fill with cold water; wash the hands in hot soapy water, then rinse
them in cold water, as this will prevent the butter from sticking to
the hands. Turn the cold water out of the bowl; fill it with ice
water, put the butter into it and work with the hands until soft and
elastic. Drain the water from the butter and place on ice until hard.
Sift the flour, put 1/4 of the butter into the flour, cut with a knife
or chopping knife until thoroughly mixed; then gradually add ice water
until it is moist enough to hold together, turn out on the board or
marble slab. Press into shape, roll lightly until about 1/4 inch
thick; cut the remainder of the butter into small pieces, and lay over
this layer of dough. Fold carefully over and over, roll three times.
If the dough should get soft and sticky, place it in a tin or cold
plate on the ice to harden between the rollings. Always fold pastry so
as to keep it in layers--even when cutting off the roll keep the
layers one above the other, not turning them on their sides. For
patties, or especially flaky pastry, roll five or six times, provided
it is not allowed to get soft. Pastry should be rolled about as thin
as the edge of a plate for tarts, etc., and about 1/3 inch thick for a
cover for chicken pie.
PLAIN PASTRY.
2 cups flour.
1 cup butter or lard.
Add the butter to the flour, chop with a knife, add enough ice water
to make a firm dough. Roll out, fold, set on ice or in a cold place
for at least 1/2 hour before baking.
PASTE FOR MEAT PIES, ETC.
1 pint flour.
1/2 tsp. soda.
1 tsp. cream tartar
Or 2 level tsps. baking powder.
1 egg.
1/2 tsp. salt.
1 tsp. cream tartar.
1/4 cup butter or dripping.
1 cup milk.
Mix as for biscuit or shortcake.
* * * * *
MISCELLANEOUS.
SHEPHERD'S PIE.
Three cups of any kind of cold meat, 6 or 7 potatoes, 1 small onion, 1
cupful of boiling milk, salt, pepper, 1-1/2 cup gravy or stock
thickened with 1 tbsp. of flour. Cut the meat in small pieces and put
in a deep earthen dish. Grate the onion into the gravy and pour over
the meat. Pare, boil, and mash the potatoes. Add the salt, pepper and
milk, and 1 tbsp. of butter or dripping. Cover the meat with this and
bake in a moderate oven until nicely brown.
BEEF STEW.
Take the bones and hard tough parts left from a roast of beef. Remove
all the meat from the bones and cut it into small pieces. Cut about
1/4 of a lb. of the fat into pieces; put it in the stew-pan to fry.
When it begins to brown put in 1/2 carrot, a piece of turnip and 2
small onions cut fine. Stir over the fire for 10 minutes. Take out the
fat and vegetables and put the bones in the bottom of the kettle. Add
the meat and cooked vegetables, but not the fat. Dredge with salt and
pepper, and flour, using at least 1/2 cup flour. Add 3 pints of water
and simmer gently 1 hour; pare and cut in slices 6 potatoes, simmer
until the potatoes are well cooked. Draw forward where it will boil
more rapidly, have dough ready for dumplings (see recipe for
dumplings). Put the dumplings on the top of the stew; cover closely
and cook just 10 minutes.
STUFFED TOMATOES.
Take 6 large smooth tomatoes, 1/2 tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. pepper, 1/2
tbsp. butter, 1/2 tbsp. sugar, 1/2 tsp. onion juice, 1/2 cupful bread
crumbs. Arrange the tomatoes in a baking pan. Cut a thin slice from
the smooth end of each. With a small spoon scoop out as much of the
pulp and juice as possible without injuring the shape. Mix the pulp
and juice with the other ingredients and fill the tomatoes with this
mixture. Put on the tops and bake slowly 3/4 of an hour. Lift the
tomatoes carefully and place on a hot flat dish, garnish with parsley,
and serve.
STEWED KIDNEYS.
Cut the kidneys in thin, round slices. Cover them with cold water and
let them stand for 1/2 hour; wash them clean, and put them in a
saucepan with 1 qt. of water or stock, 2 cloves, 2 tbsps. of onion
juice, salt and pepper. Simmer 2 hours. Put 1 tbsp. of butter in the
frying pan, and when hot add 1 of flour; stir until it is brown and
smooth, and add to the kidneys. Add a little sweet herbs, and simmer
1/2 hour longer. If not seasoned enough, add a little more salt and
pepper, and, if desired, 1 tbsp. of lemon juice. This dish can be
prepared at any time, as it is quite as good warmed over as when it is
prepared.
CREAMED EGGS.
Boil 6 eggs 20 minutes. Make 1 pint of cream sauce. Have 6 slices of
toast on a hot dish. Put a layer of sauce on each slice of toast, then
part of the whites of the eggs, cut in thin strips, rub part of the
yolks through a sieve, or a potato ricer, on to the toast. Repeat
this, and finish with a third layer of sauce. Place in the oven for
about 3 minutes, then serve.
BUTTERED TOAST.
Cut the bread 1/3 of an inch thick. Turn the bread twice (so as to
draw out the moisture) before browning. Have some melted butter on a
plate, dip one side of the toast in this before serving.
CROUTONS (FOR SOUP).
Cut stale bread into 1/2 inch slices, remove the crust and cut into
1/2 inch cubes. Drop them into hot fat, which should be hot enough to
brown them, while you count 40; drain and sprinkle with salt.
FRENCH TOAST.
1 egg.
1 cup milk.
1 ssp. salt.
4 to 6 slices of stale bread.
Beat the egg lightly with a fork in a shallow dish, add the salt and
milk. Dip the bread in this, turn; have a griddle hot and well
buttered, put the dipped bread on the hot griddle, brown, then put a
little piece of butter on the top of each slice, turn and brown on the
other side. To be eaten hot with jelly or with butter and sugar.
SANDWICHES.
Chop very fine cold ham, corned beef or tongue, adding a little of the
fat. Mix 1 tsp. of dry mustard, 1 ssp. of salt, a few drops of lemon
juice with cold water to a stiff paste; add to it 1/4 cup butter
creamed. Cut bread--at least 1 day old--in very thin slices, spread
with the mustard and butter paste, then with the meat. Put two slices
together and cut into any shape desired. (Chicken or veal sandwiches
may be made by chopping the meat very fine, and adding to it a little
of the cooked salad dressing or mayonnaise.)
* * * * *
A FEW GENERAL HINTS.
HOW TO BLANCH ALMONDS.
Shell the nuts, and pour boiling water over them; let them stand in
the water a minute or two and then throw them into cold water. Rub
between the hands.
TO CLEAN CURRANTS.
Sprinkle thickly with flour, rub well until they are separated and the
flour, grit, and fine stems have loosened. Throw them into a strainer
and wash thoroughly in cold water; change the water often; shake well
in the strainer; then drain between towels, pick over carefully, and
dry them in a warm place, but not in the oven. Put away in jars, cover
closely, and they are ready for use at any time.
SERVING FOOD.
Hot food should be served hot, and on hot plates. Cold food should be
served very cold. A little garnish of parsley, hard-boiled egg, sliced
lemon, toast, watercress or centre of a lettuce head adds much to the
attractiveness of a dish. Small rolls, a square of bread, or croutons
should be served with soup. Sliced lemon with fish. Cold beets,
carrots, turnips, and the whites of hard-boiled eggs, stamped out with
a fancy vegetable cutter, make a pretty garnish for cold meats. Toast
cut into triangles makes a suitable garnish for many dishes.
Whipped cream is the most delicate garnish for all cold, light
puddings; a little coloring may be added to part of it in order to
vary the decoration.
CANNING AND PRESERVING.
Canning fruit is simply sterilizing and sealing in air-tight jars. Any
fresh ripe fruit may be kept in this way. By observing a few general
rules any housekeeper may preserve fruit successfully. 1st. Have good
fruit, ripe and fresh. 2nd. Have air-tight jars--test by filling with
water and inverting. 3rd. See that the jars have been well scalded and
are free from odor of any kind. 4th. Have rims and covers at hand so
that the jars may be sealed immediately when the fruit is put into
them. 5th. Fill the jars till they overflow. 6th. Let the syrup simmer
for a few minutes before putting in the fruit. 7th. Cook the fruit
slowly so as to avoid breaking; place carefully in the jars, fill up
with syrup and seal at once. A good method for canning fruit is to
cook the fruit in the jars, by placing them in a boiler or kettle of
water with a wire frame or something underneath to avoid breaking.
Fill the jar with fruit; pour over a syrup of the desired consistency,
screw on the top loosely--so as to allow the gas to escape--and place
in the boiler; fill the boiler with cold water up to the rim of the
jar and bring slowly to boiling point. Allow small fruits to remain 10
minutes, and peaches, pears, etc., 15 minutes after the water boils.
Remove the tops, fill to overflowing with boiling syrup, and seal at
once. By this method fruit retains the flavor somewhat more than by
cooking in an open kettle. An average syrup for canning fruit is made
by adding a pound of sugar to a pint of water (see rule 6). In order
to prevent fruit jars from cracking, wring a cloth out of cold water
on which the jar should be placed before filling with the hot fruit,
or by placing a silver spoon or fork in the jar before putting in the
syrup, fruit or jelly. Always see that the tops are screwed on
tightly before putting the jar away in a cool place, which should not
be done until the fruit has become cold.
PRESERVING.
Preserving differs from canning in the amount of sugar used; otherwise
the method is similar. Preserves are usually made from equal weights
of sugar and fruit, and cooked at least 20 minutes.
JELLIES.
Fruit jellies are made of equal parts of clear fruit juice and sugar.
Crab apples, currants, and quinces are the most reliable fruits for
jelly. Cook the fruit--currants may be mashed and drained without
cooking--until soft. Drain over night through a flannel bag. In the
morning measure 1 pint of sugar for each pint of juice. Heat the sugar
in a large earthen bowl in the oven, stirring often to prevent
burning. Let the juice boil 20 minutes; then add the hot sugar and
boil about 5 minutes longer, or until it thickens when dropped from a
spoon.
* * * * *
SUGGESTIONS FOR YOUNG HOUSEKEEPERS.
Carefully supervise the daily dietary so that a reasonable proportion
of the necessary food elements may be provided. See that the
proportion of proteid is one part to four of carbohydrates and fats.
Adapt the dietary to the season and climate. Do not waste time and
money in preparing rich puddings, entrees, cakes, etc., when fresh
fruit, vegetables, salads, etc., are so much more nutritious,
economical and convenient. Arrange to have a variety of
food--different kinds of meat, fish, and poultry--cooked in various
ways. See that suitable food is provided for the children; especially
pure milk and food containing mineral salts. Do not allow children to
use tea, coffee, or other stimulants. A glass of hot milk (not boiled)
is the best stimulant for a child when wearied with study or over
exertion of any kind.
See that the water which has stood in the pipes over night is drawn
before filling the tea-kettle for breakfast, or using the water for
porridge or other purposes. Rinse the tea-kettle every morning before
using. Never use water from the hot tank for cooking. See that the
water used for drinking purposes is pure; if suspicious, either have
it filtered or boiled before using. Do not allow soiled rags, dish
cloths or towels to lie around the kitchen. Wash and scald the dish
cloths and towels after each dish washing, hanging them outside to
dry--if possible. Keep plenty of clean towels; some fine ones for
glass and china, coarser ones for general use. Have special cloths for
kitchen use. Keep a holder within reach of the oven so as to avoid
burning the fingers, or using an apron. See that a kettleful of
boiling water is poured down the sink pipes every day.
All boxes, jars and shelves in which food is kept, must be kept
scrupulously clean and well aired. The refrigerator requires special
attention; see that the drain pipe and interior of ice-box are kept
thoroughly clean. A stiff wire with a piece of cloth fastened on the
end may be used to clean the drain pipe at least once a week. Do not
have any closet under the sink or places of concealment for dirty pots
and pans. Bowls which have been used for flour mixtures should be
filled with cold water if not washed immediately after using. Never
put kitchen knives and forks into the dish water, as it loosens the
handles; hold them in the hand and wash with the dish cloth. Burn all
refuse, both for convenience and as a sanitary measure. If a refuse
pail is used, it should be scalded frequently and a solution of
carbolic acid, chloride of lime or other disinfectant used. Do not put
pans and kettles half filled with water on the stove to soak, as it
only hardens whatever may have adhered to the kettle and makes it more
difficult to clean.
DISH WASHING.
Many young housekeepers look upon dish washing as the "bug-bear" of
the kitchen. It need not be disagreeable work; indeed the washing of
china, glass and silver ware may be placed among the arts of
housekeeping. It should be the ambition of every young housekeeper to
know how everything pertaining to household management should be done,
and how to do it; whether she has to do it herself or direct others.
