KANAUJ, an ancient city of British India, in Farukhabad district, United

Provinces, near the left bank of the Ganges. Pop. (1901), 18,552. Kanauj

in early times formed the capital of a great Hindu kingdom. Its

prosperity dates from a prehistoric period, and seems to have culminated

about the 6th century under Harsha. In 1019 it fell before Mahmud of

Ghazni, and again in 1194 before Mahommed Ghori. The existing ruins

extend over the lands of five villages, occupying a semicircle fully 4

m. in diameter. No Hindu buildings remain intact; but the great mosque,

constructed by Ibrahim Shah of Jaunpur in 1406 out of Hindu temples, is

still called by Hindus "Sita's Kitchen." Kanauj, which is traditionally

said to be derived from _Kanyakubja_ (= the crooked maiden), has given

its name to an important division of Brahmans in northern India.

Hinduism in Lower Bengal also dates its origin from a Brahman migration

southwards from this city, about 800 or 900. Kanauj is now noted for the

distilling of scents.

KANDAHAR, the largest city in Afghanistan, situated in 31 deg. 37' N.

lat. and 65 deg. 43' E. long., 3400 ft. above the sea. It is 370 m.

distant from Herat on the N.W., by Girishk and Farah--Girishk being 75

m., and Farah 225 m. from Kandahar. From Kabul, on the N.E., it is

distant 315 m., by Kalat-i-Ghilzai and Ghazni--Kalat-i-Ghilzai being 85

m., and Ghazni 225 m. from Kandahar. To the Peshin valley the distance

is about 110 m., and from Peshin to India the three principal routes

measure approximately as follows: by the Zhob valley to Dera Ismail

Khan, 300 m.; by the Bori valley to Dera Ghazi Khan, 275 m.; by Quetta

and the Bolan to Dadar, 125 m.; and by Chappar and Nari to Sibi, 120 m.

The Indian railway system extends to New Chaman, within some 80 m. of

Kandahar. Immediately round the city is a plain, highly cultivated and

well populated to the south and west; but on the north-west barren, and

bounded by a double line of hills, rising to about 1000 ft. above its

general level, and breaking its dull monotony with irregular lines of

scarped precipices, crowned with fantastic pinnacles and peaks. To the

north-west these hills form the watershed between the valleys of the

Arghandab and the Tarnak, until they are lost in the mountain masses of

the Hazarajat--a wild region inhabited by tribes of Tatar origin, which

effectually shuts off Kandahar from communication with the north. On the

south-west they lose themselves in the sandy desert of Registan, which

wraps itself round the plain of Kandahar, and forms another impassable

barrier. But there is a break in these hills--a gate, as it were, to the

great high road between Herat and India; and it is this gate which the

fortress of Kandahar so effectually guards, and to which it owes its

strategic importance. Other routes there are, open to trade, between

Herat and northern India, either following the banks of the Hari Rud,

or, more circuitously, through the valley of the Helmund to Kabul; or

the line of hills between the Arghandab and the Tarnak may be crossed

close to Kalat-i-Ghilzai; but of the two former it may be said that they

are not ways open to the passage of Afghan armies owing to the

hereditary hostility existing between the Aeimak and Hazara tribes and

the Afghans generally, while the latter is not beyond striking distance

from Kandahar. The one great high road from Herat and the Persian

frontier to India is that which passes by Farah and crosses the Helmund

at Girishk. Between Kandahar and India the road is comparatively open,

and would be available for railway communication but for the jealous

exclusiveness of the Afghans.

To the north-west, and parallel to the long ridges of the Tarnak

watershed, stretches the great road to Kabul, traversed by Nott in 1842,

and by Stewart and subsequently by Roberts in 1880. Between this and the

direct route to Peshin is a road which leads through Maruf to the Kundar

river and the Guleri pass into the plains of Hindustan at Dera Ismail

Khan. This is the most direct route to northern India, but it involves

the passage of some rough country, across the great watershed between

the basins of the Helmund and the Indus. But the best known road from

Kandahar to India is that which stretches across the series of open

stony plains interspersed with rocky hills of irregular formation

leading to the foot of the Kwaja Amran (Khojak) range, on the far side

of which from Kandahar lies the valley of Peshin. The passage of the

Kwaja Amran involves a rise and fall of some 2300 ft., but the range has

been tunnelled and a railway now connects the frontier post of New

Chaman with Quetta. Two lines of railway now connect Quetta with Sind,

the one known as the Harnai loop, the other as the Bolan or Mashkaf

line. They meet at Sibi (see BALUCHISTAN). Several roads to India have

been developed through Baluchistan, but they are all dominated from

Kandahar. Thus Kandahar becomes a sort of focus of all the direct routes

converging from the wide-stretching western frontier of India towards

Herat and Persia, and the fortress of Kandahar gives protection on the

one hand to trade between Hindustan and Herat, and on the other it lends

to Kabul security from invasion by way of Herat.

Kandahar is approximately a square-built city, surrounded by a wall of

about 3(3/4) m. circuit, and from 25 to 30 ft. high, with an average

breadth of 15 ft. Outside the wall is a ditch 10 ft. deep. The city and

its defences are entirely mud-built. There are four main streets

crossing each other nearly at right angles, the central "chouk" being

covered with a dome. These streets are wide and bordered with trees, and

are flanked by shops with open fronts and verandas. There are no

buildings of any great pretension in Kandahar, a few of the more wealthy

Hindus occupying the best houses. The tomb of Ahmad Shah is the only

attempt at monumental architecture. This, with its rather handsome

cupola, and the twelve minor tombs of Ahmad Shah's children grouped

around, contains a few good specimens of fretwork and of inlaid

inscriptions. The four streets of the city divide it into convenient

quarters for the accommodation of its mixed population of Duranis,

Ghilzais, Parsiwans and Kakars, numbering in all some 30,000 souls. Of

these the greater proportion are the Parsiwans (chiefly Kizilbashes).

It is reckoned that there are 1600 shops and 182 mosques in the city.

The mullahs of these mosques are generally men of considerable power.

The walls of the city are pierced by the four principal gates of

"Kabul," "Shikarpur," "Herat" and the "Idgah," opposite the four main

streets, with two minor gates, called the Top Khana and the Bardurani

respectively, in the western half of the city. The Idgah gate passes

through the citadel, which is a square-built enclosure with sides of

about 260 yds. in length. The flank defences of the main wall are

insufficient; indeed there is no pretence at scientific structure about

any part of the defences; but the site of the city is well chosen for

defence, and the water supply (drawn by canals from the Arghandab or

derived from wells) is good.

About 4 m. west of the present city, stretched along the slopes of a

rocky ridge, and extending into the plains at its foot, are the ruins

of the old city of Kandahar sacked and plundered by Nadir Shah in

1738. From the top of the ridge a small citadel overlooks the

half-buried ruins. On the north-east face of the hill forty steps, cut

out of solid limestone, lead upward to a small, dome-roofed recess,

which contains some interesting Persian inscriptions cut in relief on

the rock, recording particulars of the history of Kandahar, and

defining the vast extent of the kingdom of the emperor Baber. Popular

belief ascribes the foundation of the old city to Alexander the Great.

Although Kandahar has long ceased to be the seat of government, it is

nevertheless by far the most important trade centre in Afghanistan,

and the revenues of the Kandahar province assist largely in supporting

the chief power at Kabul. There are no manufactures or industries of

any importance peculiar to Kandahar, but the long lines of bazaars

display goods from England, Russia, Hindustan, Persia and Turkestan,

embracing a trade area as large probably as that of any city in Asia.

The customs and town dues together amount to a sum equal to the land

revenue of the Kandahar province, which is of considerable extent,

stretching to Pul-i-Sangin, 10 m. south of Kalat-i-Ghilzai on the

Kabul side, to the Helmund on the west, and to the Hazara country on

the north. Although Farah has been governed from Kandahar since 1863,

its revenues are not reckoned as a part of those of the province. The

land revenue proper is assessed in grain, the salaries of government

officials, pay of soldiers, &c., being disbursed by "barats" or orders

for grain at rates fixed by government, usually about 20% above the

city market prices. The greater part of the English goods sold at

Herat are imported by Karachi and Kandahar--a fact which testifies to

the great insecurity of trade between Meshed and Herat. Some of the

items included as town dues are curious. For instance, the tariff on

animals exposed for sale includes a charge of 5% ad valorem on slave

girls, besides a charge of 1 rupee per head. The kidney fat of all

sheep and the skins of all goats slaughtered in the public yard are

perquisites of government, the former being used for the manufacture

of soap, which, with snuff, is a government monopoly. The imports

consist chiefly of English goods, indigo, cloth, boots, leather,

sugar, salt, iron and copper, from Hindustan, and of shawls, carpets,

"barak" (native woollen cloth), postins (coats made of skins), shoes,

silks, opium and carpets from Meshed, Herat and Turkestan. The exports

are wool, cotton, madder, cummin seed, asafoetida, fruit, silk and

horses. The system of coinage is also curious: 105 English rupees are

melted down, and the alloy extracted, leaving 100 rupees' worth of

silver; 295 more English rupees are then melted, and the molten metal

mixed with the 100 rupees silver; and out of this 808 Kandahari rupees

are coined. As the Kandahari rupee is worth about 8 annas (half an

English rupee) the government thus realizes a profit of 1%.

Government accounts are kept in "Kham" rupees, the "Kham" being worth

about five-sixths of a Kandahari rupee; in other words, it about

equals the franc, or the Persian "kran."

Immediately to the south and west of Kandahar is a stretch of

well-irrigated and highly cultivated country, but the valley of the

Arghandab is the most fertile in the district, and, from the luxuriant

abundance of its orchards and vineyards, offers the most striking

scenes of landscape beauty. The pomegranate fields form a striking

feature in the valley--the pomegranates of Kandahar, with its "sirdar"

melons and grapes, being unequalled in quality by any in the East. The

vines are grown on artificial banks, probably for want of the

necessary wood to trellis them--the grapes being largely exported in a

semi-dried state. Fruit, indeed, besides being largely exported, forms

the chief staple of the food supply of the inhabitants throughout

Afghanistan. The art of irrigation is so well understood that the

water supply is at times exhausted, no river water being allowed to

run to waste. The plains about Kandahar are chiefly watered by canals

drawn from the Arghandab near Baba-wali, and conducted through the

same gap in the hills which admits the Herat road. The amount of

irrigation and the number of water channels form a considerable

impediment to the movements of troops, not only immediately about

Kandahar, but in all districts where the main rivers and streams are

bordered by green bands of cultivation. Irrigation by "karez" is also

largely resorted to. The karez is a system of underground channelling

which usually taps a sub-surface water supply at the foot of some of

the many rugged and apparently waterless hills which cover the face of

the country. The water is not brought to the surface, but is carried

over long distances by an underground channel or drain, which is

constructed by sinking shafts at intervals along the required course

and connecting the shafts by tunnelling. The general agricultural

products of the country are wheat, barley, pulse, fruit, madder,

asafoetida, lucerne, clover and tobacco.

Of the mineral resources of the Kandahar district not much is known,

but an abandoned gold mine exists about 2 m. north of the town. Some

general idea of the resources of the Kandahar district may be gathered

from the fact that it supplied the British troops with everything

except luxuries during the entire period of occupation in 1879-81; and

that, in spite of the great strain thrown on those resources by the

presence of the two armies of Ayub Khan and of General Roberts, and

after the total failure of the autumn crops and only a partial harvest

the previous spring, the army was fed without great difficulty until

the final evacuation, at one-third of the prices paid in Quetta for

supplies drawn from India.

