Petroleum has been recommended by some, but water seems to be the most
used. Holding a piece of soap against the cutting edge will also reduce
friction. It is convenient to carry the water to the saw through a very
small lead pipe, which permits of easy adjustment, so that the water can
be delivered at just the right spot, the flow of water, of course, being
regulated by a stop-cock.
Another method for cutting sections is used by the U. S. Geological
Survey at Washington, D. C. The apparatus consists of an endless wire of
soft iron, about ³⁄₃₂ inch in diameter, revolving over two pulleys or
wheels, one of which is driven by steam-power. The wire is charged by
dipping the fingers in water, taking up a little fine (120 grade) emery
and holding the fingers against the wire above the section. The wire
revolves so as to cut downwards, thus carrying with it the emery taken
from the fingers.
In cutting sections the thickness, of course, depends on the character
of the rock; the more porous and fragile the rock the thicker the
section should be made, an ordinary section being about as thick as a
silver quarter of a dollar.
Very often by skill and practice a suitably shaped chip or fragment can
be detached from the specimen with a hammer or with a hammer and
cleavage chisels, thus avoiding the delay and trouble involved in the
use of the section cutter.
Grinding Plates or Laps.
Copper laps, about 7–8 inches in diameter and ½ inch thick, seem to be
best for general purposes; although laps made of lead or cast iron are
also used. A lead lap, being soft, holds the emery well and thus hastens
the grinding away of the section; but at the same time its own smooth
surface is soon destroyed. A cast iron lap is much harder and retains
its smooth surface better, but does not hold the emery so well and
therefore retards the process of grinding. Copper, being intermediate in
hardness between lead and iron, seems to combine the advantages of both.
It is always good practice to have at least two laps, one for the
preliminary grinding with coarse emery and the other for the final
grinding with the finest grades of emery. In this way one lap is always
kept with a smooth surface, making it possible to give a uniform, plane
finish to the section.
The surface of the laps should not be exactly plane, but turned or
finished so as to be a little higher (¹⁄₃₂ of an inch for diameter of 8
inches) at the axis than at the periphery; the idea being to compensate
for the more rapid abrasive action towards the periphery.
Cementing.
For grinding down to a proper thinness for transparency it is necessary
to _cement_ the fragment of rock to a holder, which consists of a small
piece of plate-glass about ⅛ inch thick. If the piece of rock has been
cut by a good diamond saw the surface will be comparatively smooth and
uniform, and may only need polishing (described under _grinding_) before
cementing. When, however, the piece of rock is in the shape of a chip or
rough fragment it is first necessary to prepare a smooth ground surface
on one side (described under _grinding_) before it can be cemented to
the glass holder.
The pieces of plate-glass used should be free from flaws, bubbles or
anything tending to destroy uniformity of surface, and should be a
little larger than the chips and slices of rock for which they are to
act as holders. Hardened Canada balsam, or better yet, a cement made of
a mixture of shellac and Venice turpentine,[130] should be used.
The process of cementing is carried on as follows: Heat the glass
support over an alcohol lamp or a Bunsen burner, place it on a good
non-conductor of heat, as a piece of wood, and rub it with a stick of
the cement until a sufficient quantity has been melted off. The piece of
rock should then be treated in the same manner, applying the cement to
the smooth finished portion. Care must be taken that neither the glass
nor rock preparation are heated too much, as this would cause the cement
to smoke or bubble. After placing the rock preparation and plate
together, use quite a little pressure in order to drive out all
superfluous cement. Examine now, through the glass, the contact surface
and see that it is entirely free from bubbles, etc.
Bubbles are usually caused by overheating of the parts before cementing.
If only very few bubbles are seen, they may generally be removed by
moving the rock preparation rapidly back and forth over the glass plate.
If the bubbles are numerous or cannot be removed in the manner just
described, the rock preparation must be separated from the glass plate
and the cementing done over again.
Bubbles must _not_ be allowed to remain, as the portions of the rock
over them, not having any cement backing, are ground away leaving holes
in the section.
Grinding.