One of the most important duties is dish-washing. A few simple rules
may help to make this duty less objectionable. 1. Collect knives,
forks and spoons by themselves. Scrape the dishes, empty the cups, and
arrange neatly in the order in which they are to be washed. 2. Never
pile dishes indiscriminately in a dish pan, as each kind requires
separate treatment. 3. Have two pans half full of water; one with
soapy water, the other with clear hot water for rinsing. 4. Wash the
glassware first, in moderately hot water, slip the glasses in sideways
so that the hot water may strike inside and outside at once, which
will prevent breaking. Rinse and wipe at once, as they will be much
brighter and clearer than if allowed to drain. 5. If the glass is cut,
use a brush to cleanse out all the grooves. As it is difficult to dry
such glassware, it should be dipped in clear cold water after washing,
and allowed to drain. 6. Always keep the towel between the hands and
the glass so as to avoid finger marks. Rinse glasses which have
contained milk in cold water before washing. 7. Next wash the silver
and wipe at once; then the china, first in the hot suds, then rinse in
the clear hot water; wipe while warm. 8. Change dish water often,
especially if the dishes are greasy; and do not leave the soap in the
water to waste and stick to the dishes. 9. Use fresh water for the
kitchen crockery, and pots and pans. After wiping tinware, place it on
the hearth to dry, as it rusts very easily. 10. Polish the knives with
bathbrick, wood ashes or sandsoap. Wash, and wipe perfectly dry; hold
in the hand and wash with the dish cloth; do not under any
circumstances allow knives and forks to lie in hot water. Next wash
the tray, the rinsing pan, the table and the sink. Finally, the dish
towels, dish cloth and dish pan.
Pans in which fish or onions have been cooked should be washed and
scalded, then filled with water, in which put a tsp. of soda. Place
them on the top of the stove for 1/2 hour; this will remove the flavor
of fish or onions. If the steel of knives or forks should become
rusted, dip them in sweet oil and let stand for twenty-four hours,
then rub with powdered quick-lime and the stain will be removed. Rub
the ivory handles which have become stained, with whiting and spirits
of turpentine.
VENTILATION AND SANITATION.
As pure air is one of the essentials of good health, it follows that
one of the chief duties of a housekeeper is to see that the family
supply of this necessary element is properly regulated. Very few
housekeepers realize the importance of ventilation in promoting the
general health and comfort of the family. As the scope of this book
prevents anything further than a few suggestions or a brief outline of
the principles underlying these important questions, we will adopt the
rule followed in the preceding chapter, beginning with the cellar: 1.
See that surface water is carried away from all sides, by either
natural or artificial drains, and that the cellar is perfectly dry.
Have enough windows in the cellar to secure plenty of light and air,
and see that they are opened every day. 2. Have the cellar thoroughly
cleaned and whitewashed with lime at least once a year, twice if
possible, in the spring and fall. 3. Keep the coal in a dry place. 4.
Do not allow decomposed vegetables, or old bottles, which may cause
unpleasant odors, to accumulate in the cellar. Unless there is a
special cellar for vegetables, where they may be kept at a proper
temperature and carefully looked after, it is much better for the
housekeeper to purchase in small quantities. Remember the ventilation
of the cellar is of the greatest importance, and should never be
neglected.
One of the most noted authorities in America, on the question of
ventilation, says: "The three important objects are, (1) To provide an
abundance of pure air in every part of the house; (2) To avoid drafts,
either hot or cold; (3) To provide means of escape for foul air and
odors." As before stated, much of the vigor, comfort and happiness of
the family depends upon attention to these matters. Next to the
cellar, we will take the living and sleeping rooms, which should be
thoroughly aired every day, not simply by opening the window a few
inches at the bottom, or--as in some double or outside windows--by a
little opening a few inches wide; but by causing a circulation of air
in the room, and providing an outlet for foul air near the ceiling,
which may be done by lowering the window from the top. An outlet for
foul air is quite as important as an inlet for fresh air.
If there is a skylight at the top of the house, it should be kept open
a few inches all the time as an outlet for impure air; an attic window
will serve the same purpose. Have doors and windows so arranged that a
draft may be made possible when needed to change the air of a room
quickly, or in airing bedclothes; two windows being of course more
desirable. After dressing in the morning, open the window of the
sleeping room, top and bottom; turn back the clothes over one or two
chairs; place pillows and mattress where they will have a current of
fresh air; also open the closet door. Do not allow water to remain in
a bedroom more than twenty-four hours.
When a sleeping room has been used for a sewing or sitting room during
the day, it should be thoroughly aired before bedtime. Open the
bathroom window frequently, top and bottom, for a few minutes, so as
to allow the air to escape out of doors instead of into other parts of
the house. A nursery, sitting room or school room, which has been
occupied by a number of people, should have the windows open, top and
bottom, while the occupants are at meals or elsewhere. A room which
has been occupied as a family sitting room during the evening should
be aired by the last member of the family to retire, in order to
prevent the impure air making its way through the house during the
night.
Special attention should be given to kitchen ventilation. In order to
prevent kitchen odors from penetrating through the other parts of the
house, it is necessary to have an outlet for steam and impure air near
the ceiling in the kitchen. If windows are placed so as to secure a
draft, they may be opened at the top only, when they will serve the
purpose admirably. There should be a ventilating flue in all kitchen
chimneys. In building a house, see that register ventilators are
placed in the kitchen on different walls, which may be closed in very
cold weather.
LAUNDRY WORK.
As the first essential of laundry work is a plentiful supply of water,
a word concerning that necessary article may not be out of place. Pure
water is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen. It has great
absorbent and solvent powers, therefore pure water is seldom found.
The first fall of any shower is mixed with the impurities of the air;
among these may be acids, ammonia and carbon in the form of soot and
creosote. It is these impurities which cause the stain left when rain
water stands on the window-sill or other finished wood. Rain water
absorbs more or less carbon dioxide from various sources, and soaking
into the soil often comes in contact with lime, magnesia and other
compounds. Water saturated with carbon dioxide will dissolve these
substances, forming carbonates or other salts which are soluble; such
water is known as "hard."
Water for domestic uses is called either "hard" or "soft," according
to the amount of salts which it may contain. When soap is added to
hard water, the new compound formed by the union of the lime with the
fatty acid of the soap is insoluble, and is deposited upon the surface
of any article with which it comes in contact. This is the reason why
"hard" water requires more soap when used for laundry work. It is much
better to soften the water by the addition of alkalies, ammonia or
sal-soda before using for laundry purposes than to depend entirely
upon soap for cleansing.
Another important material used in the laundry is soap. In purchasing
soap, it is safer to choose the make of some well-known firm, who have
a reputation to lose if their products are not good; and for anything
stronger than soap, it is better to buy sal-soda and use it knowingly
than to trust to the various packages so extensively advertised.
Washing soda should always be dissolved in a separate vessel, and
added to the water to be used. Ammonia may be used, but its too
frequent use will yellow bleached fabrics. Borax is an effectual
cleanser, disinfectant and bleacher. It is more expensive than ammonia
or soda but is the safest alkali to use. Turpentine is valuable in
removing grease; 1 tbsp. to a quart of water will serve for washing
silks and other delicate materials. It should never be used in hot
water.
_Removing Stains._--All spots and stains should be taken out before
the clothes are put into the general wash to be treated with soap.
Fruit stains are the most frequent and the most indelible, when
neglected. The composition of fruit juice is readily dissolved by
boiling water. Stretch the stained part over an earthen dish and pour
boiling water upon the stain until it disappears. If fruit stains are
allowed to remain, they will require an acid, or in some cases a
bleaching liquid like chloride of lime to remove them. Wine stains
should be immediately covered with a thick layer of salt. Boiling milk
may be used for taking out wine or fruit stains. Medicine stains
usually yield to alcohol. Iodine dissolves in ether or chloroform.
Coffee, tea and cocoa stain badly; the latter, if neglected, will
resist to the destruction of the fabric. These all contain tannin,
besides various coloring matters, and are "fixed" by soap and water.
Clear boiling water will often remove fresh coffee and tea stains,
although it is safer to sprinkle the stains with borax and soak in
cold water first. An alkaline solution of great use and convenience is
Javelle water. It will remove stains and is a general bleacher. It is
composed of 1 lb. of sal-soda with 1/4 lb. of chloride of lime in 2
quarts of boiling water. When the substances have dissolved as much as
they will, and become cool and settled, pour off the clear liquid and
bottle it for use. Be careful not to allow any of the solid portions
to pass into the bottle. Use the dregs for scouring unpainted
woodwork, or to cleanse waste pipes. When a spot is found on a white
tablecloth place under it an inverted plate. Apply Javelle water with
a soft tooth brush (the use of the brush protects the skin and the
nails). Rub gently till the stain disappears, then rinse in clear
water and finally in ammonia. Blood stains require clear cold or tepid
water; hot water and soap render the red coloring matter less
soluble. When the stain is nearly gone soap and hot water may be used.
Stains from meat juice should be treated in the same way. When blood
is mixed with mucous, as in the case of handkerchiefs, it is well to
soak the stains for some hours in a solution of salt and cold water--2
tablespoonfuls to a quart. Grass stains dissolve in alcohol. If
applied immediately, ammonia and water will sometimes wash them out.
The following methods have proved successful, and may be tried where
colors are likely to be affected by alcohol. Molasses, or a paste of
soap and cooking soda may be spread over the stain and left for some
hours, or the stain may be kept moist in the sunshine until the green
color has changed to brown, when it will wash out in pure water.
Mildew requires different treatment from any previously considered.
Strong soap suds, a layer of soft soap and pulverized chalk, or one of
chalk and salt, are all effective, if in addition the moistened cloth
be subjected to strong sunlight, which kills the plant and bleaches
the fibre. Javelle water may be tried in cases of advanced growth, but
success is not always assured. Some of the animal and vegetable oils
may be taken out by soap and cold water, or dissolved in naphtha,
chloroform, ether, etc. Some of the vegetable oils are soluble in hot
alcohol (care being taken that the temperature be not raised to the
point of igniting). Vaseline stains should be soaked in kerosene
before water and soap touch them.
Ink spots on white goods are the same in character as on colored
fabrics. Where the ink is an iron compound, the stain may be treated
with oxalic, muriatic or hot tartaric acid, applied in the same
manner as for iron rust stains. No definite rule can be given, for
some inks are affected by strong alkalies, others by acids, while some
will dissolve in clear water. Red iron rust spots must be treated with
acid. Fill an earthen dish two-thirds full of hot water and stretch
the stained cloth over this. Have two other dishes with clear water in
one and ammonia water in the other. The steam from the hot water will
furnish the heat and moisture favorable for chemical action. Drop a
little muriatic acid on the stain; let it remain a moment, then lower
the cloth into the clear water. Repeat until the stain disappears.
Rinse carefully in the clear water and finally immerse in the ammonia
water, that any excess of acid may be neutralized and the fabric
protected. Salt and lemon juice are often sufficient for a slight
stain.
Many spots appear upon white goods, which resemble those made by iron
rust, or the fabrics themselves acquire a yellowish tinge. This is the
result of the use of blueing and soap, where the clothes have been
imperfectly rinsed. Therefore, if all dirt is removed, and the clothes
thoroughly rinsed from all soap or alkalies used in removing the dirt,
and exposed for a long time to air and sunshine, the use of blueing is
unnecessary. In cities, where conveniences for drying and bleaching in
the sunshine are few, a thorough bleaching two or three times a year
is a necessity; but in the country it is wiser to abolish all use of
blueing and let the sun, in its action with moisture and the oxygen of
the air, keep the clothes white and pure. Freezing aids in bleaching,
for it retains the moisture upon which the sun can act so much longer.
When clean grass, dew and sunshine are not available, use a bleaching
powder. Directions for the use of the powder usually accompany the can
in which it is bought. Care must be taken to completely rinse out the
acid present in the powder. Grease is more quickly acted upon by hot
water than by cold, but other organic matter is fixed by the hot
water. An effective method is to soak thoroughly the most soiled
portion of the clothes, fold these together towards the centre, roll
the whole tightly and soak in cold water. The water should just cover
the articles. In this way the soap is kept where it is most needed,
and not washed away before it has done its work. When the clothes are
unrolled, the dirt may be washed out with less rubbing. Too long
soaking, when a strong soap is used, will weaken the fabric.
Whether to boil clothes or not, depends largely upon the purity of the
materials used and the care exercised. Many feel that the additional
disinfection which boiling insures, is an element of cleanness not to
be disregarded, while others insist that boiling yellows the clothes.
This yellowness may be caused by impure material in the soap, the
deposit of iron from the water or the boiler; the imperfect washing of
the clothes, that is, the organic matter is not thoroughly removed.
The safer process is to put the clothes into cold water, with little
or no soap, let the temperature rise gradually to boiling point and
remain there for a few minutes. Soap is more readily dissolved by hot
than by cold water, hence the boiling should help in the complete
removal of the soap, and should precede the rinsing. One tablespoonful
of borax to every gallon of water added to each boilerful, serves as a
bleacher and disinfectant. Scalding or pouring boiling water over the
clothes is not so effectual for their disinfection as boiling, because
the temperature is so quickly lowered.