_History._--Kandahar has a stormy history. Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni

took it in the 11th century from the Afghans who then held it. In the

beginning of the 13th century it was taken by Jenghiz Khan, and in the

14th by Timur. In 1507 it was captured by the emperor Baber, but

shortly afterwards it fell again into Afghan hands, to be retaken by

Baber in 1521. Baber's son, Humayun, agreed to cede Kandahar to

Persia, but failed to keep his word, and the Persians besieged the

place unsuccessfully. Thus it remained in the possession of the Moguls

till 1625, when it was taken by Shah Abbas. Aurangzeb tried to take it

in 1649 with 5000 men, but failed. Another attempt in 1652 was equally

unsuccessful. It remained in Persian possession till 1709, when it was

taken by the Afghans, but was retaken after a two years' siege by

Nadir Shah. Nadir Shah was assassinated in 1749, and immediately on

hearing the news of his death Ahmad Shah (Abdali) seized Nadir Shah's

treasure at Kandahar, and proclaimed himself king, with the consent,

not only of the Afghans, but, strange to say, of the Hazaras and

Baluchis as well. He at once changed the site of the city to its

present position, and thus founded the Afghan kingdom, with modern

Kandahar as its capital. Ahmad Shah died in 1773, and was succeeded by

his son Timur, who died in 1793, and left the throne to his son Zaman

Shah. This prince was deposed by his half-brother Mahmud, who was in

his turn deposed by Shah Shuja, the full brother of Zaman Shah. After

a short reign Shah Shuja was compelled to abdicate from his inability

to repress the rising power of Fateh Khan, a Barakzai chief, and he

took refuge first with Ranjit Singh, who then ruled the Punjab, and

finally secured the protection of British power. Afghanistan was now

practically dismembered. Mahmud was reinstated by Fateh Khan, whom he

appointed his vizier, and whose nephews, Dost Mahommed Khan and Kohn

dil Khan, he placed respectively in the governments of Kabul and

Kandahar. Fateh Khan was barbarously murdered by Kamran (Mahmud's son)

near Ghazni in 1818; and in retaliation Mahmud himself was driven from

power, and the Barakzai clan secured the sovereignty of Afghanistan.

While Dost Mahommed held Kabul, Kandahar became temporarily a sort of

independent chiefship under two or three of his brothers. In 1839 the

cause of Shah Shuja was actively supported by the British. Kandahar

was occupied, and Shah Shuja reinstated on the throne of his

ancestors. Dost Mahommed was defeated near Kabul, and after surrender

to the British force, was deported into Hindustan. The British army of

occupation in southern Afghanistan continued to occupy Kandahar from

1839 till the autumn of 1842, when General Nott marched on Kabul to

meet Pollock's advance from Jalalabad. The cantonments near the city,

built by Nott's division, were repaired and again occupied by the

British army in 1879, when Shere Ali was driven from power by the

invasion of Afghanistan, nor were they finally evacuated till the

spring of 1881. Trade statistics of late years show a gradual increase

of exports to India from Kandahar and the countries adjacent thereto,

but a curious falling-off in imports. The short-sighted policy of the

amir Abdur Rahman in discouraging imports doubtless affected the

balance, nor did his affectation of ignoring the railway between New

Chaman and Kila Abdulla (on the Peshin side of the Khojak) conduce to

the improvement of trade. (T. H. H.*)

KANDI, a town of British India, in Murshidabad district, Bengal. Pop.

(1901), 12,037. It is the residence of the rajas of Paikpara, a wealthy

and devout Hindu family. The founder of this family was Ganga Govind

Singh, the banyan or agent of Warren Hastings, who was born at Kandi,

and retired hither in his old age with an immense fortune. His name has

acquired celebrity for the most magnificent _sraddha_, or funeral

obsequies, ever performed in Bengal, celebrated in honour of his mother,

at a cost, it is said, of L200,000.

KANDY, a town near the centre of Ceylon, 75 m. from Colombo by rail,

formerly the capital of a kingdom of the same name, situated towards

the heart of the island, 1718 ft. above the sea. It lies round the

margin of an artificial lake constructed by the last king of Kandy in

1806, and is beautifully surrounded by hills. The most striking objects

are the temples (of which twelve are Buddhist and four Brahman), the

tombs of the Kandian kings, and the various buildings of the royal

residence, partly allowed to fall into disrepair, partly utilized by the

government. Of the temples the Dalada Malagawa is worthy of particular

mention; it claims, as the name indicates, to be in possession of a

Buddha tooth.

Kandy was occupied by the Portuguese in the 16th century and by the

Dutch in 1763; but in both instances the native kings succeeded in

shaking off the foreign yoke. The British got possession of the place in

1803, but the garrison afterwards capitulated and were massacred, and it

was not till 1814-15 that the king was defeated and dethroned. The

British authority was formally established by the convention of March 2,

1815. In 1848, owing to an attempt at rebellion, the town was for a time

under martial law. It has been greatly improved of recent years. Sir

William Gregory when governor did much to restore the ancient Kandy

decorations, while the Victoria Jubilee Commemoration Building,

including "Ferguson Memorial Hall," and two fine hotels, add to the

improvements. The Royal Botanic Gardens are situated at Peradeniya, 3 m.

distant. Kandy is a uniquely beautiful, highland, tropical town, full of

interesting historical and Buddhistic associations. A water supply and

electric lighting have been introduced. Roman Catholic missions are

active in the work of education, for which a large block of buildings

has been erected. Church of England, Wesleyan and Baptist missions are

also at work. The population of the town in 1900 was 26,386; of the

district, 377,591. Average annual rainfall, 81(1/2) in.; average

temperature, 75.3. There is a branch railway from Kandy, north to

Matale, 17 m.

KANE, ELISHA KENT (1820-1857), American scientist and explorer, was born

in Philadelphia on the 20th of February 1820, the son of the jurist John

Kintzing Kane (1795-1858), a friend and supporter of Andrew Jackson,

attorney-general of Pennsylvania in 1845-1846, U.S. judge of the Eastern

District of Pennsylvania after 1846, and president of the American

Philosophical Society in 1856-1858. Young Kane entered the university of

Virginia and obtained the degree of M.D. in 1842, and in the following

year entered the U.S. navy as surgeon. He had already acquired a

considerable reputation in physiological research. The ship to which he

was appointed was ordered to China, and he found opportunities during

the voyage for indulging his passion for exploration, making a journey

from Rio de Janeiro to the base of the Andes, and another from Bombay

through India to Ceylon. On the arrival of the ship at its destination

he provided a substitute for his post and crossed over to the island of

Luzon, which he explored. In 1844 he left China, and, returning by

India, Persia, Syria, Egypt, Greece, Austria, Germany and Switzerland,

reached America in 1846. In that year he was ordered to the west coast

of Africa, where he visited Dahomey, and contracted fever, which told

severely on his constitution. On his return in 1847, he exchanged the

naval for the military service, and was sent to join the U.S. army in

Mexico, where he had some extraordinary adventures, and where he was

again stricken with fever.

On the fitting out of the first Grinnell expedition, in 1850, to search

for Sir John Franklin, Kane was appointed surgeon and naturalist under

Lieut. de Haven, who commanded the ships "Advance" and "Rescue." The

expedition, after an absence of sixteen months, during nine of which the

ships were ice-bound, returned without having found any trace of the

missing vessels. Kane was in feeble health, but worked on at his

narrative of the expedition, which was published in 1854, under the

title of _The U.S. Grinnell Expedition in Search of Sir John Franklin_.

He was determined not to give up the search for Franklin, and in spite

of ill-health travelled through the States lecturing to obtain funds,

and gave up his pay for twenty months. At length Henry Grinnell fitted

out an expedition, in the little brig "Advance," of which Kane was given

the command. She sailed in June 1853, and passing up Smith Sound at the

head of Baffin Bay advanced into the enclosed sea which now bears the

name of Kane Basin, thus establishing the Polar route of many future

Arctic expeditions. Here, off the coast of Greenland, the expedition

passed two winters, accomplishing much useful geographical, as well as

scientific, work, including the attainment of what was to remain for

sixteen years the highest northern latitude, 80 deg. 35' N. (June 1854).

From this point a large area of open water was seen which was believed

to be an "open Polar Sea," a chimera which played an important and

delusive role in subsequent explorations. After enduring the greatest

hardships it was resolved to abandon the ship, Upernivik being reached

on the 5th of August 1855, whence a relief expedition brought the

explorers home. Medals were authorized by Congress, and in the following

year Dr Kane received the founder's medal of the Royal Geographical

Society, and, two years later, a gold medal from the Paris Geographical

Society. He published _The Second Grinnell Expedition_ in 1856. Dr Kane

died at Havana on the 16th of February 1857, at the age of thirty-seven.

Between his first and second arctic voyages he made the acquaintance of

the Fox family, the spiritualists. With one of the daughters, Margaret,

he carried on a long correspondence, which was afterwards published by

the lady, who declared that they were privately married.

See _Biography of E. K. Kane_, by William Elder (1858); _Life of E. K.

Kane and other American Explorers_, by S. M. Smucker (1858); _The

Love-Life of Dr Kane, containing the Correspondence and a History of

the Engagement and Secret Marriage between E. K. Kane and Margaret

Fox_ (New York, 1866); "Discoveries of Dr Kane," in _Jour. of the Roy.

Geog. Soc._, vol. xxviii. (reprinted in _R. G. S. Arctic Papers_ of

1875).

KANE, a borough of McKean county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 90 m.

E.S.E. of Erie. Pop. (1890), 2944; (1900), 5296, (971 foreign-born);

(1910) 6626. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore & Ohio, the

Kane & Elk, and the Big Level & Kinzua railways. It is situated about

2015 ft. above the sea in a region producing natural gas, oil, lumber

and silica, and has some reputation as a summer resort. The borough has

manufactories of window glass, plate glass and bottles, and repair shops

of the Pennsylvania railroad. Kane was settled in 1859, and was

incorporated as a borough in 1887. It was named in honour of its founder

Gen. Thomas L. Kane (1822-1883), brother of Elisha Kent Kane.

KANGAROO, the universally accepted, though not apparently the native,

designation of the more typical representatives of the marsupial family

_Macropodidae_ (see MARSUPIALIA). Although intimately connected with the

cuscuses and phalangers by means of the musk-kangaroo, the kangaroos and

wallabies, together with the rat-kangaroos, are easily distinguishable

from other diprotodont marsupials by their general conformation, and by

peculiarities in the structure of their limbs, teeth and other organs.

They vary in size from that of a sheep to a small rabbit. The head,

especially in the larger species, is small, compared with the rest of

the body, and tapers forward to the muzzle. The shoulders and fore-limbs

are feebly developed, and the hind-limbs of disproportionate strength

and magnitude, which give the animals a peculiarly awkward appearance

when moving about on all-fours, as they occasionally do when feeding.

Rapid progression is, however, performed only by the powerful

hind-limbs, the animals covering the ground by a series of immense

bounds, during which the fore part of the body is inclined forwards, and

balanced by the long, strong and tapering tail, which is carried

horizontally backwards. When not moving, they often assume a perfectly

upright position, the tail aiding the two hind-legs to form a tripod,

and the front-limbs dangling by the side of the chest. This position

gives full scope for the senses of sight, hearing and smell to warn of

the approach of enemies. The fore-paws have five digits, each armed with

a strong, curved claw. The hind-foot is extremely long, narrow and

(except in the musk-kangaroo) without the first toe. It consists mainly

of one very large and strong toe, corresponding to the fourth of the

human foot, ending in a strong curved and pointed claw (fig. 2). Close

to the outer side of this lies a smaller fifth digit, and to the inner

side two excessively slender toes (the second and third), bound together

almost to the extremity in a common integument. The two little claws of

these toes, projecting together from the skin, may be of use in

scratching and cleaning the fur of the animal, but the toes must have

quite lost all connexion with the functions of support or progression.

This type of foot-structure is termed syndactylous.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Great Grey Kangaroo (_Macropus giganteus_).]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Skeleton of right hind-foot of Kangaroo.]