After the rock preparation has been cemented to its glass holder it is
ready for the grinding process, for which are used horizontal laps,
mounted on a vertical spindle in the tray _T_, Fig. 76. The copper lap
for the first grinding is put in place, and, after it has commenced to
rotate, is charged with emery and water. This can conveniently be done
by dropping on the emery and water, either with the fingers or with a
small bunch of rags at the end of a stick. A large camel’s hair brush
may be used for putting on the finest emery. The emery is distributed
over the rotating lap by the motion of the rock preparation during
grinding. The kind of emery used for this first grinding depends
somewhat on the character of the rock section. If the section is
composed of a hard, compact, fine grained rock, the first emery used may
be quite coarse; the coarser the emery the more rapid being the grinding
down. For rough, quick work, Nos. 80 to 100 emery can be used until the
section becomes quite thin; then, still using the same lap, substitute
the finest corn emery (next coarsest to flour emery) and continue
grinding until the section becomes quite translucent. The lap must then
be changed, and the grinding finished with the finest emery dust.
Too great care cannot be given to cleanliness while doing this sort of
work. A single grain of coarse emery, getting on the lap or section
during the final grinding, will often spoil the whole work by making a
bad scratch. In grinding down the section, great care must be taken to
see that the grinding surface is kept parallel to the surface cemented
to the glass. The section is firmly pressed against the lap by means of
two or three fingers, depending on its size, and uniform pressure should
be maintained over all parts.
The section should be examined frequently, and if it is noticed that one
part is thicker than another, place the section on the lap so that the
thicker part is towards the periphery, and put a little more pressure
upon this part. Gutting or grooving the copper laps is prevented by
moving the section from center to periphery and back, at the same time
giving to it a slight rotary motion. It is best to have the lap revolve
from right to left (in the opposite way from the hands of a watch), as,
holding the section on the right side of the lap, it is easier to keep
it in place by a pulling motion rather than by pushing it against the
motion of the lap. In the final stages of grinding and polishing great
precaution must be exercised, as one or two turns too many of the lap
will often tear away a large part of the very thin section. The section
should be frequently examined, by transmitted light, with a small, low
power microscope, a drop of water or oil being put on the section to
render it more transparent. If the section is thick and fastened to the
plate-glass with a good deal of cement, it will be found convenient,
after the section has been ground quite thin, to remove most of this
cement from around its edges. If this is not done, it may delay the
final work of grinding down. A good rock section should be made so thin
that all the transparent and translucent component minerals can be
examined and studied. Well made rock sections average in thickness from
0.03 to 0.05 _mm._ The last part of the final grinding and polishing can
be done by the hand on a ground glass plate, using the finest emery dust
or rouge and water.
Flour emery may also be used entirely for grinding, and the finest emery
dust for polishing. The finer emery makes better work, although it takes
more time, and is much safer for porous or brittle sections, as the
danger of tearing away pieces of the section is avoided. In the case of
a porous or decomposed rock it is well before grinding to boil the
section in Canada balsam or other equivalent material so as to fill all
the pores and interstices, thus making the section more compact and less
liable to chip away. Sometimes it may even be best before grinding to
mount the section on its permanent glass slide, so that when it has been
ground thin enough the cover can be put on without running any risk in
transferring the section. The only objection is that the glass slide may
be a little scratched by the emery.
Mounting.
When the section is sufficiently thin and has a smooth uniform surface
it is ready to be transferred and mounted upon its permanent glass
slide. The glass plate, which has held the section during the grinding,
is gently heated, and, as soon as the cement begins to soften, the
section is very gently pushed off into a shallow cup or evaporating dish
containing turpentine or alcohol. Turpentine is convenient for general
use, because common alcohol (on account of the water it contains) unites
with the shellac to form a kind of white pasty substance, which is
sometimes hard to remove from the section. The section should be
carefully cleaned in the turpentine or alcohol bath by means of fine
camel’s hair brushes. A section-lifter, made from a piece of broad, flat
watch-spring fastened to a small handle, is then gently placed under the
section, which is lifted out of the bath in an inclined position so as
to allow the liquid to drain off. If a drop still adheres it can be
removed by touching it gently with the finger.