The main points in laundry cleansing seem to be: (1) The removal of
all stains; (2) Soft water and a good quality of soap; (3) The use of
alkalies in solution only; (4) Not too hot nor too much water, while
the soap is acting on the dirt; (5) Thorough rinsing, that all alkali
may be removed; (6) Long exposure to sunlight, the best bleacher and
disinfectant.
WASHING OF WOOLLENS.
All wool goods require the greatest care in washing. The different
waters used should be of the same temperature, and never too hot to be
borne comfortably by the hands. Soap should always be used in the form
of a solution. No soap should be rubbed on the fabric, and only a good
white soap, free from resin, or a soft potash soap is allowable. Make
each water slightly soapy, and leave a very little in the fabric at
the last rinsing, in order to furnish a dressing as nearly like the
original as possible. Ammonia or borax is sometimes used in preference
to soap. For pure white flannel borax is the most satisfactory, on
account of its bleaching quality. Only enough of any alkali should be
used to make the water very soft.
Wool fibres collect much dust, and should therefore be thoroughly
brushed or shaken before the fabric is put into the water. Woollen
fabrics should be cleansed by squeezing, and not by rubbing. Wool
should not be wrung by hand. Either run the fabric smoothly through a
wringer or squeeze the water out, so that the fibres may not become
twisted. Woollen articles may be dried more quickly by rolling the
article tightly in a thick, dry towel or sheet, and squeezing the
whole till all moisture is absorbed. Shake the article thoroughly
before placing to dry. Woollen goods should not be allowed to freeze,
for the teeth become knotted and hard.
COLORED COTTONS.
Colored cottons should have their colors fixed before washing. Salt
will set most colors, but the process must be repeated at each
washing. Alum sets the colors permanently, and at the same time
renders the fabric less combustible, if used in strong solution after
the final rinsing. Dish cloths and dish towels must be kept clean as a
matter of health, as well as a necessity for clean, bright tableware.
The greasy dish cloth furnishes a most favorable field for the growth
of germs. It must be washed with soap and hot water and dried
thoroughly each time. All such cloths should form part of the weekly
wash and receive all the disinfection possible, with soap, hot water
and long drying in the sunshine and open air. Beware of the
disease-breeding, greasy, damp, dish cloth hung in a warm, dark place.
Oven towels, soiled with soot, etc., may be soaked over night in just
enough kerosene to cover, then washed in cold water and soap.
Laundry tubs should be carefully washed and dried. Wooden tubs, if
kept in a dry place, should be turned upside down, and have the
bottoms covered with a little water. The rubber rollers of the wringer
may be kept clean and white by rubbing them with a clean cloth and a
few drops of kerosene (coal oil). All waste pipes, from that of the
kitchen sink to that of the refrigerator, become foul with grease,
lint, dust and other organic matters which are the result of bacterial
action. They are sources of contamination to the air of the entire
house and to the food supply, thereby endangering health.
All bath, wash basin and water-closet pipes should be flushed
generously (as stated in a previous chapter) once a day at least. The
kitchen sink pipe and laundry pipes should have a thorough cleaning
with a strong boiling solution of washing soda daily, and a monthly
flushing with crude potash. The soda solution should be used for
cleansing the drain pipe of the refrigerator.
* * * * *
CARING FOR INVALIDS.
One of the first considerations in caring for an invalid is the
ventilation of the sick room. Care must be taken that the air is not
vitiated by anything in the room, such as a kerosene lamp, wilted cut
flowers, soiled clothing, etc. The bed should be so arranged as to
avoid a draft--especially when airing the room. If the room is too
small to allow this, a very good way to protect the patient is to
raise an umbrella and place it over the head and shoulders; over this
put a blanket while the room is being aired; allowing it to remain
until the room has reached the desired temperature again. Never turn
the wick of a lamp below the point of free combustion in the room of
either sick or well, as the odor is not only disagreeable but
injurious.
One of the most important essentials in a sick room is perfect
cleanliness of the room, the bed linen and clothing of the patient.
Never air or dry cloths or garments in the sick room. Cover the broom
with a damp flannel cloth in sweeping, so as to avoid noise and
prevent the dust from rising. Avoid noise in placing coal on the fire
by putting the coal in a paper bag, placing bag and all upon the fire.
Do not allow loud talking or discussion in the sick room; neither is
whispering desirable, as it is apt to irritate the patient. Do not
consult the patient about the food, but see that tempting, wholesome
varieties are provided, in accordance with the doctor's orders
concerning the diet. Serve food in small quantities, and either hot or
cold, as the article may require. A warm dish which should be hot, and
a tepid drink, or food, which should be cold, is one of the most
objectionable and unappetizing forms of serving food. Do not allow
fresh fruit, which is intended for the patient, to remain in the sick
room, but keep in a cool place and serve when needed. Never visit a
sick room when in a violent perspiration or with an empty stomach, as
the system at that time is more susceptible to contagion.
One of the most important qualifications in a nurse is a thorough
knowledge of the nature, use and digestibility, as well as the best
methods of preparing the different kinds of food, so as to adapt them
to the different forms of disease. In some cases, when the system has
been overtaxed, either mentally or physically, a complete rest is
necessary, and the diet should be food which merely satisfies the
hunger--neither stimulating nor especially nourishing. Such foods come
under the head of gruels, soups, jellies, fruit and drinks. On the
other hand when a patient has become wasted from a long continued
illness and requires building up, more nourishment is required to
supply the waste. In some cases the food must be given in concentrated
form. Milk is one of the most valuable foods in this class; sometimes
it requires the addition of a little pepsin in order to facilitate
digestion; sometimes the addition of a pinch of salt makes milk not
only more agreeable to the patient, but aids digestion. Eggs, either
lightly boiled or in egg-nog, are easily digested and very nourishing.
Meat and milk soups, farina and oatmeal gruel, port wine jelly,
albumen and milk (which is the white of egg and milk shaken together),
and in some cases a bit of carefully broiled steak or chop, with dry
toast, are suitable foods for this class of patient. In convalescence,
any well cooked, easily digested food may be given. Fried food, rich
puddings and pastry must be carefully avoided.
People with consumptive tendencies should eat wholesome, easily
digested food, with plenty of fat, such as cream, butter, fat of bacon
and of roast beef, mutton, olive oil, salads, cornmeal and cereals,
and take plenty of outdoor exercise. Soups which have in them cream or
milk are better for invalids than those containing a greater amount of
gelatine. A few simple recipes are given, which are suitable for
invalids.
BEVERAGES.
_Barley Water._--Take 2 ounces of pearl barley and wash well with cold
water at least 2 or 3 times. Put into a saucepan with 1-1/2 pint of
water, and allow it to boil for 20 minutes closely covered. Strain
and sweeten, and flavor with lemon juice; a little lemon peel may be
added while boiling if desired.
_Apple Water._--Take 2 or 3 tart apples. After baking, put them in a
bowl and pour over them 1 cup of boiling water, strain and sweeten to
taste; serve when cold.
_Flax Seed Tea._--One-half cupful of flax seed--which has been
carefully washed in cold water--to 1 quart of boiling water; boil
slowly 30 minutes, move to the back of the stove and allow it to
remain 10 or 15 minutes longer. Strain, and flavor to taste with lemon
juice and sugar.
_Lemonade._--Slice 1 lemon, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, press the
lemon and sugar, add 1 cup of boiling water. Strain and serve hot or
cold as required.
_Orange Water._--Made the same as lemonade.
MEAT EXTRACTIVES.
_Beef Juice_ is prepared by broiling until the meat is heated through,
then placing it in a lemon squeezer and pressing until all the juice
is extracted. Heat until warm enough to be palatable, add a little
salt, and by way of variety it may be poured over a slice of hot dry
toast.
_Beef Tea._--Cut juicy pieces of steak--the round steak is the
best--into small pieces, cover with cold water and heat gradually to
160 F. Allow it to remain at this temperature 10 or 15 minutes. Press,
strain, and flavor with salt and pepper.
_Beef Tea_ (_No. 2_).--Put a pound of finely minced beef into a glass
fruit jar, add a pint of cold water. Let it stand for an hour,
stirring and pressing occasionally. Place the jar in a kettle of
water; place over the fire and allow the water to reach boiling point.
Move back where the water will just simmer for an hour, keeping the
jar closely covered. Strain the beef tea through a fine wire strainer;
allowing the fine sediment to pass through, which should be drunk with
the liquid. Flavor with salt. (For an especially strong beef
stimulant, see recipe for Bouillon, in a former chapter.)
_Beef Essence._--(This method is highly recommended.) One ounce of
finely chopped fresh beef, free from fat; pour over it 8 ounces of
soft water, add 5 or 6 drops of dilute hydrochloric acid, and 50 or 60
grains of common salt, stir well, and leave for 3 hours in a cool
place. Strain the fluid through a hair sieve, pressing the meat
slightly; adding gradually toward the end of the straining, 2 ounces
of water. The liquid is of a bright red color, tasting like soup. It
should be served cold, in a small quantity at a time. If preferred
warm it must not be put on the fire, but heated in a covered vessel
placed in hot water.
_Chicken Broth._--Singe and clean a small chicken. One-half of the
chicken may be used for broth, and the other half for broiling or a
fricassee. Disjoint, and cut the meat into small pieces. Break or
crush the bones. Dip the feet into boiling water and scald until the
skin and nails will peel off (as the feet contain gelatin). Cover the
meat, feet and bones with cold water; heat very slowly, and simmer
till the meat is tender. A few minutes before removing from the fire
add salt and pepper to taste, also 1/2 teaspoonful of sugar. Strain,
and when cool remove the fat. When needed, heat the necessary
quantity, and if desired very clear add the shell and white of 1 egg.
Let this boil slowly 3 or 4 minutes. Skim and strain through a fine
cloth. A little lemon juice may be added to vary the flavor. This may
be poured into small cups and kept in a cool place; or if the patient
can take it some of the breast meat may be cut into small pieces and
moulded with it. If the broth is served hot, it should not be cleared
with the egg.
_Mutton Broth._--Chop 1 pound of lean, juicy mutton very fine; pour
over it 1 pint of cold water. Let it stand until the water is very
red, then heat it slowly. Allow it to simmer 10 minutes. Strain,
season, and if liked thick, 2 tablespoonfuls of soft boiled rice may
be added; or it may be thickened with a little cornstarch wet with
cold water and stirred into the hot broth. Serve very hot. If there is
not enough time to cool the broth and reheat, the fat may be removed
by using a piece of tissue, coarse brown or blotting paper, which, by
passing over the surface, will remove any fat which cannot be taken
off with a spoon.
_Oatmeal Gruel._--To 1 quart of boiling water add 2 tablespoonfuls of
oatmeal, salt to taste. Boil 1 hour, strain and serve with or without
milk. Another method is to cover the oatmeal with cold water. Stir
well; let it settle, then pour off the mealy water into a saucepan.
Then boil the water.
_Egg Soup._--Put 1 ounce of sago with 1/2 pint of milk into a double
boiler, and cook 20 minutes. Strain through a sieve and add 1/2 pint
of beef extract (or Bouillon). When hot take it from the fire and stir
gradually into it the yolks (well beaten) of 2 eggs. Season to taste,
and serve. Chicken or mutton broth may be used.
_Albumen and Milk._--Put the white of 1 egg into 1/2 pint of milk.
Pour into a pint fruit jar, screw on the top tightly and shake well
for 1 minute, when it should be light and smooth. Serve at once. A
pinch of salt may be added if desired.
_Egg-Nog._--Beat 1 egg until very light, add 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar,
and beat again; add 2/3 cup of cold milk, mix well, and if ordered, 2
teaspoonfuls of brandy may be added. A pinch of salt added to the yolk
of the egg makes it more palatable.
_Orange Soup._--Soak the juice of an orange, 1/3 of the grated rind,
and 1 teaspoonful of lemon juice for 1/2 hour. Strain, and make the
liquid up to a cupful with water. Bring to boiling point and add two
level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot, moistened with a very little cold
water, stirring constantly until it thickens. When it reaches the
boiling point, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, turn into a bowl and
stand away to cool. Serve very cold. (Any tart fruit juice may be used
for this soup.)
_Arrowroot Gruel._--Dissolve 2 level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot in a
little cold water, add 1 cup of boiling water, cook for a few seconds;
take from the fire, add a tablespoonful of sugar, 1 tablespoonful of
lemon juice. (One egg may be beaten, white and yolk separately, until
very light, mix them carefully and pour over the egg slowly one pint
of hot arrowroot gruel, made as above; stir until well mixed.)