The dental formula, when completely developed, is _incisors_ 3/1,

_canines_ 1/0, _premolars_ 3/3, _molars_ 3/3 on each side, giving a

total of 34 teeth. The three incisors of the upper jaw are arranged in a

continuous arched series, and have crowns with broad cutting edges; the

first or middle incisor is often larger than the others. Corresponding

to these in the lower jaw is but one tooth on each side, which is of

great size, directed horizontally forwards, narrow, lanceolate and

pointed with sharp edges. Owing to the slight union of the two halves of

the lower jaw in front in many species the two lower incisors work

together like the blades of a pair of scissors. The canines are absent

or rudimentary in the lower, and often deciduous at an early age in the

upper jaw. The first two premolars are compressed, with cutting

longitudinal edges, the anterior one is deciduous, being lost about the

time the second one replaces the milk-molar, so that three premolars are

never found in place and use in the same individual. The last premolar

and the molars have quadrate crowns, provided with two strong transverse

ridges, or with four obtuse cusps. In _Macropus giganteus_ and its

immediate allies, the premolars and sometimes the first molar are shed,

so that in old examples only the two posterior molars and the incisors

are found in place. The milk-dentition, as in other marsupials, is

confined to a single tooth on each side of each jaw, the other molars

and incisors being never changed. The dentition of the kangaroos,

functionally considered, thus consists of sharp-edged incisors, most

developed near the median line of the mouth, for the purpose of cropping

herbage, and ridged or tuberculated molars for crushing.

The number of vertebrae is--in the cervical region 7, dorsal 13, lumbar

6, sacral 2, caudal varying according to the length of the tail, but

generally from 21 to 25. In the fore-limb the clavicle and the radius

and ulna are well developed, allowing of considerable freedom of motion

of the fore-paw. The pelvis has large epipubic or "marsupial" bones. The

femur is short, and the tibia and fibula of great length, as is the

foot, the whole of which is applied to the ground when the animal is at

rest in the upright position.

The stomach is large and very complex, its walls being puckered by

longitudinal muscular bands into a number of folds. The alimentary canal

is long, and the caecum well developed. The young (which, as in other

marsupials, leave the uterus in an extremely small and imperfect

condition) are placed in the pouch as soon as they are born; and to this

they resort temporarily for shelter for some time after they are able to

run, jump and feed upon the herbage which forms the nourishment of the

parent. During the early period of their sojourn in the pouch, the

blind, naked, helpless young creatures (which in the great kangaroo

scarcely exceed an inch in length) are attached by their mouths to the

nipple of the mother, and are fed by milk injected into their stomach by

the contraction of the muscle covering the mammary gland. In this stage

of existence the elongated upper part of the larynx projects into the

posterior nares, and so maintains a free communication between the lungs

and the external surface, independently of the mouth and gullet, thus

averting danger of suffocation while the milk is passing down the

gullet.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Skull and teeth of Bennett's Wallaby (_Macropus

ruficollis bennettii_): i^1, i^2, i^3, first, second and third upper

incisors; pm, second premolar (the first having been already shed); m^1,

m^2, m^3, m^4, last premolar and three molars. The last, not fully

developed, is nearly concealed by the ascending part of the lower jaw.]

Kangaroos are vegetable-feeders, browsing on grass and various kinds of

herbage, but the smaller species also eat roots. They are naturally

timid and inoffensive, but the larger kinds when hard pressed will turn

and defend themselves, sometimes killing a dog by grasping it in their

fore-paws, and inflicting terrible wounds with the sharp claws of their

powerful hind-legs, supporting themselves meanwhile upon the tail. The

majority are inhabitants of Australia and Tasmania, forming one of the

most prominent and characteristic features of the fauna of these lands,

and performing the part of the deer and antelopes of other parts of the

world. They were important sources of food-supply to the natives, and

are hunted by the colonists, both for sport and on account of the damage

they do in consuming grass required for cattle and sheep. A few species

are found in New Guinea, and the adjacent islands, which belong, in the

zoological sense, to the Australian province, beyond the bounds of which

none occurs.

The more typical representatives of the group constitute the

sub-family _Macropodinae_, in which the cutting-edges of the upper

incisors are nearly level, or the first pair but slightly longer than

the others (fig. 3). The canines are rudimentary and often wanting.

The molars are usually not longer (from before backwards) than the

anterior premolars, and less compressed than in the next section. The

crowns of the molars have two prominent transverse ridges. The

fore-limbs are small with subequal toes, armed with strong, moderately

long, curved claws. Hind-limbs very long and strongly made. Head

small, with more or less elongated muzzle. Ears generally rather long

and ovate.

The typical genus _Macropus_, in which the muzzle is generally naked,

the ears large, the fur on the nape of the neck usually directed

backwards, the claw of the fourth hind-toe very large, and the tail

stout and tapering, includes a large number of species. Among these,

the great grey kangaroo (_M. giganteus_, fig. 1) deserves special

mention on account of having been discovered during Captain Cook's

first voyage in 1770. The great red kangaroo (_M. rufus_) is about the

same size, while other large species are _M. antilopinus_ and _M.

robustus_. The larger wallabies, or brush-kangaroos, such as the

red-necked wallaby (_M. ruficollis_) constitute a group of

smaller-sized species; while the smaller wallabies, such as the

filander (q.v.) (_M. muelleri_) and _M. thetidis_, constitute yet

another section. The genus ranges from the eastern Austro-Malay

islands to New Guinea.

Nearly allied are the rock-wallabies of Australia and Tasmania,

constituting the genus _Petrogale_, chiefly distinguished by the

thinner tail being more densely haired and terminating in a tuff.

Well-known species are _P. penicillata_, _P. xanthopus_ and _P.

lateralis_. The few species of nail-tailed wallabies, _Onychogale_,

which are confined to the Australian mainland, take their name from

the presence of a horny spur at the end of the tail, and are further

distinguished by the hairy muzzle. _O. unguifer_, _O. fraenatus_ and

_O. lunatus_ represent the group. The hare-wallabies, such as

_Lagorchestes leporoides_, _L. hirsutus_ and _L. consepicillatus_,

constitute a genus with the same distribution as the last, and

likewise with a hairy muzzle, but with a rather short, evenly furred

tail, devoid of a spur. They are great leapers and swift runners,

mostly frequenting open stony plains.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Skull and teeth of Lesueuir's Rat-Kangaroo

(_Bettongia lesueuiri_). c, upper canine. Other letters as in fig. 3.

The anterior premolar has been shed.]

More distinct is the Papuan genus _Dorcopsis_, as typified by _D.

muelleri_, although it is to some extent connected with _Macropus_ by

_D. macleyi_. The muzzle is naked, the fur on the nape of the neck

directed more or less completely forward, and the hind-limbs are less

disproportionately elongated. Perhaps, however, the most distinctive

feature of the genus is the great fore-and-aft length of the

penultimate premolar in both jaws. Other species are _D.

rufolateralis_ and _D. aurantiacus_. In the tree-kangaroos, which

include the Papuan _Dendrolagus inustus_, _D. ursinus_, _D. dorianus_,

_D. benetianus_ and _D. maximus_, and the North Queensland _D.

lumholtzi_, the reduction in the length of the hind-limbs is carried

to a still further degree, so that the proportions of the fore and

hind limbs are almost normal. The genus agrees with _Dorcopsis_ in the

direction of the hair on the neck, but the muzzle is only partially

hairy, and the elongation of the penultimate premolar is less. These

kangaroos are largely arboreal in their habits, but they descend to

the ground to feed. Lastly, we have the banded wallaby, _Lagostrophus

fasciatus_, of Western Australia, a small species characterized by its

naked muzzle, the presence of long bristles on the hind-feet which

conceal the claws, and also of dark transverse bands on the lower part

of the back. The skull has a remarkably narrow and pointed muzzle and

much inflated auditory bullae; while the two halves of the lower jaw

are firmly welded together at their junction, thus effectually

preventing the scissor-like action of the lower incisors distinctive

of _Macropus_ and its immediate allies. As regards the teeth, canines

are wanting, and the penultimate upper premolar is short, from before

backwards, with a distinct ledge on the inner side.

In the rat-kangaroos, or kangaroo-rats, as they are called in

Australia, constituting the sub-family _Potoroinae_, the first upper

incisor is narrow, curved, and much exceeds the others in length; the

upper canines are persistent, flattened, blunt and slightly curved,

and the first two premolars of both jaws have large, simple,

compressed crowns, with a nearly straight or slightly concave free

cutting-edge, and both outer and inner surfaces usually marked by a

series of parallel, vertical grooves and ridges. Molars with quadrate

crowns and a blunt conical cusp at each corner, the last notably

smaller than the rest, sometimes rudimentary or absent. Forefeet

narrow; the three middle toes considerably exceeding the first and

fifth in length and their claws long, compressed and but slightly

curved. Hind-feet as in _Macropus_. Tail long, and sometimes partially

prehensile when it is used for carrying bundles of grass with which

these animals build their nests. The group is confined to Australia

and Tasmania, and all the species are relatively small.

In the members of the typical genus _Potorous_ (formerly known as

_Hypsiprymnus_) the head is long and slender, with the auditory bullae

somewhat swollen; while the ridges on the first two premolars are few

and perpendicular, and there are large vacuities on the palate. The

tarsus is short and the muzzle naked. The genus includes _P.

tridactylus_, _P. gilberti_ and _P. platyops_. In _Bettongia_, on the

other hand, the head is shorter and wider, with smaller and more

rounded ears, and more swollen auditory bullae. The ridges on the

first two premolars are also more numerous and somewhat oblique (fig.

4); the tarsus is long and the tail is prehensile. The species include

_B. lesueuiri_, _B. gaimardi_ and _B. cuniculus_. The South Australian

_Caloprymnus campestris_ represents a genus near akin to the last, but

with the edge of the hairy border of the bare muzzle less emarginate

in the middle line, still more swollen auditory bullae, very large and

posterially expanded nasals and longer vacuities on the palate. The

list is completed by _Aepyprymnus rufescens_, which differs from all

the others by the hairy muzzle, and the absence of inflation in the

auditory bullae and of vacuities in the palate.

Perhaps, however, the most interesting member of the whole group is

the tiny musk-kangaroo (_Hypsiprymnodon moschatus_) of north-east

Australia, which alone represents the sub-family

_Hypsiprymnodontinae_, characterized by the presence of an opposable

first toe on the hind-foot and the outward inclination of the

penultimate upper premolar, as well by the small and feeble claws. In

all these features the musk-kangaroo connects the _Macropodidae_ with

the _Phalangeridae_. The other teeth are like those of the

rat-kangaroos. (W. H. F.; R. L.*)

KANGAROO-RAT, a name applied in different parts of the world to two

widely different groups of mammals. In Australia it is used to denote

the small kangaroo-like marsupials technically known as _Potoroinae_,

which zoologists prefer to call rat-kangaroos (see MARSUPIALIA and

KANGAROO). In North America it is employed for certain small jumping

rat-like rodents nearly allied to the pocket-gophers and belonging to

the family _Geomyidae_. Kangaroo-rats in this latter series are

represented by three North American genera, of which _Dipodomys

phillipsi_, _Cricetodipus agilis_ and _Microdipodops megacephalus_ may

respectively be taken as examples. Resembling pocket-gophers in the

possession of cheek-pouches, kangaroo-rats, together with pocket-mice,

are distinguished by their elongated hind-limbs and tails, large eyes,

well-developed ears and general jerboa-like appearance and habits. The

upper incisor teeth are also relatively narrower, and there are

important differences in the skull. The cheek-teeth are rootless in

kangaroo-rats, but they develop roots in the pocket-mice. The former

inhabit open, sandy districts, where they burrow beneath rocks or

stones, and hop about like jerboas; their food consisting of grasses and

other plants.

KANGAVAR, a small district of Persia, situated between Hamadan and

Kermanshah, and, being held in fief by the family of a deceased court

official, forming a separate government. The district is very fertile

and contains 30 villages. Its revenues amount to about L500 per annum,

and its chief place is the large village of Kangavar, which has a

population of about 2500 and is 47 m. from Hamadan on the high road to

Kermanshah.