The section is now placed in a tray, upon a piece of white, unglazed
paper, so that it may thoroughly dry; after which process it is
transferred to a glass slide, and, if necessary, its rough edges chipped
off with a knife.
If the section is very large, and it is desired to mount it in two
pieces, it can easily be divided by holding one half tightly between two
glass slides and gently bending the other half with the fingers. The
fracture will take place along the edges of the glass slides.
A mixture of gum damar and benzole is recommended for mounting, the
claim being made that gum damar does not turn yellow with age, whereas
Canada balsam may do so. Two solutions of gum damar and benzole are
used. One very thin, about the consistency of water, the other quite
thick, about the consistency of mucilage. Both solutions are prepared by
dissolving the gum damar in benzole and filtering through a linen or
silk rag. If the solution is too thin it can be thickened by placing the
bottle in a warm place and allowing the excess of benzole to evaporate,
or if too thick, more benzole can be added. It is convenient to keep the
solutions in short glass bottles, with wide necks and glass covers
instead of corks. The solutions can be applied with glass rods.
When the section is all ready for its final mounting it is carefully
centered with a coarse needle on the glass slide,[131] and a drop of the
thin solution placed at the edge of the section. Capillary attraction
will cause it to flow over the glass slide under the section, and while
it is soft the section can be again adjusted in place. The slide is then
placed in a cool, dust proof place and allowed to stand for about twelve
hours, when the cement will be set and the section held firmly in place.
The upper surface of the section is then washed with a drop of benzine,
and as much as may be necessary of the thick mounting solution placed
upon it with a glass rod. A cover of glass of the right size is gently
heated and placed in position over the section. Care must be taken not
to have the cover too hot, as it would cause bubbles to form in the
cement. It is also best to rest one edge of the cover on the cement
first, and then lower it gently so as to prevent air bubbles from being
included. The cover is adjusted and then held firmly in position by
means of a mounting clamp, which presses out all superfluous cement. If
a few small bubbles remain near the edges they may be let alone, as they
will generally work out by themselves in time. Sometimes a large bubble
can be worked out by local pressure with the finger and gentle heating
with a small iron rod. If the mounting is unsatisfactory the cover
should be removed by heating, the old cement washed off with a camel’s
hair brush and benzole, and a fresh cover put on. After the cement has
set, the clamp may be removed, but the slide should be left for 24
hours, or longer if necessary, until the cement is quite hard. This
takes longer in hot than in cold weather.
The advantage of using two solutions for mounting is that the section is
firmly held in place on the glass slide while the cover is being placed
over it; there is thus no slipping or sliding of the section, and when
the cover is adjusted in place the work is well finished and the section
still in the centre of the slide.
Canada balsam, or balsam in xylol, are also often used for mounting. The
advantage of the latter being its quick drying or “setting.”
Cleaning and Finishing.
When the cement has set the superfluous part is singed by means of a
small hot iron rod. Care must be taken not to use too large a rod or to
have it too hot, as the cement under the cover might then soften and
allow the cover to slip or air bubbles to form. The singeing drives off
the more volatile part of the cement, leaving only a brittle residue,
which can be easily scraped off with a knife. In some cases it may be
necessary to singe and scrape twice. The final cleaning is done with a
soft rag and benzole. The slides are now ready to be marked, either with
a diamond pencil or with pasted labels.
Convenient Apparatus for Work in a Petrographical Laboratory:
Section lifters made of watch springs, three sizes.
Section holders or clamps for pressing out superfluous cement.
Needle points mounted in light handles.
Easy spring forceps.
Mounting frame for centering section on glass slide.
Small iron rod for singeing.
Small camel’s hair brushes.
Cutting pliers and forceps.
Set of wooden section trays.
Glass stopper bottles for benzole, benzine, turpentine and alcohol.
Open neck bottles, with covers for two mounting liquids.
Rotating mounting stand.
Small microscope for testing transparency of section.
Glass rods.
Small squares and rectangles of plate-glass.
Round, oval and square cover-glasses.
Glass slides with ground edges.