_Rice Water or Jelly._--Pick over and wash carefully 2 tablespoonfuls
of rice, and cook in water until the rice is dissolved. Add salt and
sugar to taste. If intended to jelly, add lemon juice and strain into
a mould. Serve cold with cream and sugar. If to be used as a drink,
add enough hot water to make a thin liquid, and boil longer. A little
stick cinnamon may be added a few minutes before straining. Serve hot
or cold.
_Stewed Figs._--Take some choice figs, wash, then cover them with cold
water. Soak over night. In the morning bring them to boiling point,
and keep them over the fire, just simmering for 20 minutes, or until
the figs are plump and soft. Lift them out carefully, and boil down
the liquor until it forms a syrup. Pour this over the figs and serve
cold. Whipped or plain cream may be served with them.
_Jellied Chicken._--Take a young, tender chicken. Prepare and disjoint
it as for a fricassee. Put a bay leaf, a stock of celery about 4
inches long, and 2 whole pepper corns in the bottom of a bowl. Then
put in the chicken. Stand the bowl in a pot of boiling water, being
careful that the steam shall not drip, or the water boil over into the
chicken. Cover the pot closely and keep the water boiling until the
meat is tender enough to allow the bones to slip out. Remove the skin
and bones and put the remainder of the chicken into a pint bowl or
mould. Season the remaining liquor with salt, and strain over the
meat. Stand in a cool place to harden. (Do not add water to the
chicken when cooking.)
_Raw Meat Sandwiches._--Three ounces of raw beef, which may be chopped
very fine and rubbed through a hair sieve or scraped from a slice of
steak. Mix with it 1 ounce of fine bread crumbs, 1 teaspoonful of
sugar, pepper and salt to taste. Spread it between thin slices of
brown or white bread and butter. (A few drops of lemon juice may be
added if the flavor is liked.)
_Broiled Steak, Hamburg Steak, Broiled White Fish, Stews, Etc._ (See
recipes in preceding chapters.)
* * * * *
A FEW GENERAL HINTS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN.
"Too much attention cannot be given by parents to the diet of school
children, or by teachers to the diet of pupils under their care in
boarding schools and colleges. The average age of school children is
from six to sixteen years. During this time both mind and body are
undergoing development. Throughout school period the growth of the
body is continued until almost completed. There are unusual demands,
therefore, upon the functions of absorption and assimilation. The food
must be abundant, and of the character to furnish new tissue, and to
yield energy in the form of heat and muscular activity. The food
should also contain salts of lime to meet the requirements of
formation of the bones and teeth. Many children acquire habits of
dislike for certain articles of food, which become so fixed in later
life that they find it very inconvenient, especially when placed in
circumstances, as in travelling, where one cannot always obtain the
accustomed diet; it therefore is unwise to cultivate such habits,
which are often a serious obstacle to normal development.
"A physician is often baffled in the treatment of a severe disease by
the vitiated taste of the patient. Many cases of anæmia and chlorosis,
which are so commonly seen in young girls, are directly traceable to a
faulty diet. It should be the imperative duty of all teachers to
consider the responsibility of rightly developing the physical
constitutions of those entrusted to their care. They should remember
that the mind keeps on developing long after the body, and that the
period under discussion is one in which the constitution of the
individual is established for the remainder of life. At this stage
success in digestion and assimilation is of greater importance than
success in mental attainments." (Thompson.)
An important consideration in school diet is to avoid monotony, which
becomes so common from economic reasons, or more often from
carelessness. It is so much easier to yield to routine and force of
habit than to study the question. The hours for study and for meals
should be so regulated that sufficient time will be allowed before
each meal for children to wash and prepare themselves comfortably
without going to the table excited by hurry, and they should be
required to remain at the table for a fixed time, and not allowed to
hastily swallow their food in order to complete an unfinished task or
game. An interval of at least half an hour should intervene after
meals before any mental exertion is required. Constant nibbling at
food between meals should be forbidden; it destroys the appetite,
increases the saliva, and interferes with gastric digestion.
The habit of chewing gum cannot be too strongly condemned, both for
the reason given in the preceding sentence and for its effect upon
the muscles and nerves. It is being more and more realized by the
public in general, that the breaking down of health at school is more
often due to impoverished nutrition than to overwork. Delicate
children should not be allowed too long intervals between meals, as
for instance, the evening meal at six o'clock and breakfast the
following morning at seven or half past. A glass of milk and a piece
of whole wheat bread and butter should be given--if they
awaken--during the night. Delicate children whose appetites are poor,
and who do not do proper justice to their regular meals, should be
given an extra allowance of hot broth or hot milk with bread and
butter, between meals.
These rules are applicable in cases of children who, during one or two
years, seem to develop with extraordinary rapidity, growing sometimes
two inches or more in six months. The demands of this rapid growth
must be met by proper nutrition, or serious subsequent impairment of
vitality may result. Such children should have their meals made
tempting by good cooking and pleasant variety, as well as an agreeable
appearance of the food. Meat which is carved in unsightly masses and
vegetables which are sodden and tasteless will be refused, and an ill
attempt is made to supply the deficiency in proper food by eating
indigestible candy, nuts, etc. Children often have no natural liking
for meat, and prefer puddings, pastry or sweets when they can obtain
them; it is therefore more important that meat and other wholesome
foods should be made attractive to them at the age when they need it.
* * * * *
SUGGESTIONS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN'S DIET.
If early rising is insisted upon, a child should never be set at any
task before breakfast, especially in winter; and if it is not
expedient to serve a full breakfast at half-past six or seven, the
child should be given a bowl of milk and bread, a cup of cocoa with a
roll or other light food. Breakfast may be served later, after the
first exercises of the morning, and should consist of porridge of
wheaten grits, hominy, fish, eggs, fruit (raw or cooked), bread and
butter. Dinner, which should always be served near the middle of the
day, should comprise meat, potatoes, one or two green vegetables, some
form of light pudding or sweet. Supper, it is generally admitted,
should comprise easily digested articles of food; such substances as
pastry, cheese and meats are better omitted; it should consist of a
porridge, with milk or cream, or a light, farinacious pudding of rice,
tapioca or sago, with bread and butter, and some simple form of
preserve, stewed apples or prunes, or very light, plain cake. A good
bowl of nutritious broth--or soup--with bread or crackers, may be
substituted for the porridge or pudding. It will sometimes be found
best to serve this meal at seven or half-past seven o'clock; in this
case the child should be given a slice of bread and butter or a glass
of milk (drinking it slowly), at half-past four or five.
Some of the more important articles of school diet require special
mention; the following extract from Dr. Thompson's Practical
Dietetics may prove helpful:--
_Bread._--"Bread, as a rule, should be made of whole meal, but must
not be too coarse. The advantage of this bread for children consists
in its containing a larger proportion of salts, which they need, than
is found in refined white flour, and butter should be freely served
with it to supply the deficiency of fats which exist in meat. Children
need fat, but they do not digest meat fat well, as a rule, and are
very apt to dislike it. They will often take suet pudding, however,
when hot mutton fat wholly disagrees with them."
_Milk._--"Milk should be freely supplied, not only in the form of
puddings and porridges, but as an occasional beverage, and children
should be made to understand that when hungry, they can obtain a glass
of milk, or a bowl of crackers or bread and milk, for the asking.
Chambers says, 'The best lunch that a growing young man can have is a
dish of roast potatoes, well buttered and peppered, and a draft of
milk.'"
_Meat._--"Meat may be given twice a day, but not oftener. It may
sometimes be advisable to give it but once a day when fish or eggs are
supplied; it should, however, be given at least once daily, to rapidly
growing children."
_Sweets._--"The greater number of children have a natural craving for
sweets."
The energy developed in active childhood necessitates the consumption
of a larger proportion of sugar than is required by adults. The
craving of children for confections, candy, etc., furnishes a true
indication of the actual requirements of nature, and it must be
admitted that a certain amount of wholesome candy not only does most
children no harm, but may serve them as an excellent food. The main
difficulty with such forms of sugar, however, is that children are
not furnished with a proper proportion of sugar with their meals, and
the meals themselves are not so regulated as to prevent their becoming
very hungry between times; consequently, if they can obtain candy,
which satisfies them for the time, they are very apt to eat too much,
with the result of producing more or less dyspepsia and diminishing
the normal appetite. Alcohol in every form should be absolutely
excluded. If given during early youth, it is particularly prone to
develop a taste which may become uncontrollable in later years.
(Children should not indulge in tea and coffee.)
_Exercise._--As a general rule, active muscular exercise in children
disturbs their digestive process far less than mental effort, when
taken immediately after meals; and every adult is familiar with the
romping which children can undertake straightway after dinner, often,
though not always, with impunity, whereas a proportionate amount of
exercise on the part of an adult might produce a severe dyspeptic
attack.
Much of the headache and inattention of pupils during school hours is
the direct result of an ill-regulated diet, or from vitiated
appetites.
* * * * *
INFANTS' DIET.
One of the most important subjects included in a domestic science
course of study is the feeding and care of infants. A subject
requiring special intelligence and consideration; one which embodies
the condensed information of the preceding chapters, and is the
foundation upon which the future physical structure is built.
It is not upon the mother alone that the baby depends for care and
attention. Many young girls, especially elder sisters and nurse-maids,
have this responsibility placed upon them when they are little more
than children themselves. To these, as well as to young mothers, the
following suggestions may prove helpful.
The first demand of an infant is for food, and upon the quality and
quantity of the article provided depends the health of the child, as
well as the comfort of the household.
Milk is the only food required by an infant until it is, at least,
seven or eight months old, or until sufficient saliva is secreted to
assist digestion; some authorities say one year, others until the
child has sufficient teeth with which to masticate food. If nature's
supply is not available, or sufficient, the best substitute is cow's
milk. As cow's milk contains less sugar of milk, and fat (cream), than
human milk, these must be supplied. Being more acid than alkaline,
this must be corrected by the use of lime water.
There is more casein (curd) in cow's milk than in mother's milk,
therefore water must be added to reduce this. The following
proportions have been submitted as a digestible form of preparing
cow's milk for young infants (Dr. Meigs):--
Cream, 2 tbsps.
Milk, 1 tbsp.
Lime water, 2 tbsps.
Milk-sugar water, 3 tbsps.
One quarter of this amount to be given every two hours during the day,
and once or twice at night.
After the baby is a week old, the quantity may be increased to
one-half at each meal; at two months the whole amount prepared may be
given at once.
The proportion of milk should be gradually increased, and the water
and cream decreased, until at two months old the proportion should
be:--
3 tbsps. milk.
1 tbsp. cream.
1 tbsp. lime water.
3 tbsps. sugar water.
When six months old the quantity of milk is doubled. It should be
increased every day until ten tablespoonfuls are given at a feeding.
BARLEY WATER.
2 tbsps. pearl barley.
1 pt. boiling water.
Wash the barley carefully. Pour over it the boiling water. Let it
simmer for two hours. Strain and sweeten with a pinch of sugar of
milk.
MILK-SUGAR WATER.
1/2 oz. sugar of milk.
1/2 pt. boiling water.
Dissolve, and keep closely covered. It will not keep long, so should
be made when required to use.
LIME WATER.
Take a lump of lime weighing about one ounce. Put in a bottle with a
quart of cold water (which has been boiled). Shake the bottle well
until the lime is dissolved, and let it stand for 12 hours. Pour the
clear liquid into another bottle, being careful not to disturb the
sediment. Keep carefully corked. Water will only absorb a certain
quantity of lime, so there is no danger of its being too strong.
As cow's milk is more difficult to digest than mother's milk, it is
sometimes necessary to substitute barley water in place of the lime
water and milk, using the same amount of cream as given in recipe.
MALTED FOOD.
2 oz. wheat flour or barley meal.
1-3/4 qts. water.
1 tsp. extract of malt.
Mix the flour to a paste with a little water, gradually add a quart of
the water; put it in a double boiler and boil 10 minutes. Dissolve the
malt extract in 4 tbsps. of the water (cold). Lift out the inner
vessel and add the malt and remainder of the cold water. Let it stand
15 minutes, replace, and boil again for 15 minutes. Strain through a
wire gauze strainer. (Half this quantity may be made.)
This preparation is used when both barley water and lime-water
disagree. It must always be given with milk. It prevents the large
tough curds forming, which is such an objectionable feature in using
cow's milk.
PEPTONIZED MILK.
In cases of especially weak digestion it may be necessary to peptonize
the milk, which may be done as follows: Add 5 grains of extract of
pancreas and 15 grains of baking soda to 1 pint of milk. (Tablets of
pancreatin and soda may be used.)
After adding the peptonizing material put the milk in a double boiler
or in a vessel which may be set in a larger one, holding water, as hot
as the hand can bear being dipped into quickly, or about 115° Fah.
Leave the milk in the hot water about 20 minutes, then place on the
ice. If heated too long the milk will taste bitter.
The preparation given in recipe No. 1, or with the barley water added,
may be peptonized.