KANGRA, a town and district of British India, in the Jullundur division

of the Punjab. The town, sometimes called Nagarkot, is situated 2409 ft.

above the sea. Pop. (1901), 4746. The Katoch rajas had a stronghold

here, with a fort and rich temples. Mahmud of Ghazni took the fort in

1009 and from one of the temples carried off a vast treasure. In 1360

Kangra was again plundered, by Feroz Shah. The temple of Devi Bajreshri

was one of the oldest and wealthiest in northern India. It was

destroyed, together with the fort and the town, by an earthquake on the

4th of April 1905, when 1339 lives were lost in this place alone, and

about 20,000 elsewhere. In 1855 the headquarters of the district were

removed to the sanitarium of Dharmsala.

The district of Kangra extends from the Jullundur Doab far into the

southern ranges of the Himalaya. Besides some Rajput states, annexed

after the Sikh wars, it includes Lahul, Spiti and Kulu, which are

essentially Tibetan. The Beas is the only important river. Area, 9978

sq. m., of which Kangra proper has only 2725. Pop. (1901), 768,124;

average density 77 persons per sq. m., but with only one person per sq.

m. in Spiti. Tea cultivation was introduced into Kangra about 1850. The

Palampur fair, established by government with a view to fostering

commerce with central Asia, attracts a small concourse of Yarkandi

merchants. The Lahulis carry on an enterprising trade with Ladakh and

countries beyond the frontier, by means of pack sheep and goats. Rice,

tea, potatoes, opium, spices, wool and honey are the chief exports.

See _Kangra District Gazetteer_ (Lahore, 1906).

KANISHKA, king of Kabul, Kashmir, and north-western India in the 2nd

century A.D., was a Tatar of the Kushan tribe, one of the five into

which the Yue-chi Tatars were divided. His dominions extended as far

down into India as Madura, and probably as far to the north-west as

Bokhara. Private inscriptions found in the Punjab and Sind, in the

Yusufzai district and at Madura, and referred by European scholars to

his reign, are dated in the years five to twenty-eight of an unknown

era. It is the references by Chinese historians to the Yue-chi tribes

before their incursion into India, together with conclusions drawn from

the history of art and literature in his reign, that render the date

given the most probable. Kanishka's predecessors on the throne were

Pagans; but shortly after his accession he professed himself, probably

from political reasons, a Buddhist. He spent vast sums in the

construction of Buddhist monuments; and under his auspices the fourth

Buddhist council, the council of Jalandhara (Jullunder) was convened

under the presidency of Vasumitra. At this council three treatises,

commentaries on the Canon, one on each of the three baskets into which

it is divided, were composed. King Kanishka had these treatises, when

completed and revised by Asvaghosha, written out on copper plates, and

enclosed the latter in stone boxes, which he placed in a memorial mound.

For some centuries afterwards these works survived in India; but they

exist now only in Chinese translations or adaptations. We are not told

in what language they were written. It was probably Sanskrit (not Pali,

the language of the Canon)--just as in Europe we have works of

exegetical commentary composed, in Latin, on the basis of the Testament

and Septuagint in Greek. This change of the language used as a medium of

literary intercourse was partly the cause, partly the effect, of a

complete revulsion in the intellectual life of India. The reign of

Kanishka was certainly the turning-point in this remarkable change. It

has been suggested with great plausibility, that the wide extent of his

domains facilitated the incursion into India of Western modes of

thought; and thus led in the first place to the corruption and gradual

decline of Buddhism, and secondly to the gradual rise of Hinduism. Only

the publication of the books written at the time will enable us to say

whether this hypothesis--for at present it is nothing more--is really a

sufficient explanation of the very important results of his reign. In

any case it was a migration of nomad hordes in Central Asia that led, in

Europe, to the downfall of the Roman civilization; and then, through the

conversion of the invaders, to medieval conditions of life and thought.

It was the very same migration of nomad hordes that led, in India, to

the downfall of the Buddhist civilization; and subsequently, after the

conversion of the Saka and Tatar invaders, to medieval Hinduism. As

India was nearer to the starting-point of the migration, its results

were felt there somewhat sooner.

AUTHORITIES.--Vincent A. Smith, _The Early History of India_ (Oxford,

1908); "The Kushan Period of Indian History," in _J.R.A.S._ (1903); M.

Boyer, "L'Epoque de Kaniska," in _Journal Asiatique_ (1900); T.

Watters, _On Yuan Chwang_ (London, 1904, 1905); J. Takakusu, "The

Sarvastivadin Abhidharma Books," in _Jour. of the Pali Text Soc._

(1905), esp. pp. 118-130; Rhys Davids, _Buddhist India_ (London,

1903), ch. xvi., "Kanishka." (T. W. R. D.)

KANKAKEE, a city and the county-seat of Kankakee county, Illinois,

U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, on the Kankakee river, 56 m S. of

Chicago. Pop. (1900), 13,595, of whom 3346 were foreign-born; (1910

census), 13,986. Kankakee is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati,

Chicago & St Louis, the Illinois Central, and the Chicago, Indiana &

Southern (controlled by the New York Central) railways. It is the seat

of the Eastern Hospital for the Insane (1879) a state institution; St

Joseph's Seminary (Roman Catholic) and a Conservatory of Music. At

Bourbonnais Grove, 3 m. N. of Kankakee is St Viateur's College (founded

1868), a well-known Roman Catholic divinity school, and Notre Dame

Academy, another Catholic institution. The city has a public library and

four large parks; in Court House Square there is a monument erected by

popular subscription in honour of the soldiers from Kankakee county who

died in the Civil War. There are rock quarries here, and the city

manufactures sewing machines, musical instruments, especially pianos,

foundry and machine shop products, agricultural implements and

furniture. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was

$2,089,143, an increase of 222% since 1900. Kankakee is also a shipping

point for agricultural products. It was first settled in 1832; was

platted as the town of Bourbonnais in 1853, when Kankakee county was

first organized; was chartered as the city of Kankakee in 1855, and was

re-chartered in 1892.

KANKER, a feudatory state of India, within the Central Provinces; area,

1429 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 103,536; estimated revenue, L10,000. It is a

hilly tract, containing the headwaters of the Mahanadi. The extensive

forests have recently been made profitable by the opening of a branch

railway. The residence of the raja, who is of an old Rajput family

though ruling over Gonds, is at Kanker (pop. 3906).

KANO, one of the most important provinces of the British protectorate of

Northern Nigeria. It includes the ancient emirates of Kano, Katsena,

Daura and Kazaure, and covers an area of about 31,000 sq. m. The

sub-province of Katagum was incorporated with Kano in 1905, and is

included within this area. The population of the double province is

estimated at about 2,250,000.

Kano was one of the original seven Hausa states. Written annals carry

the record of its kings back to about A.D. 900. Legendary history goes

back much further. It was conquered by the Songhoi (Songhay) in the

early part of the 16th century, and more than once appears to have made

at least partial submission to Bornu. Mahommedanism was introduced at a

period which, according to the system adopted for the dating of the

annals, must be placed either in the 12th or the 14th century. The Hausa

system of government and taxation was adopted by the Fula when in the

early part of the 19th century that Mahommedan people overran the Hausa

states. It has been erroneously stated that the Fula imposed

Mahommedanism on the Hausa states. The fact that they adopted the

existing system of government and taxation, which are based upon Koranic

law, would in itself be sufficient proof that this was not the case. But

the annals of Kano distinctly record the introduction and describe the

development of Mahommedanism at an early period of local history.

The capital is the city of Kano, situated in 12 deg. N. and 8 deg. 20'

E., 220 m. S.S.E. of Sokoto and 500 N.E. of Lagos. It is built on an

open plain, and is encompassed by a wall 11 m. in perimeter and pierced

by thirteen gates. The wall is from 30 to 50 ft. high and about 40 ft.

thick at the base. Round the wall is a deep double ditch, a dwarf wall

running along its centre. The gates are simply cow-hide, but are set in

massive entrance towers. Only about a third of the area (7(1/4) sq. m.)

enclosed by the walls is inhabited nor was the whole space ever occupied

by buildings, the intention of the founders of the city being to wall in

ground sufficient to grow food for the inhabitants during a siege. The

arable land within the city is mainly on the west and north; only to the

south-east do the houses come right to the walls. Within the walls are

two steep hills, one, Dala, about 120 ft. high being the most ancient

quarter of the town. Dala lies north-west. To its east is a great pond,

the Jakara, 1(1/2) m. long, and by its north-east shore is the market of

the Arab merchants. Here also was the slave market. The palace of the

emir, in front of which is a large open space, is in the Fula quarter in

the south-east of the city. The palace consists of a number of buildings

covering 33 acres and surrounded by a wall 20 to 30 ft. high. The

architecture of the city is not without merit. The houses are built of

clay with (generally) flat roofs impervious to fire. Traces of Moorish

influence are evident and the horse-shoe arch is common. The audience

hall of the emir's palace--25 ft. sq. and 18 ft. high--is decorated with

designs in black, white, green and yellow, the yellow designs (formed of

micaceous sand) glistening like gold. The dome-shaped roof is supported

by twenty arches.

The city is divided into fourteen quarters, each presided over by a

headman, and inhabited by separate sections of the community. It is

probably the greatest commercial city in the central Sudan. Other towns,

like Zaria, may do as much trade, but Kano is pre-eminent as a

manufacturing centre. The chief industry is the weaving of cloth from

native grown cotton. Leather goods of all kinds are also manufactured,

and from Kano come most of the "morocco leather" goods on the European

markets. Dyeing is another large trade, as is the preparation of indigo.

Of traders there are four distinct classes. They are: (1) Arabs from

Tripoli, who export ostrich feathers, skins and ivory, and bring in

burnouses, scents, sweets, tea, sugar, &c.; (2) Salaga merchants who

import kola nuts from the hinterland of the Guinea Coast, taking in

exchange cloth and live stock and leather and other goods; (3) the

Asbenawa traders, who come from the oases of Asben or Air with camels

laden with salt and "potash" (i.e. sodium carbonates), and with herds of

cattle and sheep, receiving in return cotton and hardware and kolas; (4)

the Hausa merchants. This last class trades with the other three and

despatches caravans to Illorin and other places, where the Kano goods,

the "potash" and other merchandise are exchanged for kolas and European

goods. The "potash" finds a ready sale among the Yorubas, being largely

used for cooking purposes. In Kano itself is a great market for

livestock: camels, horses, oxen, asses and goats being on sale.

Besides Hausa, who represent the indigenous population, there are large

colonies of Kanuri (from Bornu) and Nupians in Kano. The Fula form the

aristocratic class. The population is said to amount to 100,000. About a

mile and a half east of Kano is Nassarawa, formerly the emir's suburban

residence, but since 1902 the British Residency and barracks.

The city of Kano appears on the map of the Arab geographer, Idrisi,

A.D. 1145, and the hill of Dala is mentioned in the earliest records

as the original site of Kano. Barth, however, concluded that the

present town does not date earlier than the second half of the 16th

century, and that before the rise of the Fula power (c. 1800) scarcely

any great Arab merchant ever visited Kano. The present town may be the

successor of an older town occupying a position of similar

pre-eminence. Kano submitted to the Fula without much resistance, and

under them in the first half of the 19th century flourished greatly.

It was visited by Hugh Clapperton, an English officer, in 1824, and in

it Barth lived some time in 1851 and again in 1854. Barth's

descriptions of the wealth and importance of the city attracted great

attention in Europe, and Kano was subsequently visited by several

travellers, missionaries, and students of Hausa, but none was

permitted to live permanently in the city. In the closing years of the

century, Kano became the centre of resistance to British influence,

and the emir, Alieu, was the most inveterate of Fula slave raiders. In

February 1903 the city was captured by a British force under Colonel

T. L. N. Morland, and a new emir, Abbas, a brother of Alieu,

installed.

After the occupation by the British in 1903 the province was organized

for administration on the same system as that adopted throughout

northern Nigeria. The emir on his installation takes an oath of

allegiance to the British Crown, and accepts the position of a chief

of the first class under British rule. A resident is placed at his

court, and assistant residents have their headquarters in the

administrative districts of the province. British courts of justice

are established side by side with the native courts throughout the

province. Taxation is assessed under British supervision and paid into

the native treasury. A fixed portion is paid by the emir to the

British government. The emir is not allowed to maintain a standing

army, and the city of Kano is the headquarters of the British

garrison. The conditions of appointment of the emirs are fully laid

down in the terms accepted at Sokoto on the close of the Sokoto-Kano

campaign of 1903. Since the introduction of British rule there has

been no serious trouble in the province. The emir Abbas worked loyally

with the British and proved himself a ruler of remarkable ability and

intelligence. He was indefatigable in dispensing justice, and himself

presided over a native court in which he disposed of from fifty to a

hundred cases a month. He also took an active interest in the reform

and reorganization of the system of taxation, and in the opening of

the country to trade. He further showed himself helpful in arranging

difficulties which at times arose in connexion with the lesser chiefs

of his province.

The province of Kano is generally fertile. For a radius of 30 m. round

the capital the country is closely cultivated and densely populated,

with some 40 walled towns and with villages and hamlets hardly half a

mile apart. Kano district proper contains 170 walled towns and about

450 villages. There are many streams, but water is chiefly obtained

from wells 15 to 40 ft. deep. The principal crops are African grains,

wheat, onions, cotton, tobacco, indigo, with sugar-cane, cassava, &c.

The population is chiefly agricultural, but also commercial and

industrial. The chief industries are weaving, leather-making, dyeing

and working in iron and pottery. Cattle are abundant. (See NIGERIA:

_History_; and SOKOTO.)

Consult the _Travels_ of Heinrich Barth (new ed., London, 1890);

_Hausaland_, by C. H. Robinson (London, 1896); Northern Nigeria, by

Sir F. D. Lugard, in vol. xxii. _Geographical Journal_ (London, 1904);

_A Tropical Dependency_, by Lady Lugard (London, 1905); the Colonial

Office _Reports_ on Northern Nigeria from 1902 onward, and other works

cited under NIGERIA. (F. L. L.)

KANSAS (known as the "Sunflower State"), the central commonwealth of the

United States of America, lying between 37 deg. and 40 deg. N. lat. and

between 94 deg. 38' and 102 deg. 1' 34" W. long. (i.e. 25 deg. W. long,

from Washington). It is bounded on the N. by Nebraska, on the E. by

Missouri, on the S. by Oklahoma, and on the W. by Colorado. The state is

nearly rectangular in shape, with a breadth of about 210 m. from N. to

S. and a length of about 410 m. from E. to W. It contains an area of

82,158 sq. m. (including 384 sq. m. of water surface).

_Physiography._--Three physiographic regions may be distinguished within

the state--the first, a small portion of the Ozark uplift in the extreme

south-east corner; the second, the Prairie Plains, covering

approximately the east third of the state; the third, the Great Plains,

covering the remaining area. Between the latter two there is only the

most gradual transition. The entire state is indeed practically an

undulating plain, gently sloping from west to east at an average of

about 7 ft. per mile. There is also an inclination in the eastern half

from north to south, as indicated by the course of the rivers, most of

which flow south-easterly (the Kansas, with its general easterly course,

is the principal exception), the north-west corner being the highest

portion of the state. The lowest point in the state in its south-east

part, in Montgomery county, is 725 ft. above sea level. The average

elevation of the east boundary is about 850 ft., while contour lines of

3500-3900 ft. run near the west border. Somewhat more than half the

total area is below 2000 ft. The gently rolling prairie surface is

diversified by an endless succession of broad plains, isolated hills and

ridges, and moderate valleys. In places there are terraced uplands, and

in others the undulating plain is cut by erosion into low escarpments.

The bluffs on the Missouri are in places 200 ft. high, and the valley of

the Cimarron, in the south-west, has deep cuts, almost gorges. The west

central portion has considerable irregularities of contour, and the

north-west is distinctively hilly. In the south-west, below the Arkansas

river, is an area of sandhills, and the Ozark Plateau region, as above

stated, extends into the south-east corner, though not there much

elevated. The great central valley is traversed by the Kansas (or Kaw)

river, which, inclusive of the Smoky Hill Branch, extends the entire

length of the state, with lateral valleys on the north. Another broad

valley is formed in the south half of the state by the Arkansas river,

with lateral valleys on the north and south. The south-east portion

contains the important Neosho and smaller valleys. In the extreme

south-west is the valley of the Cimarron, and along the south boundary

is a network of the south tributaries of the Arkansas. Numerous small

affluents of the Missouri enrich and diversify the north-east quarter.

The streams of Kansas are usually fed by perennial springs, and, as a

rule, the east and middle portions of the state are well watered. Most

of the streams maintain a good flow of water in the driest seasons, and

in case of heavy rains many of them "underflow" the adjacent bottom

lands, saturating the permeable substratum of the country with the

surplus water, which in time drains out and feeds the subsiding streams.

This feature is particularly true of the Saline, Solomon and Smoky Hill

rivers. The west part is more elevated and water is less abundant.

[Illustration: Map of Kansas.]

_Climate._--The climate of Kansas is exceptionally salubrious.

Extremes of heat and cold occur, but as a rule the winters are dry and

mild, while the summer heats are tempered by the perpetual prairie

breezes, and the summer nights are usually cool and refreshing. The

average annual temperature of the state for seventeen years preceding

1903 was 54.3 deg. F., the warmest mean being 56.0 deg., the coldest

52.6 deg. The extreme variation of yearly means throughout the east,

west and middle sections during the same period was very slight, 51.6

deg. to 56.6 deg., and the greatest variation for any one section was

3.7 deg. The absolute extremes were 116 deg. and -34 deg. The dryness

of the air tempers exceedingly to the senses the cold of winter and

the heat of summer. The temperature over the state is much more

uniform than is the precipitation, which diminishes somewhat regularly

westward. In the above period of seventeen years the yearly means in

the west section varied from 11.93 to 29.21 in. (av. 19.21), in the

middle from 18.58 to 34.30 (av. 26.68), in the east from 26.00 to

45.71 (av. 34.78); the mean for the state ranging from 20.12 to 35.50

(av. 27.12).[1] The precipitation in the west is not sufficient for

confident agriculture in any series of years, since agriculture is

practically dependent upon the mean fall; a fact that has been and is

of profound importance in the history of the state. The line of 20 in.

fall (about the limit of certain agriculture) approximately bisects

the state in dry years. The precipitation is very largely in the

growing season--at Dodge the fall between April and October is 78% of

that for the year. Freshets and droughts at times work havoc. The

former made notable 1844 and 1858; and the latter 1860, 1874 and 1894.

Tornadoes are also a not infrequent infliction, least common in the

west. The years 1871, 1879, 1881 and 1892 were made memorable by

particularly severe storms. There are 150 to 175 "growing days" for

crops between the frosts of spring and autumn, and eight in ten days

are bright with sunshine--half of them without a cloud. Winds are

prevailingly from the south (in the winter often from the north-west).

_Fauna and Flora._--The fauna and flora of the state are those which

are characteristic of the plain region generally of which Kansas is a

part. The state lies partly in the humid, or Carolinian, and partly in

the arid, or Upper Sonoran, area of the Upper Austral life-zone; 100

deg. W. long. is approximately the dividing line between these areas.

The bison and elk have disappeared. A very great variety of birds is

found within the state, either as residents or as visitants from the

adjoining avifaunal regions--mountain, plain, northern and southern.

In 1886 Colonel N. S. Goss compiled a list of 335 species, of which

175 were known to breed in the state. The wild turkey, once abundant,

was near extermination in 1886, and prairie chickens (pinnated grouse)

have also greatly diminished in number. The jack-rabbit is

characteristic of the prairie. Locusts ("grasshoppers" in local usage)

have worked incalculable damage, notably in 1854, 1866, and above all

in 1874-1875. In the last two cases their ravages extended over a

great portion of the state.

Kansas has no forests. Along the streams there is commonly a fringe of

timber, which in the east is fairly heavy. There is an increasing

scarcity westward. With the advancing settlement of the state thin

wind-break rows become a feature of the prairies. The lessened ravages

of prairie fires have facilitated artificial afforesting, and many

cities, in particular, are abundantly and beautifully shaded. Oaks,

elms, hickory, honey-locusts, white ash, sycamore and willows, the

rapid growing but miserable box-elder and cottonwood, are the most

common trees. Black walnut was common in the river valleys in

Territorial days. The planting of tree reserves by the United States

government in the arid counties of this state promises great success.

A National Forest of 302,387 acres in Finney, Kearney, Hamilton and

Grant counties was set aside in May 1908. Buffalo and bunch, and other

short native prairie grasses, very nutritious ranging food but

unavailable as hay, once covered the plains and pastured immense herds

of buffalo and other animals, but with increasing settlement they have

given way generally to exotic bladed species, valuable alike for

pasture and for hay, except in the western regions. The hardy and

ubiquitous sunflower has been chosen as the state flower or floral

emblem. Cactus and yucca occur in the west.

The soil of the upland prairies is generally a deep rich clay loam of

a dark colour. The bottom lands near the streams are a black sandy

loam; and the intermediate lands, or "second bottoms," show a rich and

deep black loam, containing very little sand. These soils are all

easily cultivated, free from stones, and exceedingly productive. There

are exceptional spots on the upland prairies composed of stiff clay,

not as easily cultivated, but very productive when properly managed

and enriched. The south-west section is distinctively sandy.

_Agriculture._--The United States Census of 1900 shows that of the

farming area of the state in 1900 (41,662,970 acres, 79.6% of the

total area), 60.1% was "improved." The value of all farm property was

$864,100,286--of which land and improvements (including buildings),

livestock and implements and machinery represented respectively 74.5,

22.1 and 3.4%. Almost nine-tenths of all farms derived their principal

income from livestock or hay and grain, these two sources being about

equally important. Of the total value of farm products in 1899

($209,895,542), crops represented 53.7, animal products 45.9 and

forest products only 0.4%. In 1899 the wheat crop was 38,778,450

bushels, being less than that of Minnesota, North Dakota, Ohio or

South Dakota. According to the _Year Book_ of the United States

Department of Agriculture, the crop in 1906 was 81,830,611 bushels,

almost one-ninth of the crop of the entire country for that year, and

much more than the crop of any other state. In 1909 it was 87,203,000

bushels (less than the crops of either Minnesota or North Dakota).

Winter wheat constitutes almost the entire output. The hard varieties

rank in the flour market with the finest Minnesota wheat. The wheat

belt crosses the state from north to south in its central third.

Greater even than wheat in absolute output, though not relatively to

the output of other states, is Indian corn. In 1906 the crop was

195,075,000 bushels, and in 1909 it was 154,225,000. The crop is very

variable, according to seasons and prospective markets; ranging e.g.

in the decade 1892-1901 from 42.6 (1901) to 225.1 (1899) million

bushels. The Indian corn belt is mainly in the eastern third of the

state. In the five years 1896-1900 the combined value of the crops of

Indian corn and wheat exceeded the value of the same crops in any

other state of the Union (Illinois being a close second). In the

western third irrigation has been tried, in the earlier years

unsuccessfully; in all Kansas, in 1899, there were 23,620 acres

irrigated, of which 8939 were in Finney and 7071 in Kearney county. In

this western third the rainfall is insufficient for Indian corn; but

Kafir corn, an exceptional drought-resisting cereal, has made

extraordinary progress in this region, and indeed generally over the

state, since 1893, its acreage increasing 416.1% in the decade

1895-1904. With the saccharine variety of sorghum, which increased

greatly in the same period, this grain is replacing Indian corn. Oats

are the third great cereal crop, the yield being 24,780,000 bushels in

1906 and 27,185,000 in 1909. Alfalfa showed an increased acreage in

1895-1904 of 310.8%; it is valuable in the west for the same qualities

as the Kafir corn. The hay crop in 1909 was 2,652,000 tons. Alfalfa,

the Japanese soy bean and the wheat fields--which furnish the finest

of pasture in the early spring and ordinarily well into the winter

season--are the props of a prosperous dairy industry. In the early

'eighties the organization of creameries and cheese factories began in

the county-seats; they depended upon gathered cream. About 1889

separators and the whole-milk system were introduced, and about the

same time began the service of refrigerator cars on the railways; the

hand separator became common about 1901. Western Kansas is the dairy

country. Its great ranges, whose insufficient rainfall makes

impossible the certain, and therefore the profitable, cultivation of

cereals, or other settled agriculture, lend themselves with profit to

stock and dairy farming. Dairy products increased 60.6% in value from

1895 to 1904, amounting in the latter year to $16,420,095. This value

was almost equalled by that of eggs and poultry ($14,050,727), which

increased 79.7% in the same decade. The livestock interest is

stimulated by the enormous demand for beef-cattle at Kansas City.