STERILIZED OR PASTEURIZED MILK.
(_See Milk, Chapter V._)
Put the amount of milk required for a meal into pint or half pint
bottles, allowing for the number of times the child is to be fed in 24
hours. Use cotton batting as a stopper. Place a wire frame, or invert
a perforated tin pie plate, in the bottom of a saucepan; stand the
bottles on this, pour around them enough water to come well above the
milk, cover the saucepan or kettle, and when the water boils lift the
saucepan from the fire and allow the bottles to remain in the hot
water for 1 hour. Keep in the ice box or stand them in cold water
until needed. If milk is to be used during a long journey it will be
necessary to repeat the above operation three times, letting the milk
cool between each time.
Unless the milk is perfectly fresh, and has been handled with great
care, it is safer to sterilize or pasteurize it. The former, if any
doubt is entertained as to the quality of the milk, the latter in
every case.
TEMPERATURE OF FOOD.
Food should be "milk warm," or about 99° Fah., when given to a baby.
Hot food is very injurious.
NURSING BOTTLES AND FEEDING.
Have two plain bottles with rubber tops, _without tubes_. Bottles with
ounces and tablespoonfuls marked on them can be purchased, and are a
great convenience in measuring the amount of food required.
After using the bottle, empty the remaining milk; rinse in cold water,
then in _scalding water_.
If particles of milk adhere to the bottle use coarse salt or raw
potato cut in small pieces. If the glass looks cloudy, add a little
ammonia to the water. Turn the rubber tops inside out and scrub with a
stiff brush; boil them every alternate day for 10 minutes.
_Absolute cleanliness is a necessity_ in the care of a baby's food,
bottles and rubber tops.
The bottle should be held, while the baby is feeding, in such a
position that the top is full of milk. If air is sucked in with the
milk stomach-ache will likely result.
Starchy food should not be given to a child until it is able to
masticate. (See digestion of starch, Chap. VIII.)
Arrowroot, cornstarch, rice, etc., _must not be given to infants_.
FLOUR BALL.
Put a bowlful of flour into a strong cloth, tie it up like a pudding,
and place it in a kettle of boiling water. Boil for 10 or 12 hours.
When boiled turn it out of the cloth and cut away the soft outside
coating. When cool, grate the hard inside portion and use a
teaspoonful at each feeding, for a baby 8 months old, increasing the
amount for an older child. This may be prepared in the same manner as
cornstarch or flour. The long boiling converts the starch into
dextrine, which is more easily digested than starch. This is
especially valuable in cases of diarrhoea, and may be used instead
of barley gruel as a food.
OATMEAL GRUEL.
Pound a cupful of oatmeal in a pestle or on a bread board. Put in a
bowl and pour over it 1 pint of cold water. Stir it up, then let the
mixture settle for a few minutes. Pour off the milky fluid, repeat
this process. Boil this water for an hour, adding a pinch of salt, and
use it to dilute the milk instead of water.
A thicker gruel may be made from oatmeal by allowing 1 tablespoonful
to a cup of boiling water. Let it boil 1 hour, then strain through a
wire strainer.
FARINA GRUEL.
1 tbsp. farina.
2 cups boiling water.
A spk. of salt.
Cook for 20 minutes; use as directed for oatmeal.
BEEF JUICE.
(_See page 145._)
_Beef juice_ is sometimes ordered for delicate babies. For a child 9
months old, 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls may be given once a day.
ALBUMINIZED FOOD.
When milk cannot be taken, albuminized food proves an excellent
substitute.
Shake the white of 1 egg with 1/2 a pint of water (filtered or boiled
and cooled) in a glass jar until they are thoroughly mixed. Add a few
grains of salt.
Children do not require a great variety in their food. Give one
article of diet at a time and see how it agrees before trying another.
After a child is a year old the various cereals may be given as
porridge instead of gruel, with the addition of a little sugar.
Remember, all cereals should be thoroughly cooked (see page 83).
BISCUITS.
Gluten, soda, oatmeal or Graham biscuits may be soaked in milk or
given alone. Do not give the fancy or sweet biscuits to young
children.
EGGS.
A properly boiled egg (see page 69) may be given every alternate day
to a child 1 year old.
JUNKET.
Junket is much better for young children than custards or puddings,
and sometimes agrees well with babies.
Take 1 pint of milk, heat it to 98° Fah., or milk warm. Add 1
teaspoonful of rennet and 1 teaspoonful of sugar. Stir all together
and let it stand in a warm place until it becomes as thick as jelly.
Remove at once to a cool place or whey will appear.
BAKED POTATOES.
Potatoes should not be given to a child under 2 years old in any other
form than baked. The potash salts are the most valuable constituent,
and are lost when they are peeled and boiled. They should be dry and
mealy. A little salt, butter or cream should be added.
MACARONI.
(_See page 85._)
Macaroni is an excellent food for young children.
FRUIT.
Baked apples and the juice of an orange are the only fruits which
should be given to children under two years of age.
RICE.
Rice is an excellent food for young children, but not for infants.
VENTILATION.
Foul air is injurious to grown persons, but it is infinitely more
dangerous to the sensitive organization of a child. Therefore special
attention should be given to the ventilation of rooms occupied by a
baby (see page 132).
Fresh air, wholesome food, regular bathing, and plenty of sleep will
insure the normal growth of the average baby, and are within reach of
every one who has the care of young children.
The writer is indebted to Miss Scovil, Superintendent of Newport
Hospital, and one of the associate editors of the _Ladies' Home
Journal_, for many of the above hints concerning the diet of infants.
EMERGENCIES.
As frequent accidents occur during the performance of household
duties, a few suggestions as to how slight injuries should be treated
may prove useful to the young housekeeper.
_Cuts._--A cut should be washed with cold water, covered with a small
pad of cotton, bound up, and left alone. Should matter form, the
bandage must be taken off, the wound bathed with carbolized water,
1-80, and a little carbolized vaseline spread on a bit of linen and
laid over it. The washing and dressing should be repeated two or three
times a day if there is much discharge.
_Bruises._--A flannel wrung out of very hot water, and laid on a
bruise, relieves the soreness.
For bruises on the face, apply ice. Brown paper wet in vinegar is an
old-fashioned remedy. If the skin is broken, treat as a wound, with
carbolized water and carbolized vaseline.
_Sprains._--Both hot and cold treatment is recommended. Immerse the
joint in water as hot as can be borne. Keep up the temperature by
gradually adding more hot water. Let it soak for an hour or more. Then
wrap in warm flannel, and surround with hot water bags or bottles.
_Stings._--Bathe the part in ammonia, or baking soda and water; wet a
cloth in the same, and bind over it.
_Burns._--The best household remedies for burns are baking soda and
carbolized vaseline. For slight burns mix the soda to a paste with
water, and spread thickly over the part; cover with linen or old
cotton. This may be kept wet by squeezing water over it. If shreds of
clothing adhere to a burn, they should be soaked with oil, and not
pulled off until softened. If the skin is gone, spread carbolized
vaseline on linen, and bind on the part until the doctor arrives.
In burns caused by acids, water should not be applied to the parts.
Cover with dry baking soda.
If caused by an alkali, such as lye, ammonia, or quick-lime, use an
acid, as vinegar or lemon juice, diluted.
_Poisoning._--For poison ivy, saturate a cloth in a solution of baking
soda, or ammonia and water, and lay over the part.
When poison has been swallowed, the first thing to do is to get it out
of the stomach. Secondly, to prevent what remains from doing more
mischief. Give an emetic at once. One tbsp. of salt in a glass of
_tepid_ water; 1 tsp. of mustard, or 1 tsp. of powdered alum in a
glass of tepid water. A tsp. of wine of ipecac, followed by warm
water. Repeat any of these three or four times if necessary. The
quantities given are for children; larger doses may be given to
adults. It is well to give a dose of castor oil after the danger is
over, to carry off any remnants of the poison that may have lodged in
the intestines.
After a poison has burned the mouth and throat, plenty of milk may be
given, also flour, arrowroot, or cornstarch gruel.
For drowning and other serious accidents, see Public School
Physiology.
FURNISHING A CLASS-ROOM.
The furnishing of a class-room should be so complete that each pupil
should be able to attend to the appointed task without delay. The
furniture should consist of a stove, or range, gas stove if more
convenient, a hot water tank or boiler, sink, table (side), towel
rack, 2 dozen chairs, or seats with tablet arms, a cupboard or kitchen
"dresser" for table ware, a large cupboard or arrangement for lockers,
in which caps, aprons, etc., should be kept, a large table--horseshoe
shape is the most satisfactory--with drawers, and space for rolling
pin, bread board, etc., underneath. The table should be large enough
to allow at least 2 ft. 6 in. for each pupil. Twenty pupils is the
limit of a practice class. On the table should be placed at regular
intervals, 10 gas burners with frame. The teacher's table should stand
in the opening at the end of the table so that she may see each pupil
while at work, and when demonstrating may be seen by each pupil.
The following list of utensils will be found sufficient for practice
work for a class of 20 pupils.
EARTHEN, CHINA AND GLASS WARE.
1 dinner set.
2 quart pitchers.
2 pint pitchers.
2 small oval baking dishes.
2 small round baking dishes.
4 4-quart bowls, with lips.
6 2-quart bowls, with lips.
4 1-quart bowls.
12 baking cups.
6 kitchen cups.
2 small platters.
2 medium size platters.
2 deep pie plates.
6 shallow pie plates.
2 jelly moulds.
1 teapot.
1 dozen quart gem jars.
1 dozen pint gem jars.
6 4-quart stone jars or crocks.
1 dozen fancy plates, and glass dishes for serving.
WOODENWARE.
1 wash-board.
12 small bread boards.
12 rolling pins.
2 chopping trays.
2 potato mashers.
1 potato ricer.
1 water pail.
1 scrubbing pail.
1 pail or bucket for refuse.
1 flour bucket, with cover.
6 wooden spoons--small.
1 2-gallon ice cream freezer.
1 broom.
1 whisk-broom.
1 crumb pan and brush.
1 floor scrubbing brush.
6 small scrubbing brushes.
1 stove brush.
1 pastry brush.
1 small refrigerator.
Spice boxes.
Dish mops.
Lemon squeezers, etc.
AGATE WARE.
4 double boilers.
2 4-quart kettles.
2 2-quart saucepans.
4 1-quart saucepans.
4 pt. saucepans.
2 oval pudding dishes.
1 4-quart preserving kettle.
1 hand basin.
1 tea kettle.
IRON WARE.
1 spider.
1 griddle.
1 pan for meat.
1 pan for fish.
1 meat fork.
1 can opener.
1 meat cleaver.
2 wooden-handled spoons.
1 braising pan (cover).
Scales, etc.
TIN AND WIRE WARE.
2 large graters.
1 nutmeg grater.
12 flour dredges.
12 measuring cups.
1 funnel.
1 basting spoon.
1 wire broiler, for toast.
2 wire broilers, for steak.
1 wire soap dish.
3 Dover egg beaters.
3 small wire strainers.
1 large wire strainer.
1 flour scoop.
2 flour sifters.
1 gravy strainer.
1 colander.
2 dish pans.
2 2-qt. milk cans.
1 quart measure.
1 pint measure.
1 steamer.
6 small bread pans.
6 small jelly moulds.
1 set gem pans.
1 doz. muffin rings.
2 dustpans.
2 plain cake cutters.
1 doughnut cutter.
1 small biscuit cutter.
1 frying basket.
1 dipper.
2 long, shallow cake tins.
2 egg whisks.
1 round cake tin.
1 wire frame.
1 vegetable cutter.
MISCELLANEOUS.
1 doz. dish towels.
2 floor cloths.
12 holders.
Cheese cloth.
Pudding cloth.
Needles.
Twine.
Scissors.
Skewers.
Screw driver.
Corkscrew.
1 doz. knives and forks.
Hammer.
Tacks and Nails.
Ironing sheet and holder.
Coal scuttle.
Fire shovel.
Coal sieve.
Ash hod.
Flat irons.
Paper for cake tins.
Wrapping paper.
Small tub for laundry work.
6 tablespoons.
2 doz. teaspoons.
While this may seem a formidable list, it will not be found expensive.
Some of the above articles may be omitted and others substituted. It
must be remembered that the utensils will be well cared for,
consequently will last for many years. In country schools, or where
gas is not available, oil stoves may be used. In some schools, where
space is limited, one small table is used, two or more pupils
demonstrating the lesson under the supervision of the teacher, the
pupils taking this duty in alternation. The remainder of the class
observe and take notes.
The cost of material is trifling. It should not average more than
fifty cents per pupil per annum, and for a large number should average
less than this amount.
The Boston school kitchens are, many of them, furnished at a cost of
from $200 to $300. A fair average cost for Ontario should be about
$175.
* * * * *
PLANNING AND SERVING MEALS.