Sugar-beet culture was tried in the years following 1890 with

indifferent success until the introduction of bounties in 1901. It has

extended along the Arkansas valley from the Colorado beet district and

into the north-western counties. There is a large beet-sugar factory

at Garden City, Finney county. Experiments have been made

unsuccessfully in sugar cane (1885) and silk culture (1885 seq.). The

bright climate and pure atmosphere are admirably adapted to the growth

of the apple, pear, peach, plum, grape and cherry. The smaller fruits

also, with scarce an exception, flourish finely. The fruit product of

Kansas ($2,431,773 in 1899) is not, however, as yet particularly

notable when compared with that of various other states.

According to the estimates of the state department of agriculture, of

the total value of all agricultural products in the twenty years

1885-1904 ($3,078,999,855), Indian corn and wheat together represented

more than two-fifths (821.3 and 518.1 million dollars respectively),

and livestock products nearly one-third (1024.9 millions). The

aggregate value of all agricultural products in 1903-1904 was

$754,954,208.

_Minerals._--In the east portion of the state are immense beds of

bituminous coal, often at shallow depths or cropping out on the

surface. In 1907 more than 95% of the coal came from Crawford,

Cherokee, Leavenworth and Osage counties, and about 91.5% from the

first two. The total value of the production of coal in 1905

(6,423,979 tons) was $9,350,542, and in 1908 (6,245,508 tons)

$9,292,222. In the central portion, which belongs to the Triassic

formation, magnesian limestone, ferruginous sandstone and gypsum are

representative rocks. Gypsum (in beautiful crystalline form) is found

in an almost continuous bed across the state running north-east and

south-west with three principal areas, the northern in Marshall

county, the central in Dickinson and Saline counties, and the southern

(the heaviest, being 3 to 40 ft. thick) in Barber and Comanche

counties. The product in 1908 was valued at $281,339. Magnesian

limestone, or dolomite, is especially plentiful along the Blue,

Republican and Neosho rivers and their tributaries. This beautiful

stone, resembling white, grey and cream-coloured marble, is

exceedingly useful for building purposes. It crops out in the bluffs

in endless quantities, and is easily worked. The stone resources of

the state are largely, but by no means exclusively, confined to the

central part. There are marbles in Osage and other counties, shell

marble in Montgomery county, white limestone in Chase county, a

valuable bandera flagstone and hydraulic cement rock near Fort Scott,

&c. The limestones produced in 1908 were valued at $403,176 and the

sandstones at $67,950. In the central region salt is produced in

immense quantities, within a great north to south belt about

Hutchinson. The beds, which are exploited by the brine method at

Hutchinson, at Ellsworth (Ellsworth county), at Anthony (Harper

county) and at Sterling (Rice county), lie from 400 to 1200 ft.

underground, and are in places as much as 350 ft. thick and 99% pure.

At Kanopolis in Ellsworth county, at Lyons in Rice county and at

Kingman, Kingman county, the salt is mined and sold as rock-salt. In

the south-west salt is found in beds and dry incrustations, varying in

thickness from a few inches to 2 ft. The total product from 1880-1899

was valued at $5,538,855; the product of 1908 (when Kansas ranked

fourth among the states producing salt) was valued at $882,984. The

development has been mainly since 1887 at Hutchinson and since about

1890 in the rock-salt mines. In the west portion of the state, which

belongs to the Cretaceous formation, chalks and a species of native

quicklime are very prominent in the river bluffs. The white and

cream-coloured chalks are much used for building purposes, but the

blue is usually too soft for exposure to the weather. The quicklime as

quarried from the bluffs slakes perfectly, and with sand makes a

fairly good mortar, without calcination or other previous preparation.

The lignite found near the Colorado line makes a valuable domestic

fuel.

Natural gas, oil, zinc and lead have been discovered in south-east

Kansas and have given that section an extraordinary growth and

prosperity. Indications of gas were found about the time of the Civil

War, but only in the early 'seventies were they recognized as

unmistakable, and they were not successfully developed until the

'eighties. Iola, in Allen county, is the centre of the field, and the

gas yields heat, light, and a cheap fuel for smelters, cement-works

and other manufacturing plants throughout a large region. The pools

lie from 400 to 950 ft. below the surface; some wells have been

drilled 1500 ft. deep. The value of the natural gas produced in the

state was $15,873 in 1889, $2,261,836 in 1905 and $7,691,587 in 1908,

when there were 1917 producing wells, and Kansas ranked fourth of the

states of the United States in the value of the natural gas product,

being surpassed by Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Ohio. Petroleum was

discovered about 1865 in Miami and Bourbon counties, and about 1892 at

Neodesha, Wilson county. There was only slight commercial exploitation

before 1900. The production increased from 74,714 barrels in that year

to 4,250,779 in 1904; in 1908 it was 1,801,781 barrels. Chanute has

been the most active centre of production. The field was prospected

here in the 'nineties, but developed only after 1900. In 1877 an

immense deposit of lead was discovered on land now within the limits

of Galena. Rich zinc blendes were at first thrown away among the

by-products of the lead mines. After the discovery of their true

nature there was a slow development, and at the end of the century a

notable boom in the fields. From 1876 to 1897 the total value of the

output of the Galena field was between $25,000,000 and $26,000,000;

but at present Kansas is far more important as a smelter than as a

miner of zinc and lead, and in 1906 58% of all spelter produced in the

United States came from smelters in Kansas. In 1908 the mines' output

was 2293 tons of lead valued at $192,612 and 8628 tons of zinc valued

at $811,032. Pottery, fire, ochre and brick clays are abundant, the

first two mainly in the eastern part of the state. Coffeyville has

large vitrified brick interests. In 1908 the total value of all the

mineral products (incompletely reported) of Kansas was $26,162,213.

_Industry and Trade._--Manufactures are not characteristic of the

state. The rank of the state in manufactures in 1900 was sixteenth and

in farm products seventh in the Union. The value of the manufactured

product in 1900, according to the Twelfth United States Census, was

$172,129,398, an increase of 56.2% over the output of 1890; of this

total value, the part representing establishments under the "factory

system" was $154,008,544,[2] and in 1905 the value of the factory

product was $198,244,992, an increase of 28.7%. Kansas City, Topeka,

Wichita, Leavenworth and Atchison were the only cities which had

manufactures whose gross product was valued in 1905 at more than

$3,000,000 each; their joint product was valued at $126,515,804, and

that of Kansas City alone was $96,473,050, almost half the output of

the state. The most important manufacturing industry, both in 1900 and

in 1905, was slaughtering and meat-packing--for which Kansas City is

the second centre of the country--with a product for the state valued

at $77,411,883 in 1900, and $96,375,639 in 1905; in both these years

the value of the product of Kansas was exceeded only by that of

Illinois. The flour and grist mill industry ranked next, with a

product valued at $21,328,747 in 1900 and nearly twice that amount,

$42,034,019, in 1905. In 1900 a quarter of the wheat crop was handled

by the mills of the state. Lesser manufacturing interests are railway

shop construction (value in 1905, $11,521,144); zinc smelting and

refining (value in 1905, $10,999,468); the manufacture of cheese,

butter and condensed milk (value in 1905, $3,946,349); and of foundry

and machine shop products (value in 1905, $3,756,825).

_Communications._--Kansas is excellently provided with railways, with

an aggregate length in January 1909 of 8914.77 m. (in 1870, 1880, 1890

respectively, 1,501, 3,244 and 8,710 m.). The most important systems

are the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Missouri Pacific, the

Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Union Pacific, the Missouri,

Kansas & Texas, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the St Louis &

San Francisco systems. The first train entered Kansas on the Union

Pacific in 1860. During the following decade the lines of the Missouri

Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas and the Santa Fe were well under

construction. These roads give excellent connexions with Chicago, the

Gulf and the Pacific. Kansas has an eastern river front of 150 m. on

the Missouri, which is navigable for steamboats of good size. The

internal rivers of the state are not utilized for commercial purposes.

_Population._--In population Kansas ranked in 1900 and 1910 (1,690,949)

twenty-second in the Union. The decennial increases of population from

1860 to 1900 were 239.9, 173.4, 43.3 and 3.0%, the population in 1900

being 1,470,495, or 18 to the sq. m.[3] Of this number 22.5% lived in

cities of 2500 or more inhabitants. Nine cities numbered more than

10,000 inhabitants: Kansas City (51,418), Topeka--the state capital

(33,608), Wichita (24,671), Leavenworth (20,735), Atchison (15,722),

Lawrence--the seat of the state university (10,862), Fort Scott

(10,322), Galena (10,155) and Pittsburg (10,112). The life of all of

these save the last two goes back to Territorial days; but the

importance of Fort Scott, like that of Galena and Pittsburg, is due to

the development of the mineral counties in the south-east. Other cities

of above 5000 inhabitants were Hutchinson (9379), Emporia (8223),

Parsons (7682), Ottawa (6934), Newton (6208), Arkansas City (6140),

Salina (6074), Argentine (5878) and Iola (5791). The number of negroes

(3.5%) is somewhat large for a northern and western state. This is

largely owing to an exodus of coloured people from the South in

1878-1880, at a time when their condition was an unusually hard one: an

exodus turned mainly toward Kansas. The population is very largely

American-born (91.4% in 1900; 47.1% being natives of Kansas). Germans,

British, Scandinavians and Russians constitute the bulk of the

foreign-born. The west third of the state is comparatively scantily

populated, owing to its aridity. In the 'seventies, after a succession

of wet seasons, and again in the 'eighties, settlement was pushed far

westward, beyond the limits of safe agriculture, but hundreds of

settlers--and indeed many entire communities--were literally starved out

by the recurrence of droughts. Irrigation has made a surer future for

limited areas, however, and the introduction of drought-resisting crops

and the substitution of dairy and livestock interests in the place of

agriculture have brightened the outlook in the western counties, whose

population increased rapidly after 1900. The early 'eighties were made

notable by a tremendous "boom" in real estate, rural and urban,

throughout the commonwealth. As regards the distribution of religious

sects, in 1906 there were 458,190 communicants of all denominations, and

of this number 121,208 were Methodists (108,097 being Methodist

Episcopalians of the Northern Church), 93,195 were Roman Catholics,

46,299 were Baptists (34,975 being members of the Northern Baptist

Convention and 10,011 of the National (Colored) Baptist Convention),

40,765 were Presbyterians (33,465 being members of the Northern Church)

and 40,356 were Disciples of Christ. The German-Russian Mennonites,

whose immigration became notable about 1874, furnished at first many

examples of communal economy, but these were later abandoned. In 1906

the total number of Mennonites was 7445, of whom 3581 were members of

the General Conference of Mennonites of North America, 1825 belonged to

the Schellenberger Bruder-gemeinde, and the others were distributed

among seven other sects.

_Government._--The constitution is that adopted at Wyandotte on the 29th

of July 1859 and ratified by the people on the 4th of October 1859; it

came into operation on the 29th of January 1861, and was amended in

1861, 1864, 1867, 1873, 1875, 1876, 1880, 1888, 1900, 1902, 1904 and

1906. An amendment may be proposed by either branch of the legislature,

and, if approved by two-thirds of the members elected to each house as

well as by a majority of the electors voting on it at a general

election, it is adopted. A constitutional convention to revise or amend

the constitution may be called in the same manner. Universal manhood

suffrage is the rule, but women may vote in school and municipal

elections, Kansas being the first state to grant women municipal

suffrage as well as the right to hold municipal offices (1887). General

elections to state, county and township offices are biennial, in

even-numbered years, and take place on the first Tuesday after the first

Monday in November. The state executive officers are a governor,

lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, auditor, treasurer,

attorney-general and superintendent of public instruction, all elected

for a term of two years. The governor appoints, with the approval of the

Senate, a board of public works and some other administrative boards,

and he may veto any bill from the legislature, which cannot thereafter

become a law unless again approved by two-thirds of the members elected

to each house.

The legislature, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives,

meets in regular session at Topeka, the capital, on the second Tuesday

of January in odd-numbered years. The membership of the senate is

limited to 40, and that of the house of representatives to 125. Senators

are elected for four years and representatives for two years. In regular

sessions not exceeding fifty days and in special sessions not exceeding

thirty days the members of both houses are paid three dollars a day

besides an allowance for travelling expenses, but they receive no

compensation for the extra time of longer sessions. In 1908 a direct

primary law was passed applicable to all nominations except for

presidential electors, school district officers and officers in cities

of less than 5000 inhabitants; like public elections the primaries are

made a public charge; nomination is by petition signed by a certain

percentage (for state office, at least 1%; for district office, at least

2%; for sub-district or county office, at least 3%) of the party vote;

the direct nominating system applies to the candidates for the United

States Senate, the nominee chosen by the direct primaries of each party

being the nominee of the party.

The judicial power is vested in one supreme court, thirty-eight

district courts, one probate court for each county, and two or more

justices of the peace for each township. All justices are elected:

those of the supreme court, seven in number, for six years, two or

three every two years; those of the district courts for four years;

and those of the probate courts and the justices of the peace for two

years. The more important affairs of each county are managed by a

board of commissioners, who are elected by districts for four years,

but each county elects also a clerk, a treasurer, a probate judge, a

register of deeds, a sheriff, a coroner, an attorney, a clerk of the

district court, and a surveyor, and the district court for the county

appoints a county auditor. The township officers, all elected for two

years, are a trustee, a clerk, a treasurer, two or more justices of

the peace, two constables and one road overseer for each road

district. Cities are governed under a general law, but by this law

they are divided into three classes according to size, and the

government is different for each class. Those having a population of

more than 15,000 constitute the first class, those having a population

of more than 2000 but not more than 15,000 constitute the second

class, and those having a population not exceeding 2000 constitute the

third class. Municipal elections are far removed from those of the

state, being held in odd-numbered years in April. In cities of the

first class the state law requires the election of a mayor, city

clerk, city treasurer, police judge and councilmen; in those of the

second class it requires the election of a mayor, police judge, city

treasurer, councilmen, board of education, justices of the peace and

constables; and in those of the third class it requires the election

of a mayor, police judge and councilmen. Several other offices

provided for in each class are filled by the appointment of the mayor.

The principal grounds for a divorce in Kansas are adultery, extreme

cruelty, habitual drunkenness, abandonment for one year, gross neglect

of duty, and imprisonment in the penitentiary as a felon subsequent to

marriage, but the applicant for a divorce must have resided in the

state the entire year preceding the presentment of the petition. A

married woman has the same rights to her property after marriage as

before marriage, except that she is not permitted to bequeath away

from her husband more than one-half of it without his written consent,

and no will made by the husband can affect the right of the wife, if

she survive him, to one-half of the property of which he died seized.

Whenever a husband dies intestate, leaving a farm or a house and lot

in a town or city which was the residence of the family at his death,

his widow, widow and children, or children alone if there be no widow,

may hold the same as a homestead to the extent of 160 acres if it be a

farm, or one acre if it be a town or city lot. A homestead of this

size is exempt from levy for the debts of the intestate except in case

of an incumbrance given by consent of both husband and wife, or of

obligations for purchase money, or of liens for making improvements,

and the homestead of a family cannot be alienated without the joint

consent of husband and wife. The homestead status ceases, however,

whenever the widow marries again or when all the children arrive at

the age of majority. An eight-hour labour law was passed in 1891 and

was upheld by the state supreme court. In 1909 a law was passed for

state regulation of fire insurance rates (except in the case of

farmers' mutuals insuring farm property only) and forbidding local

discrimination of rates within the state. In the same year a law was

passed requiring that any corporation acting as a common carrier in

the state must receive the permission of the state board of railway

commissioners for the issue of stocks, bonds or other evidences of

indebtedness.

The manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors except for medical,

scientific and mechanical purposes were prohibited by a constitutional

amendment adopted in 1880. The Murray liquor law of 1881, providing

for the enforcement of the amendment, was declared constitutional by

the state supreme court in 1883. At many sessions of the legislature

its enemies vainly attempted its repeal. It was more seriously

threatened in 1890 by the "Original Package Decision," of the United

States Supreme Court, the decision, namely, that the state law could

not apply to liquor introduced into Kansas from another state and sold

from the original package, such inter-state commerce being within the

exclusive jurisdiction of Congress. That body thereupon gave Kansas

the power needed, and its action was upheld by the Federal Supreme

Court. The enforcement of the law has varied, however, enormously

according to the locality. In 1906-1907 a fresh crusade to enforce the

law was begun by the attorney-general, who brought ouster suits

against the mayors of Wichita, Junction City, Pittsburg and

Leavenworth for not enforcing the law and for replacing it with the

"fine" system, which was merely an irregular licence. In 1907 the

attorney-general's office turned its attention to outside brewing

companies doing business in the state and secured injunctions against

such breweries doing business in the state and the appointment of

receivers of their property. The provision of the law permitting the

sale of whisky for medicinal, scientific or mechanical purposes was

repealed by a law of 1909 prohibiting the sale, manufacture or barter

of spirituous, malt, vinous or any other intoxicating liquors within

the state. The severity of this law was ascribed to efforts of the

liquor interests to render it objectionable.

The constitution forbids the contraction of a state debt exceeding

$1,000,000. The actual debt on the 30th of June 1908 was $605,000,

which was a permanent school fund. Taxation is on the general-property

system. The entire system has been--as in other states where it

prevails--extremely irregular and arbitrary as regards local

assessments, and very imperfect; and the figures of total valuation

(in 1880 $160,570,761, in 1890 $347,717,218, in 1906 $408,329,749, and

in 1908, when it was supposed to be the actual valuation of all

taxable property, $2,453,691,859), though significant of taxation

methods, are not significant of the general condition or progress of

the state.

_Education._--Of higher educational institutions, the state supports

the university of Kansas at Lawrence (1866), an agricultural college

at Manhattan (1863; aided by the United States government); a normal

school at Emporia (1865), a western branch of the same at Hays (1902);

a manual training normal school (1903) at Pittsburg, western

university (Quindaro) for negroes and the Topeka industrial and

educational institute (1896, reorganized on the plan of Tuskegee

institute in 1900) also for negroes. The university of Kansas was

organized in 1864 and opened in 1866. Its engineering department was

established in 1870, its normal department in 1876 (abolished 1885),

its department of music in 1877, its department of law in 1878, and

the department of pharmacy in 1885; in 1891 the preparatory department

was abolished and the university was reorganized with "schools" in

place of the former "departments." In 1899 a school of medicine was

established, in connexion with which the Eleanor Taylor Bell memorial

hospital was erected in 1905. In 1907-1908 the university had a

faculty of 211, an enrolment of 2063 (1361 men and 702 women); the

university library contained 60,000 volumes and 37,000 pamphlets. An

efficient compulsory education law was passed in 1903. Kansas ranks

very high among the states in its small percentage of illiteracy

(inability to write)--in 1900 only 2.9% of persons at least ten years

of age; the figures for native whites, foreign whites and negroes

being respectively 1.3, 8.5, 22.3. In addition to the state schools,

various flourishing private or denominational institutions are

maintained. The largest of these are the Kansas Wesleyan University

(Methodist Episcopal, 1886) at Salina and Baker University (Methodist

Episcopal, 1858) at Baldwin. Among the many smaller colleges are

Washburn College (Congregational, 1869) at Topeka, the South-west

Kansas College (Methodist Episcopal, opened 1886) at Winfield, the

College of Emporia (Presbyterian, 1883) at Emporia, Bethany College

(Lutheran, 1881) at Lindsborg, Fairmount College (non-sectarian, 1895)

at Wichita, St Mary's College (Roman Catholic, 1869) at St Mary's, and

Ottawa University (Baptist, 1865) at Ottawa. At Topeka is the College

of the Sisters of Bethany (Protestant Episcopal, 1861) for women.

There are also various small professional schools and private normal

schools. An industrial school for Indian children is maintained by the

United States near Lawrence (Haskell Institute, 1884). Among the state

charitable and reformatory institutions are state hospitals for the

insane at Topeka and Osawatomie and a hospital for epileptics at

Parsons; industrial reform schools for girls at Beloit, for boys at

Topeka, and for criminals under twenty-five at Hutchinson; a

penitentiary at Lansing; a soldiers' orphans' home at Atchison and a

soldiers' home at Dodge City; and schools for feeble-minded youth at

Winfield, for the deaf at Olathe, and for the blind at Kansas City.

These institutions are under the supervision of a state board of

control. The state contributes also to many institutions on a private

basis. Most of the counties maintain poor farms and administer outdoor

relief, and some care for insane patients at the cost of the state.

_History._--The territory now included in Kansas was first visited by

Europeans in 1541, when Francisco de Coronado led his Spaniards from New

Mexico across the buffalo plains in search of the wealth of "Quivira," a

region located by Bandelier and other authorities in Kansas north-east

of the Great Bend of the Arkansas. Thereafter, save for a brief French

occupation, 1719-1725, and possibly slight explorations equally

inconsequential, Kansas remained in undisturbed possession of the

Indians until in 1803 it passed to the United States (all save the part

west of 100 deg. long. and south of the Arkansas river) as part of the

Louisiana Purchase. The explorations for the United States of Z. M. Pike

(1807) and S. H. Long (1819) tended to confirm old ideas of sandy wastes

west of the Mississippi. But with the establishment of prairie commerce

to Santa Fe (New Mexico), the waves of emigration to the Mormon land and

to California, the growth of traffic to Salt Lake, and the explorations

for a transcontinental railway, Kansas became well known, and was taken

out of that mythical "Great American Desert," in which, thanks

especially to Pike and to Washington Irving, it had been supposed to

lie. The trade with Santa Fe began about 1804, although regular caravans

were begun only about 1825. This trade is one of the most picturesque

chapters in border history, and picturesque in retrospect, too, is the

army of emigrants crossing the continent in "prairie schooners" to

California or Utah, of whom almost all went through Kansas.

But this movement of hunters, trappers, traders, Mormons, miners and

homeseekers left nothing to show of settlement in Kansas, for which,

therefore, the succession of Territorial governments organized for the

northern portion of the Louisiana Purchase had no real significance.

Before 1854 Kansas was an Indian land, although on its Indian

reservations (created in its east part for eastern tribes removed

thither after 1830) some few whites resided: missionaries, blacksmiths,

agents, farmers supposed to teach the Indians agriculture, and land

"squatters,"--possibly 800 in all. Fort Leavenworth was established in

1827, Fort Scott in 1842, Fort Riley in 1853. There were Methodist

(1829), Baptist, Quaker, Catholic and Presbyterian missions active by

1837. Importunities to Congress to institute a Territorial government

began in 1852. This was realized by the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854.