During the last quarter of school work each pupil should submit a
typical menu for breakfast, dinner and supper, allowing for a certain
number of people. Consider the occupation, and give reasons for the
choice of food for each meal.
State how long it should take to prepare the meal, and give the cost.
Insist upon variety in menus, and request the pupil to describe how
the meal should be served. _System_, neatness and promptness should be
especially emphasized. Clean table linen--no matter how coarse--is
possible for every one. A dish of fruit or flowers, if only a bunch of
green foliage, improves the appearance of the table.
During the school course a special lesson should be devoted to setting
the table and serving meals, with and without a waitress, so as to
give a knowledge of how a meal should be served, no matter what the
pupil's position in life may be or what part she may have to perform.
A FEW GENERAL HINTS ON SETTING THE TABLE.
Although every housekeeper has her own method for serving meals, a few
general principles govern all properly regulated service. When setting
the table, cover first with a canton-flannel or felt cloth, in order
to prevent noise and protect the table. Place each article in its
proper place and not in a confused "jumble." See that the tablecloth
is spread smoothly, that the corners are of equal length, that the
crease--if the cloth has been folded instead of rolled--is exactly in
the centre. Place the fruit or flowers in the centre of the table.
For each person place knife, spoon and glass on the right, fork and
napkin on the left. Place the glass at the point of the knife. Turn
the edge of the knife towards the plate and the fork tines up, the
spoon with the bowl up. If soup is to be served, place a square of
bread or a roll on top of the napkin or between the folds. Place the
pepper and salt at the corners of the table, unless individual salts
are used, when they should be placed at the head of the plates, where
the dessert spoon may be placed--the handle towards the right--for
convenience.
The general rule in serving simple family meals, with or without a
waitress, is for the hostess to serve the porridge and coffee at
breakfast; the soup, salad and dessert at dinner, and pour the tea at
the evening meal. When luncheon is served in the middle of the day the
hostess usually does the greater part of the serving, as luncheon is
considered to be the most informal meal of the day.
A FEW HINTS FOR WAITRESSES.
Learn to move quickly and quietly. Be scrupulously clean and neat in
every detail of dress and habit. Before serving a meal see that hands
and finger nails are clean. Always have a fresh white apron ready to
put on before the meal is announced. Look over the table and see that
everything is in its place before announcing a meal. Fill the glasses
with water either before the family enter the dining room or
immediately after they are seated. Lift the covers from hot dishes and
turn them over at once in order to prevent the steam from dropping on
the cloth. Take the plate from the host or hostess, and place before
each person from the right side--keep the thumb well under the plate.
When passing anything from which the persons seated at table help
themselves, such as vegetables, sauces, etc., always go to the left,
so as to leave the right hand of the one to be served free. Keep a
watchful eye over the table and pass anything apparently required.
Learn to receive instructions from the hostess in an undertone. Do not
get excited and try to do too many things at once. It is an
accomplishment to be a good waitress, as it requires special
refinement and deftness, which are scarcely compatible with an untidy
nature.
When serving meals without a waitress, the daughters of the house
should consider it their special privilege to save the mother any
annoyance or discomfort during the meal time. Never allow dishes,
which have been used, to accumulate on the table or allow the table to
become disordered. As much of the food as possible should be placed on
the table before the family are seated, and the plates or dishes
removed at once after using. No matter how simple the meal may be,
every housekeeper should see that it is served neatly and on time.
Teachers may exercise a far-reaching influence in the refining of home
life by impressing upon the pupils the importance of these--too often
considered--minor matters, and by giving minute instructions in the
setting of table and serving the meal. One carefully planned
_practice_ lesson will convey more knowledge of such matters than any
number of lectures or pages of theory.
* * * * *
CONSIDERATION OF MENUS.
The following menus and analyses are taken from bulletin No. 74,
prepared in the United States Experiment Stations, and are inserted so
as to give some idea of the cost and relative value of various foods
in combination. _It must be remembered that the prices given are in
excess of prices in Ontario, therefore the cost per menu would be less
than is given in these illustrations._ The more expensive menus have
been omitted. The writer of the article says:--
"In planning a well balanced diet the following points must be
considered:--
(1) The use of any considerable amount of fat meat or starchy food
should be offset by the use of some material rich in protein. Thus, if
roast pork is to be eaten for dinner, veal, fish, or lean beef might
well be eaten for breakfast or supper, or both. Bean soup furnishes a
considerable amount of protein, while bouillon, consommé, and tomato
soup are practically useless as a source of nutriment. Skim milk also
furnishes protein, with but very little accompanying fats and
carbohydrates to increase the fuel value.
(2) The use of lean meats or fish for all three meals would require
the use of such foods as rice, tapioca, or cornstarch pudding,
considerable quantities of sugar and butter, and more vegetables, in
order to furnish sufficient fuel value.
(3) Since flour, sugar, and butter or lard enter very largely into
pastries and desserts, the larger the quantities of these dishes that
are consumed the larger does the fuel value tend to become as compared
with the protein."
The principal classes of food materials may be roughly grouped as
follows as regards the proportion of protein to fuel value, beginning
with those which have the largest proportion of protein and ending
with those which contain little or no protein:--
Foods containing a large amount of protein as
compared with the fuel value.
Fish;
veal;
lean beef, such as shank, shoulder, canned corned,
round, neck, and chuck;
skim milk.
Foods containing a medium amount of protein.
Fowl;
eggs;
mutton leg and shoulder;
beef, fatter cuts, such as rib, loin, rump, flank, and brisket;
whole milk;
beans and peas;
mutton chuck and loin;
cheese;
lean pork;
oatmeal and other breakfast foods;
flour;
bread, etc.
Foods containing little or no protein.
Vegetables and fruit;
fat pork;
rice;
tapioca;
starch;
butter and other fats and oils;
sugar, syrups.
THE MENUS.
To illustrate the ways in which milk may be combined with other food
materials, to form daily dietaries with about the amount of protein
and the fuel value called for by the standard for men at moderate
muscular work, a few menus are given in the following pages. These
menus are intended to show how approximately the same nutritive value
may be obtained by food combinations differing widely as regards the
number, kind, and price of the food materials used to make up three
daily meals. They also illustrate how the cost of the daily menu may
vary greatly with the kind and variety of materials purchased, though
the nutritive value remains the same. These sample menus should not,
however, be regarded as in any sense "models" to be followed in actual
practice. The daily menus for any family will necessarily vary with
the market supply, the season, and the relative expensiveness of
different food materials, as well as with the tastes and purse of the
consumers. The point to which we wish here to draw especial attention
is that the prudent buyer of foods for family consumption can not
afford to wholly neglect their nutritive value in making such
purchases.
With reference to the following daily menus, several points must be
definitely borne in mind. (1) The amounts given represent about what
would be called for in a family equivalent to four full-grown men at
ordinary manual labor, such as machinists, carpenters, mill-workers,
farmers, truckmen, etc., according to the usually accepted standards.
Sedentary people would require somewhat less than the amounts here
given. (2) Children as a rule may be considered as having "moderate
muscular exercise," and it may easily be understood that the
14-year-old boy eats as much as his father who is engaged in business
or professional occupation, both requiring, according to the tentative
standard, 0.8 of the food needed by a man with moderate muscular work.
(3) It is not assumed that any housewife will find it convenient to
follow exactly the proportions suggested in the menus. The purpose is
to show her about what amounts and proportions of food materials would
give the required nutrients.
A family equivalent to four men having little muscular
exercise--_i.e._, men with sedentary occupation--would require but
about 0.8 the quantities indicated in the following menus. It would be
very doubtful, however, if they would eat proportionally less of every
food material. It would, in fact, be more probable that the amounts of
meat, fish, eggs, potatoes, and bread eaten would be reduced in a much
greater proportion than fruit, pastry, coffee, etc.
PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF MILK AND OTHER FOODS.
_Amounts of actual nutrients obtained in different food materials for
10 cts._
_Food Material._ _Lbs. Oz._
Whole Milk, 10 cts. per qt. 2 0
" " 8 " 2 8
" " 7 " 2 14
" " 6 " 3 5
" " 5 " 4 0
" " 4 " 5 0
Skim " 3 " 6 11
Skim " 2 " 10 0
Butter, 24 cts. per lb. 0 7
Cheese, 16 " 0 10
Beef, round, 12 cts. per lb. 0 13
" sirloin, 18 " 0 9
Mutton, loin, 16 " 0 10
Pork, salt 12 " 0 13
Cod, salt 6 " 1 9
Eggs, 22 cts. per doz. 0 11
Oysters, 30 cts. per qt. 0 11
Potatoes, 60 cts. per bushel 10 0
Beans, dried, 8 cts. per qt. 2 8
Wheat flour, 3 cts. per lb. 3 5
MENU I.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
| | | | Fuel
Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value.
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
| | | |
_Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories.
| | | |
Bananas, 4 (or grapes, | | | |
1 pound) | 1 4 | 6-1/2 | .009 | 362
Breakfast cereal | 4 |\ | / .031 | 421
Milk | 8 | > 3 |< .016 | 162
Sugar | 1-1/ 2|/ | \ ... | 175
Veal cutlets | 1 0 | 20 | .200 | 775
Potatoes | 1 0 | 1-1/2 | .018 | 325
Butter | 3 | 6 | ... | 653
Rolls | 12 | 4 | .077 | 1,148
Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410
|-----------+----------+---------+---------
Total | | 44-1/2 | .361 | 4,431
| | | |
_Dinner._ | | | |
| | | |
Pea soup: | | | |
Split peas | 8 |\ | / .121 | 820
Butter | 1 | > 5 |< ... | 217
Flour | 1 |/ | \ .007 | 103
Roast beef, chuck rib | 1 12 | 21 | .275 | 1,260
Potatoes | 1 4 | 1-1/3 | .022 | 406
Turnips | 8 | 1 | .005 | 67
Cottage pudding with | | | |
lemon sauce: | | | |
1 cup flour | 4 |\ | / .028 | 410
Sugar | 3 | \ |/ ... | 350
Butter | 1-1/2 | / 6-1/2 |\ ... | 325
1 cup milk | 8 |/ | \ .016 | 162
Sugar | 4 |\ | / ... | 465
Cornstarch | 1-1/2 | > 2-1/2 |< ... | 172
Butter | 1/2 |/ | \ ... | 108
Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410
|-----------+----------+---------+----------
Total | | 41 | .484 | 5,275
| | | |
_Supper._ | | | |
| | | |
Milk toast: | | | |
Milk | 2 0 |\ | / .066 | 650
Bread | 1 2 | \ 18 |/ .107 | 1,356
Butter | 4 | / |\ ... | 869
Cornstarch | 2 |/ | \ ... | 228
Canned salmon | 8 | 8 | .098 | 340
Fried potatoes: | | | |
Potatoes | 8 |\ 1 |/ .009 | 162
Lard | 1/2 |/ |\ ... | 132
Cake | 6 | 4 | .026 | 619
Coffee or tea | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410
|-----------+----------+---------+----------
Total | | 34-1/2 | .316 | 4,766
|===========|==========|=========|==========
Total for day | | 120 | 1.161 | 14,472
|===========|==========|=========|==========
Total for one Man | | 30 | .290 | 3,618
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
MENU II.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
| | | | Fuel
Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value.
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
| | | |
_Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories.
| | | |
Oatmeal | 0 2 |\ | / .019 | 232
Milk | 6-1/2 | > 2 |< .012 | 122
Sugar | 1 |/ | \ ... | 175
Fresh pork sausage | 1 8 | 18 | .192 | 3,255
Potatoes | 12 | 1 | .013 | 244
Bread | 12 | 3 | .071 | 904
Butter | 2 | 4 | ... | 434
Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410
|-----------+----------+---------+----------
Total | | 31-1/2 | .317 | 5,776
| | | |
_Dinner._ | | | |
| | | |
Beef, for stew | 2 8 | 15 | .347 | 1,900
Potatoes | 1 8 | 2 | .027 | 487
Turnips | 8 | 1 | .005 | 67
Bread | 8 | 2 | .048 | 603
Butter | 1 | 2 | ... | 217
Indian pudding: | | | |
Cornmeal | 4 |\ | / .022 | 414
Molasses | 4 | \ 6 |/ .007 | 329
Butter | 1/2 | / |\ ... | 108
Skim milk | 2 0 |/ | \ .068 | 340
Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410
|-----------+----------+---------+----------
Total | | 31-1/2 | .534 | 4,875
| | | |
_Supper._ | | | |
| | | |
Corned beef hash: | | | |
Corned beef, canned | 8 | 6 | .142 | 560
Potatoes | 8 | 1 | .009 | 162
Bread | 12 | 3 | .071 | 904
Butter | 2 | 4 | ... | 434
Apples | 12 | 1 | .003 | 191
Milk | 2 0 | 6 | .066 | 725
|-----------+----------+---------+----------
Total | | 21 | .291 | 2,976
|===========|==========|=========|==========
Total per day | | 84 | 1.142 | 13,627
|===========|==========|=========|==========
Total for one man | | 21 | .285 | 3,407
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
In these menus the amount of milk has, as a rule, been taken as
representing somewhere near the average consumption. The amount of
milk can be increased in any of the menus given above either by
substituting it to some extent for coffee or tea, or by using more
milk and smaller quantities of meats, butter or eggs. Roughly
speaking, 1 quart of whole milk could be substituted for half a pound
of meat or eggs and the amount of nutrients would be the same, while a
pint of milk would give as large a fuel value as 1-1/2 ounces of
butter, and in addition considerable protein not furnished by the
latter.