By that Act Kansas (which from 1854 to 1861 included a large part of

Colorado) became, for almost a decade, the storm centre of national

political passion, and her history of prime significance in the

unfolding prologue of the Civil War. Despite the Missouri Compromise,

which had prohibited slavery in the Louisiana Purchase N. of 36 deg. 30'

N. lat. (except in Missouri), slaves were living at the missions and

elsewhere, among Indians and whites, in 1854. The "popular sovereignty"

principle of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill involved a sectional struggle for

the new Territory. Time showed that the winning of Kansas was a question

of the lightest-footed immigrant. Slaveholders were not footloose; they

had all to lose if they should carry their blacks into Kansas and should

nevertheless fail to make it a slave-state. Thus the South had to

establish slavery by other than actual slaveholders, unless Missouri

should act for her to establish it. But Missouri did not move her

slaves; while her vicinity encouraged border partisans to seek such

establishment even without residence--by intimidation, election frauds

and outrage. This determined at once the nature of the Kansas struggle

and its outcome; and after the South had played and lost in Kansas, "the

war for the Union caught up and nationalized the verdict of the

Territorial broil."

In the summer of 1854 Missouri "squatters" began to post claims to

border lands and warn away intending anti-slavery settlers. The

immigration of these from the North was fostered in every way, notably

through the New England Emigrant Aid Company (see LAWRENCE, A. A.),

whose example was widely imitated. Little organized effort was made in

the South to settle the Territory; Lawrence (Wakarusa) and Topeka,

free-state centres, and Leavenworth, Lecompton and Atchison, pro-slavery

towns, were among those settled in 1854.

At the first election (Nov. 1854), held for a delegate to Congress, some

1700 armed Missourians invaded Kansas and stuffed the ballot boxes; and

this intimidation and fraud was practised on a much larger scale in the

election of a Territorial legislature in March 1855. The resultant

legislature (at Pawnee, later at Shawnee Mission) adopted the laws of

Missouri almost _en bloc_, made it a felony to utter a word against

slavery, made extreme pro-slavery views a qualification for office,

declared death the penalty for aiding a slave to escape, and in general

repudiated liberty for its opponents. The radical free-state men

thereupon began the importation of rifles. All criticism of this is

inconsequent; "fighting gear" was notoriously the only effective asset

of Missourians in Kansas, every Southern band in Kansas was militarily

organized and armed, and the free-state men armed only under necessity.

Furthermore, a free-state "government" was set up, the "bogus"

legislature at Shawnee being "repudiated." Perfecting their organization

in a series of popular conventions, they adopted (Dec. 1855) the Topeka

Constitution--which declared the exclusion of negroes from

Kansas--elected state officials, and sent a contestant delegate to

Congress. The Topeka "government" was simply a craftily impressive

organization, a standing protest. It met now and then, and directed

sentiment, being twice dispersed by United States troops; but it passed

no laws, and did nothing that conflicted with the Territorial government

countenanced by Congress. On the other hand, the laws of the "bogus"

legislature were generally ignored by the free-state partisans, except

in cases (e.g. the service of a writ) where that was impossible without

apparent actual rebellion against the authority of the legislature, and

therefore of Congress.

Meanwhile the "border war" began. During the (almost bloodless)

"Wakarusa War" Lawrence was threatened by an armed force from Missouri,

but was saved by the intervention of Governor Shannon. Up to this time

the initiative and the bulk of outrages lay assuredly heavily on the

pro-slavery side; hereafter they became increasingly common and more

evenly divided. In May 1856 another Missouri force entered Lawrence

without resistance, destroyed its printing offices, wrecked buildings

and pillaged generally. This was the day before the assault on Charles

Sumner (q.v.) in the Senate of the United States. These two outrages

fired Northern passion and determination. In Kansas they were a stimulus

to the most radical elements. Immediately after the sack of Lawrence,

John Brown and a small band murdered and mutilated five pro-slavery men,

on Pottawatomie Creek; a horrible deed, showing a new spirit on the

free-state side, and of ghastly consequence--for it contributed

powerfully to widen further the licence of highway robbery, pillage and

arson, the ruin of homes, the driving off of settlers, marauding

expeditions, attacks on towns, outrages in short of every kind, that

made the following months a welter of lawlessness and crime, until

Governor Geary--by putting himself above all partisanship, repudiating

Missouri, and using Federal troops--put an end to them late in 1856.

(In the isolated south-eastern counties they continued through

1856-1858, mainly to the advantage of the "jay-hawkers" of free-state

Kansas and to the terror of Missouri.)

The struggle now passed into another phase, in which questions of state

predominate. But something may be remarked in passing of the leaders in

the period of turbulence. John Brown wished to deal a blow against

slavery, but did nothing to aid any conservative political organization

to that end. James H. Lane was another radical, and always favoured

force. He was a political adventurer, an enthusiastic, energetic,

ambitious, ill-balanced man, shrewd and magnetic. He assuredly did much

for the free-state cause; meek politics were not alone sufficient in

those years in Kansas. The leader of the conservative free-soilers was

Charles Robinson (1818-1894). He was born in Massachusetts, studied

medicine at the Berkshire Medical School, and had had political

experience in California, whither he had gone in 1849, and where in

1850-1852 he was a member of the legislature and a successful

anti-slavery leader. In 1854 he had come to Kansas as an agent of the

Emigrant Aid Company. He was the author of the Topeka government idea,

or at least was its moving spirit, serving throughout as the "governor"

under it; though averse to force, he would use it if necessary, and was

first in command in the "Wakarusa War." His partisans say that he saved

Kansas, and regard Lane as a fomenter of trouble who accomplished

nothing. Andrew H. Reeder (1807-1864), who showed himself a pro-slavery

sympathizer as first Territorial governor, was removed from office for

favouring the free-state party; he became a leader in the free-state

cause. Every governor who followed him was forced by the logic of events

and truth tacitly to acknowledge that right lay with the free-state

party. Reeder and Shannon fled the Territory in fear of assassination by

the pro-slavery party, with which at first they had had most sympathy.

Among the pro-slavery leaders David Rice Atchison (1807-1886), United

States Senator in 1843-1855, accompanied both expeditions against

Lawrence; but he urged moderation, as always, at the end of what was a

legitimate result of his radical agitation.

In June 1857 delegates were elected to a constitutional convention. The

election Act did not provide for any popular vote upon the constitution

they should form, and was passed over Governor John W. Geary's veto. A

census, miserably deficient (largely owing to free-state abstention and

obstruction), was the basis of apportionment of delegates. The

free-state party demanded a popular vote on the constitution. On the

justice of this Governor Robert J. Walker and President Buchanan were at

first unequivocally agreed, and the governor promised fairplay.

Nevertheless only pro-slavery men voted, and the convention was thus

pro-slavery. The document it framed is known as the Lecompton

Constitution. Before the convention met, the free-state party,

abandoning its policy of political inaction, captured the Territorial

legislature. On the constitutional convention rested, then, all hope of

saving Kansas for slavery; and that would be impossible if they should

submit their handiwork to the people. The convention declared slave

property to be "before and higher than any constitutional sanction" and

forbade amendments affecting it; but it provided for a popular vote on

the alternatives, the "constitution with slavery" or the "constitution

with no slavery." If the latter should be adopted, slavery should cease

"except" that the right to property in slaves in the Territory should

not be interfered with. The free-state men regarded this as including

the right to property in offspring of slaves, and therefore as pure

fraud. Governor Walker stood firmly against this iniquitous scheme; he

saw that slavery was, otherwise, doomed, but he thought Kansas could be

saved to the Democratic party though lost to slavery. But President

Buchanan, under Southern influence, repudiated his former assurances.

There is reason to believe that the whole scheme was originated at

Washington, and though Buchanan was not privy to it before the event,

yet he adopted it. He abandoned Walker, who left Kansas; and he

dismissed Acting-Governor Frederick P. Stanton for convoking the (now

free-state) legislature. This body promptly ordered a vote on the third

alternative, "Against the Constitution."

The free-state men ignored the alternatives set by the Lecompton

Convention; but they participated nevertheless in the provisional

election for officers under the Lecompton government, capturing all

offices, and then, the same day, voted overwhelmingly against the

constitution (Jan. 4, 1858).

Nevertheless, Buchanan, against the urgent counsel of Governor Denver,

urged on Congress (Feb. 2) the admission of Kansas under the Lecompton

Constitution. He was opposed by Senator Stephen A. Douglas, the leader

of the Northern Democracy. The Senate upheld the President; the House of

Representatives voted down his policy; and finally both houses accepted

the English Bill, by which Kansas was virtually offered some millions of

acres of public lands if she should accept the Lecompton

Constitution.[4] On the 21st of August 1858, by a vote of 11,300 to

1788, Kansas resisted this temptation. The plan of the Administration

thus effectually miscarried, and its final result was a profound split

in the Democratic party.

The free-state men framed an excellent anti-slavery constitution at

Leavenworth in March-April 1858, but the origins of the convention were

illegal and their work was still-born. On the 29th of July 1859 still

another constitution was therefore framed at Wyandotte, and on the 4th

of October it was ratified by the people. Meanwhile the Topeka

"government" disappeared, and also, with its single purpose equally

served, the free-state party, most of it (once largely Democratic)

passing into the Republican party, now first organized in the Territory.

On the 29th of January 1861 Kansas was admitted to the Union under the

Wyandotte Constitution. The United States Census of 1860 gave her a

population of 107,204 inhabitants. The struggle in Kansas, the first

physical national struggle over slavery, was of paramount importance in

the breaking up of the Whig party, the firm establishment of an

uncompromisingly anti-slavery party, the sectionalization of the

Democracy, and the general preparation of the country for the Civil War.

Drought and famine came in 1860, and then upon the impoverished state

came the strain of the Civil War. Nevertheless Kansas furnished

proportionally a very large quota of men to the Union armies. Military

operations within her own borders were largely confined to a guerrilla

warfare, carrying on the bitter neighbourhood strife between Kansas and

Missouri. The Confederate officers began by repressing predatory

plundering from Missouri; but after James H. Lane, with an undisciplined

brigade, had crossed the border, sacking, burning and killing in his

progress, Missouri "bushrangers" retaliated in kind. Freebooters trained

in Territorial licence had a free hand on both sides. Kansas bands were

long the more successful. But William C. Quantrell, after sacking

various small Kansas towns along the Missouri river (1862-63), in August

1863 took Lawrence (q.v.) and put it mercilessly to fire and sword--the

most ghastly episode in border history. In the autumn of 1864 the

Confederate general, Sterling Price, aiming to enter Kansas from

Missouri but defeated by General Pleasanton's cavalry, retreated

southward, zig-zagging on both sides of the Missouri-Kansas line. This

ended for Kansas the border raids and the war. Lane was probably the

first United States officer to enlist negroes as soldiers. Many of them

(and Indians too) fought bravely for the state. Indian raids and wars

troubled the state from 1864 to 1878. The tribes domiciled in Kansas

were rapidly moved to Indian Territory after 1868.

After the Civil War the Republicans held uninterrupted supremacy in

national elections, and almost as complete control in the state

government, until 1892. From about 1870 onward, however, elements of

reform and of discontent were embodied in a succession of radical

parties of protest. Prohibition arose thus, was accepted by the

Republicans, and passed into the constitution. Woman suffrage became a

vital political issue. Much legislation has been passed to control the

railways. General control of the media of commerce, economic

co-operation, tax reform, banking reforms, legislation against

monopolies, disposal of state lands, legislation in aid of the farmer

and labourer, have been issues of one party or another. The movement of

the Patrons of Industry (1874), growing into the Grange, Farmers'

Alliance, and finally into the People's (Populist) party (see FARMERS'

MOVEMENT), was perhaps of greatest importance. In conjunction with the

Democrats the Populists controlled the State government in 1892-1894 and

1896-1898. These two parties decidedly outnumbered the Republicans at

the polls from 1890-1898, but they could win only by fusion. In

1892-1893, when the Populists elected the governor and the Senate, and

the Republicans (as the courts eventually determined) the House of

Representatives, political passion was so high as to threaten armed

conflicts in the capital. The Australian ballot was introduced in 1893.

In the decade following 1880, struggles in the western counties for the

location of county seats (the bitterest local political fights known in

western states) repeatedly led to bloodshed and the interference of

state militia.