This replacement of meats by milk is illustrated in the following
menu, in which a diet with a rather small quantity of milk is so
changed as to include a much larger amount. Thus for breakfast in the
modified ration a pint and a half of milk is made to take the place of
half a pound of broiled steak. For dinner a quart of skim milk (or
buttermilk) is called for, or a glass for each person unless some of
it is used in the cooking. At the same time, 4 ounces less roast pork
is required. In the same way a glass of whole milk is allowed each
person for supper, or the bread can be made into milk toast and the
most of the extra milk used in this way. This allows the canned salmon
to be reduced 6 ounces.
MENU III.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate exercise._
--------------------------+----------------------------------
| Weight of food.
|-----------------+----------------
Food materials. | With | With
| small | large
| amount | amount
| of milk. | of milk.
--------------------------+-----------------+----------------
| |
_Breakfast._ | Lbs. Oz. | Lbs. Oz.
| |
Bananas, apples, or pears | 0 12 | 0 12
Wheat preparation | 4 | 4
Milk | 8 | 8
Sugar | 2 | 2
Broiled sirloin steak | 1 4 | 12
Baked potatoes | 1 8 | 1 8
Hot rolls | 1 0 | 1 0
Butter | 2-1/2 | 2-1/2
Extra milk | | 1 8
| |
_Dinner._ | |
| |
Tomato soup | 1 12 | 1 12
Roast pork | 1 12 | 1 8
Mashed potatoes | 1 4 | 1 4
Turnips | 8 | 8
Apple fritters: | |
Apples | 8 | 8
Flour | 2 | 2
1 egg | 2 | 2
Lard | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2
Bread | 8 | 8
Butter | 2 | 2
Extra skim milk | | 2 0
| |
_Supper._ | |
| |
Canned salmon | 1 6 | 1 0
Potatoes | 12 | 12
Bread | 8 | 8
Butter | 2 | 2
Berries, canned or fresh | 8 | 8
Extra milk | | 2 0
--------------------------+-----------------+-----------------
_Cost, protein, and fuel value of the above._
-----------------------------+-------------+--------------+------------
| Cost. | Protein. | Fuel
| | | Value.
-----------------------------+-------------+--------------+------------
| | |
_With small amount of milk._ | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories.
| | |
| | |
Breakfast | 48 | .39 | 5,300
Dinner | 51 | .39 | 5,800
Supper or lunch | 33-1/2 | .34 | 3,200
|-------------+--------------+------------
Total per day | 132-1/2 | 1.12 | 14,300
|=============|==============|============
Total for one man | 33 | .28 | 3,575
|=============|==============|============
| | |
_With large amount of milk._ | | |
| | |
Breakfast | 43 | .36 | 5,270
Dinner | 47-1/2 | .41 | 5,400
Supper or lunch | 34-1/2 | .34 | 3,600
|-------------|--------------|------------
Total per day | 125 | 1.11 | 14,270
|=============|==============|============
Total for one man | 31 | .28 | 3,567
-----------------------------+-------------+--------------+------------
Menus VI and VII, following, are intended to illustrate how nourishing
food can be procured in sufficient quantities and moderate variety at
a cost of not over 16 cents per day. The cost to the farmer would be
much less, since these menus call for considerable amounts of milk,
which is hardly worth more than one-half or one-third as much on the
farm as it costs in the towns and cities. Coffee has not always been
indicated, but can be introduced for any meal at a cost of from 1/2 to
1-1/2 cents per cup, according to how much coffee is used in making
the infusion, and how much sugar, milk, and cream are added.
It is, of course, not important that each meal, or the total food of
each individual day, should have just the right amount of nutrients,
or that the proportions of protein and fuel ingredients should be
exactly correct so as to make the meal or day's diet well balanced.
The body is continually storing nutritive materials and using them. It
is not dependent any day upon the food eaten that particular day.
Hence an excess one day may be made up by a deficiency the next or
_vice versa_. Healthful nourishment requires simply that the nutrients
as a whole, during longer or shorter periods, should be fitted to the
actual needs of the body for use.
MENU IV.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
| | | | Fuel
Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value.
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
| | | |
_Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories.
| | | |
Bananas, 4 (or grapes, | | | |
1 pound) | 1 4 | 6-1/2 | .009 | 362
Breakfast cereal | 4 |\ | / .031 | 421
Milk | 6 | > 3 |< .012 | 122
Sugar | 2 |/ | \ ... | 232
Mutton chops | 1 4 | 20 | .165 | 1,812
Potatoes | 1 0 | 1-1/2 | .018 | 325
Butter | 3 | 6 | ... | 653
Rolls | 12 | 4 | .077 | 1,148
Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410
|-----------+----------+---------+---------
Total | | 44-1/2 | .322 | 5,485
| | | |
_Dinner._ | | | |
| | | |
Tomato Soup | 2 0 | 12 | .036 | 370
Roast pork | 2 8 | 32 | .353 | 3,350
Potatoes | 1 4 | 1-1/2 | .022 | 406
Turnips | 8 | 1 | .005 | 67
| | | |
Tapioca pudding: | | | |
Tapioca | 3 |\ | / .001 | 310
Apples | 1 0 | \ |/ .004 | 255
Sugar | 2 | / 7 |\ ... | 232
Cream | 4 |/ | \ .006 | 228
Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410
|-----------+----------+---------+----------
Total | | 57 | .437 | 5,628
| | | |
_Supper._ | | | |
| | | |
Milk toast: | | | |
Milk | 2 0 |\ | / .066 | 650
Bread | 1 2 | \ 18 |/ .107 | 1,356
Butter | 4 | / |\ ... | 869
Cornstarch | 2 |/ | \ ... | 238
Sliced cold pork | 8 | 6 | .071 | 670
Fried potatoes: | | | |
Potatoes | 8 |\ 1 |/ .009 | 162
Lard | 1/2 |/ |\ ... | 132
Cake | 6 | 4 | .026 | 619
Coffee or tea | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410
|-----------+----------+---------+----------
Total | | 32-1/2 | .289 | 5,096
|===========|==========|=========|==========
Total for day | | 134 | 1.048 | 16,209
|===========|==========|=========|==========
Total for one man | | 33-1/2 | .262 | 4,052
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
MENU V.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
| | | | Fuel
Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value.
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
| | | |
_Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories.
| | | |
Baked apples | 2 0 | 2 | .008 | 510
Boiled hominy | 8 |\ | / .041 | 823
Milk | 10 | > 4-1/2 |< .020 | 202
Sugar | 3 |/ | \ ... | 350
Broiled sirloin | 10 | 11 | .099 | 650
Potatoes | 8 | 1 | .009 | 162
Muffins: | | | |
1 egg | 4 |\ 5 |/ .032 | 162
2 cups flour | 8 |/ |\ .057 | 820
Butter | 2 | 4 | ... | 435
Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410
|-----------+----------+---------+----------
Total | | 31 | .276 | 4,524
| | | |
_Dinner._ | | | |
| | | |
Tomato soup | 2 0 | 6 | .036 | 370
Veal stew, shoulder | 2 0 | 20 | .332 | 1,350
Potatoes | 3 0 | 4-1/2 | .054 | 975
Apple dumpling: | | | |
1 egg | 2 |\ | / .016 | 81
4 apples | 1 8 | \ 8 |/ .006 | 382
1/2 cup lard | 4 | / |\ ... | 1,055
1 cup flour | 4 |/ | \ .028 | 410
| | | |
Sauce for dumpling: | | | |
Butter | 1 |\ 3 |/ ... | 217
Sugar | 4 |/ |\ ... | 465
Bread | 12 | 3 | .071 | 904
Butter | 1 | 2 | ... | 217
Coffee or tea | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410
|-----------+----------+---------+---------
Total | | 50 | .553 | 6,836
| | | |
| | | |
_Supper or lunch._ | | | |
| | | |
Dried canned corned beef | 8 | 6 | .142 | 560
Potato croquette | 8 | 1 | .009 | 162
Biscuit | 12 | 4 | .070 | 1,297
Butter | 1-1/2 | 3 | ... | 325
Oranges, 4 | 1 4 | 7 | .007 | 400
Skim milk | 1 6 | 2 | .046 | 234
|-----------+----------+---------+----------
Total | | 23 | .274 | 2,978
|===========|==========|=========|==========
Total for day | | 104 | 1.103 | 14,338
|===========|==========|=========|==========
Total for one man | | 26 | .275 | 3,585
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
MENU VI.--_For family equivalent to 4 Men at moderate
muscular work._
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
| | | | Fuel
Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value.
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
| | | |
_Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories.
| | | |
Cornmeal, in mush or cake | 0 5 | 1 | .022 | 414
Milk | 6 | 1 | .012 | 64
Sugar | 2 | 1/2 | ... | 232
Toast | 10 | 2-1/2 | .059 | 753
Butter (24 cents per pound) | 2 | 3 | ... | 434
|-----------+----------+---------+----------
Total | | 8 | .093 | 1,897
| | | |
_Dinner._ | | | |
| | | |
Beef roll (for roasting) | 3 0 | 15 | .417 | 2,280
Potatoes | 1 8 | 2 | .026 | 488
Beets | 8 | 1 | .007 | 85
Bread | 10 | 2-1/2 | .059 | 753
Butter | 2 | 3 | ... | 434
|-----------+----------+---------+----------
Total | | 23-1/2 | .509 | 4,040
| | | |
_Supper._ | | | |
| | | |
Beans, baked | 2 0 | 6 | .446 | 3,180
Pork | 12 | 6 | .012 | 2,556
Potatoes, fried | 1 8 | 2 | .026 | 488
Lard | 2 | 1 | ... | 537
Bread | 10 | 2-1/2 | .059 | 753
Butter | 2 | 3 | ... | 434
|-----------+----------+---------+----------
Total | | 20-1/2 | .543 | 7,948
|===========|==========|=========|==========
Total for day | | 20-1/2 | 1.145 | 13,885
|===========|==========|=========|==========
Total for one man | | 13 | .285 | 3,471
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
MENU VII.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
| | | | Fuel
Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value.
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
| | | |
_Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories.
| | | |
Oatmeal | 0 6 | 2 | .059 | 697
Skim milk, 1 pint | 1 0 | 1-1/2 | .034 | 170
Sugar | 2 | 1/2 | ... | 232
Bread (homemade) | 1 0 | 3 | .095 | 1,205
Sausage | 10 | 6 | .080 | 1,358
Butter (24 cents per pound) | 1 | 1-1/2 | ... | 217
|-----------+----------+---------+----------
Total | | 14-1/2 | .268 | 3,879
| | | |
_Dinner._ | | | |
| | | |
Beef flank, stew | 2 8 | 15 | .430 | 2,988
Potatoes (60 cents per | | | |
bushel) | 3 0 | 3 | .054 | 975
Cabbage | 12 | 1 | .013 | 105
Cornmeal pudding: | | | |
Cornmeal | 4 | 1/2 | .022 | 414
Skim milk, 1 quart | 2 0 | 3 | .068 | 340
Molasses | 12 | 1 | .020 | 987
|-----------+----------+---------+----------
Total | | 22-1/2 | .604 | 5,889
| | | |
_Supper._ | | | |
| | | |
Beef, warmed in gravy | 1 8 | 3 | .086 | 598
Hot biscuit | 2 0 | 6 | .340 | 2,600
Butter | 2 | 3 | ... | 434
Milk, 1 quart | 2 0 | 6 | .033 | 325
|-----------+----------+---------+----------
Total | | 18 | .259 | 3,957
|===========|==========|=========|==========
Total per day | | 55 | 1.134 | 3,645
|===========|==========|=========|==========
Total for one man | | 14 | .285 | 3,411
----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
DISCUSSION OF THE MENUS.
These menus attempt to give, as nearly as convenient, the range of
food materials and the variety of combination which might be found in
the average well-to-do household. Some of the menus are more varied
and costly than others, and a few are given showing the effect of the
use of more milk, and also how a diet might easily become one-sided.
The quantities of the different foods used per meal will not, it is
believed, be found out of proportion to each other, though of course
they will not suit every family. The weights of all materials,
oatmeal and other cereals, meat, vegetables, etc., are for these
substances as purchased.
The calculation of the quantities of nutrients contained in the
different foods is based upon the average percentage composition of
these materials. Inasmuch as the fats and carbohydrates are used
simply as fuel they are not shown in the menus, only the quantity of
protein and the fuel value of the food being of interest.
The cost of the different food materials must of necessity be more or
less of a varying quantity, depending upon the season of the year, the
character of the markets, large or small, city or country, etc. Of the
more important food materials the assumed price per pound is as
follows: Beef loin, 18 to 25 cents; shoulder, 12 cents; round, 14
cents; chicken, 15 cents; mutton loin, 16 cents; lamb leg, 20 cents;
bacon, 16 cents; sausage, 10 cents; milk, 3 cents (6 cents per quart);
skim milk, 1-1/2 cents (3 cents per quart); butter, 32 cents; cheese,
16 cents; eggs, 16 cents (24 cents per dozen); flour and meal, 2-1/2
to 3 cents; cereals, 5 to 8 cents; bread, 4 cents; potatoes and other
vegetables, 1-1/2 cent (90 cents per bushel); bananas, about 8 cents
(20 cents per dozen); oranges, about 7 cents (25 to 40 cents per
dozen); apples, 1-1/2 cent per pound (90 cents per bushel).
It is probable that the above figures represent more nearly the
average prices of the different food materials in the eastern part of
the country than in the central and western portions, where meats,
cereals, and many other products are somewhat cheaper. It is also to
be borne in mind that by observing the markets many food materials can
be purchased much cheaper than here indicated, while on the other
hand there may be times when they will be much more expensive. The
choice of vegetables and fruits will naturally be governed by their
abundance and cost.
Another point that must not be overlooked is that the quantities, and
consequently the costs, here given are for four working men; that is
to say, men engaged in moderately hard muscular labor. Of course,
different individuals differ greatly in their needs for food. These
figures express only general averages and are based upon the best
information accessible.
A FEW POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN PLANNING MEALS.
Dietetic authorities advise people who are engaged in active muscular
work to partake of the more substantial meal in the middle of the day,
leaving such articles of food as soup--which is a valuable stimulant
after a day of hard work--fruit, cake, etc., for the evening meal,
when the system is too much exhausted to digest the more concentrated
foods. When men are obliged to take cold lunches in the middle of the
day the housewife should see that the lunch basket contains the
necessary nourishment in the form of cheese, cold meat, meat or fish
sandwiches, hard boiled eggs, a fish or vegetable salad, cold pork and
beans, rice pudding, whole wheat bread and butter, a bottle of milk or
_strained_ tea or coffee, pie, doughnuts, etc.
Remember, a man working in the open air or in a large building
requires food which will not oxidize too quickly, or in other words,
food which will keep up the fuel and force necessary for his work.
Supper in such cases should consist of a good broth or well made
soup, and the lighter foods; but breakfast and dinner should be more
substantial. It is a question of economy to provide suitable food for
the wage-earner. The children may be equally well nourished on a less
expensive diet, such as whole wheat bread and butter, milk puddings,
fruit, green vegetables, cereals, milk, and meat once a day.
On the other hand the individual engaged in sedentary employment, such
as book-keeping, teaching, needlework, etc., should dine later in the
day, as it leaves a longer interval for digestion, which is much
slower when the individual is confined in a close office or work-room,
and where little exercise is taken.[5] Care should be taken in
planning meals for this class to avoid food which requires much
oxygen, such as fresh pork, fried food, sausage, warm bread, pastry,
griddle cakes, etc. The mid-day meal of a brain worker or business man
should be light; a soup, glass of milk (hot or cold), fruit, bread and
butter, vegetable salad, a broiled chop or steak, etc., are suitable
for luncheon.
Special attention should be given to the diet of school children. (See
p. 153.)
Students and children who are obliged to study at night should, as a
rule, take some light nourishment before retiring; a biscuit, a piece
of bread and butter, or a glass of hot milk, is sufficient.
Young girls, who are employed in shops, factories, etc., frequently
hurry away to their work in the morning without taking a substantial
breakfast. It is needless to say that such action is sure to be
followed by a physical breakdown. A glass of hot milk or an egg beaten
and added to a glass of milk will serve as an occasional substitute
for a more substantial meal, but is not enough to sustain active
exercise for any length of time.
Another point to consider in the planning of meals is economy of fuel.
The thoughtful housekeeper will arrange to have food requiring long,
slow cooking, such as stews, soup stock, bread, etc., and ironing done
by the same fuel. Broiling, toasting, omelets, etc., require a quick
fire. It is in the careful consideration of details that economy in
both food and fuel may be exercised.
FOOTNOTE:
[5] The teacher may make this clear by comparing the digestion of the
two classes to the action of the air upon coal in a range with the
drafts open and closed, the more rapid combustion, effect of oxygen,
etc.
* * * * *
SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS.
In giving instruction in Domestic Science, the teacher must be careful
to explain the meaning of any words used which the pupils would not be
likely to understand; for instance, oxidation, combustion, solubility,
etc., and many of the terms used in the analysis, such as
fermentation, casein of milk, albumen, cellulose, etc. In order to
keep the attention of pupils fixed on a subject, frequent
illustrations and comparisons should be made.
Questioning is one of the best methods of riveting attention, and as
every teacher has not the faculty of asking questions, a few
suggestive ones are given which may prove helpful.
Why do we eat food?
What is nitrogenous food?
What is its chief office?
Where is it to be found?
In what section of vegetable kingdom is this compound abundant?
What is the chief nitrogenous compound in meat and eggs?
Of what is it composed?
Why do we call these compounds nitrogenous?
Do they serve any other purpose besides building up flesh?
Which are the most important heat-giving compounds?
What is the proportion in food they should bear to the flesh-forming
compounds?
What other compounds are necessary to form a perfect food?
Give their use?
Where are they to be found?
What is common salt?
Where is it found?
Why do we use it?
Give the three digestive juices.
What kind of mineral matter do we find in vegetables?
Why should potato parings, leaves and stalks of cabbage not be put in
the dust bin or garbage pail?
What should be done with them?
Which are the most important warmth-giving foods?
Give another name for these foods?
Why are they so called?
What is combustion?
How do these foods produce force, etc.?
What other elements do these foods contain?
Why are fats and oils more valuable as heat-givers than starch or
sugar?
What elements unite and form water?
What is the proportion of water in the body?
Give its use?
Explain the difference in the digestion of starch and fat?
Why does starch need cooking?
To what kingdom does it belong?
Which section is of most value?
How is starch changed into sugar?
What changes food into blood?
What gives the red color to blood?
What mineral helps digestion most?
What is sugar?
What causes sugar to ferment?
What is the result?
Where is it to be found?
What are food adjuncts?
Of what value are they?
Give the names of combustible nutrients.
Give the names of incombustible nutrients.
For a substance to undergo combustion, what must it contain?
What supports combustion?
What is chemically pure water?
What causes the hardness of water?
What is gluten?
What is dextrine?
Where is it found?
In what way does dextrine differ from starch?
What is decomposition?
* * * * *
SCHEDULE OF LESSONS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL CLASSES.
LESSON.
I. Information regarding the conduct of classes. Practice in
measuring. Practice in lighting gas-burners and oven. Practice in
lighting and regulating a range.
II. Fruit--Applesauce. Coddled apples. Stewed prunes.
III. Starch--Boiled rice. Potatoes, boiled and mashed.
IV. Starch--Thickening liquids with flour.
V. Starch--Practice in No. 4.
VI. Vegetables--Onions, cabbage, parsnips, etc.
VII. Eggs--Boiled eggs. Poached eggs. Toast.
VIII. Eggs and milk--Boiled and baked custard.
IX. Flour mixtures--Popovers, griddle cake.
X. Flour mixtures--Milk biscuits. Corn bread. Apple pudding.
XI. Bread--Making sponge, kneading, and setting to rise.
XII. Bread--Moulding and baking.
XIII. Fish--Boiled and baked fish. Creamed fish and sauce.
XIV. Review of theory and recipes.
XV. Meat--Roasting meat. Soup stock.
XVI. Meat--Stewed meat.
XVII. Meat--Cold meat and broiling.
XVIII. Salads.
XIX. Beans.
XX. Plain puddings.
NOTE.--After this each teacher must arrange lessons according
to circumstances, age of pupils, etc., alternating cooking with
lessons in care of kitchen and utensils, and lectures on sanitary
matters, laundry work, setting table, and serving.
* * * * *
APPENDIX.
Outlines Nos. I and II, for class work, are contributed by Prof.
Kinne, of Teachers' College, Columbia University, N.Y. City.
OUTLINE I.
The following outline is offered as a tentative plan of work, for an
average class of girls, in the highest grades of the Public school.
The exact order of lessons depends in a measure on the skill and
interest of the pupils, and the special dishes selected to illustrate
a principle, upon the circumstances of the pupils, and upon the season
of the year.
It should be noted that beginning with the third lesson, there are
four lessons on the cooking of carbohydrates; then four on the cooking
of nitrogenous foods; next the batters, combining the two, and
introducing the use of fat, and so on. It is the purpose of this
arrangement to enforce the effects produced by heat on the food
principles, singly and in combination; to alternate the groups, so
that there is a constant review of principles already established; and
to give practical work of increasing difficulty.
The course in cooking should be preceded by a few lessons in
house-work; and at least one on the care of the kitchen. It is taken
for granted that the lessons are accompanied by a study of food
values, the cost of food, marketing, etc.
1. Simple experiments in combustion--to illustrate the structure of
stoves and the care of such stoves. Study of the fuel and apparatus
to be used in the school kitchen; practice in using the apparatus;
comparison with other apparatus.
2. Utensils--what they are, of what materials, and why. It is well to
have pupils make a list in note-book of simple kitchen furnishing.
Experiments with the boiling of water, in Florence flask, in
tea-kettle, and in covered saucepan, using thermometer. Use of double
boiler. Compare with boiling water the temperature of fat hot enough
for frying, and also that of the oven. To illustrate the two latter,
croutons may be made.
3. Measuring--experiment with the cooking of starch in water;
cornstarch pudding, or tapioca or sago jelly. Develop the idea of the
effect of the boiling temperature on the starch grains, the bursting
of the grains, and the change in flavor due to continued cooking.
4. A cereal and a fruit,--say, baked apples. In the cereal, in
addition to the starch, is the cooking of the woody fibre. Note in
both cereal and fruit the flavors developed by heat, the cooking being
a continuation, as it were, of the ripening process.
5. A starchy and a green vegetable; as, for instance, potatoes and
cabbage. Here, again, are the two principles, cookery of starch and
vegetable fibre; again the development of flavor by heat. Cookery of
peas and beans would better be deferred until the pupils are familiar
with the effect of water on nitrogenous substances.
If time allows, a sauce may be made to serve with a vegetable, or this
may be given in the next lesson.
6. Vegetable soups, without meat stock. This is in part a review
lesson. Opportunity is offered here for the study of proportions,
several ingredients being used, how much vegetable pulp or juice to
how much liquid; how much thickening, and how much salt to a quart of
soup.
7. Eggs. Experiments to show the coagulating point of the white and
yolk, followed by soft and hard cooking of eggs, and possibly a plain
omelet.
8. Eggs and milk.
9. Oysters.
10. Fish.
11, 12, 13. Batters. In these three lessons study especially
proportions, methods of mixing and baking. A good sequence of batters
is the following: popovers, griddle cakes, muffins, and baking powder
biscuit; or a sweet batter in the form of a plain cake may be given
for sake of variety.
14. Tender meat. Pan broiling and broiling.
15. Tender meat. Roasting and making of gravy.
18. Tough meat. Soups and stews.
19. Tough meat. Soups and stews.
Made dishes of meat can be given in these two lessons also.
20. Beverages.
21. Salads.
22. Desserts.
23. A breakfast.
24. A luncheon.
25. A dinner; or, dinner and supper.
Other topics, in addition to these, or in place of some of them;
bacon, and trying out of fat; cheese dishes; canning and preserving;
dishes for invalids; other desserts and made dishes.
OUTLINE II.
This outline has been found practical in a short course where it was
advisable to give the pupils work in the preparation of simple meals.
The plan can be followed in a longer course.
_Introductory Lesson: Fire-making, Measuring, etc._
1. A cereal and fruit.
2. Eggs.
3. Bacon, and the trying out of fat.
4. Plain muffins, or griddle cakes. Coffee.
5. A breakfast.
6. Vegetables. Vegetable soup.
7. A made dish of meat or fish.
8. Salad and dressing.
9. Muffins or biscuit.
10. A luncheon or supper.
11. Vegetables. Macaroni.
12. Meat.
13. Sauces and gravies. A dessert.
14. Bread or rolls.
15. A dinner.
End of Project Gutenberg's Public School Domestic Science, by Mrs. J. Hoodless