[1] This generic term was subsequently altered by Van der Hoeven,
rather pedantically, to _Stringops_, a spelling now generally
adopted.
[2] It has, however, been occasionally observed abroad by day; and,
in captivity, one example at least is said to have been as active by
day as by night.
KAKAR, a Pathan tribe on the Zhob valley frontier of Baluchistan. The
Kakars inhabit the back of the Suliman mountains between Quetta and the
Gomal river; they are a very ancient race, and it is probable that they
were in possession of these slopes long before the advent of Afghan or
Arab. They are divided into many distinct tribes who have no connexion
beyond the common name of Kakar. Not only is there no chief of the
Kakars, or general _jirgah_ (or council) of the whole tribe, but in most
cases there are no recognized heads of the different clans. In 1901 they
numbered 105,444. During the second Afghan War the Kakars caused some
annoyance on the British line of communications; and the Kakars
inhabiting the Zhob valley were punished by the Zhob valley expedition
of 1884.
KALA-AZAR, or Dum-Dum fever, a tropical disease, characterized by
remittent fever, anaemia and enlargement of the spleen (splenomegaly)
and often of the liver. It is due to a protozoon parasite (see PARASITIC
DISEASES), discovered in 1900 by Leishman in the spleen, and is of a
malarial type. The treatment is similar to that for malaria. In Assam
good results have been obtained by segregation.
KALABAGH, a town of British India in the Mianwali district of the
Punjab. Pop. (1901), 5824. It is picturesquely situated at the foot of
the Salt range, on the right bank of the Indus, opposite the railway
station of Mari. The houses nestle against the side of a precipitous
hill of solid rock-salt, piled in successive tiers, the roof of each
tier forming the street which passes in front of the row immediately
above, and a cliff, also of pure rock-salt, towers above the town. The
supply of salt, which is worked from open quarries, is practically
inexhaustible. Alum also occurs in the neighbouring hills, and forms a
considerable item of local trade. Iron implements are manufactured.
KALACH, also known as DONSKAYA, a village of S.E. Russia, in the
territory of the Don Cossacks, and a river port on the Don, 31 m. N.E.
of Nizhne-Chirskaya, in 43 deg. 30' E. and 48 deg. 43' N. Its permanent
population, only about 1200, increases greatly in summer. It is the
terminus of the railway (45 m.) which connects the Don with Tsaritsyn on
the Volga, and all the goods (especially fish, petroleum, cereals and
timber) brought from the Caspian Sea up the Volga and destined for
middle Russia, or for export through the Sea of Azov, are unloaded at
Tsaritsyn and sent over to Kalach on the Don.
KALAHANDI (formerly KAROND), a feudatory state of India, which was
transferred from the Central Provinces to the Orissa division of Bengal
in 1905. A range of the Eastern Ghats runs from N.E. to S.W. through the
state, with open undulating country to the north. Area 3745 sq. m.; pop.
(1901), 350,529; estimated revenue, L8000; tribute, L800. The
inhabitants mostly belong to the aboriginal race of Khonds. A murderous
outbreak against Hindu settlers called for armed intervention in 1882.
The chief, Raghu Kishor Deo, was murdered by a servant in 1897, and
during the minority of his son, Brij Mohan Deo, the state was placed in
charge of a British political agent. The capital is Bhawani Patna.
KALAHARI DESERT, a region of South Africa, lying mainly between 20 deg.
and 28 deg. S. and 19 deg. and 24 deg. E., and covering fully 120,000
sq. m. The greater part of this territory forms the western portion of
the (British) Bechuanaland protectorate, but it extends south into that
part of Bechuanaland annexed to the Cape and west into German South-West
Africa. The Orange river marks its southern limit; westward it reaches
to the foot of the Nama and Damara hills, eastward to the cultivable
parts of Bechuanaland, northward and north-westward to the valley of the
Okavango and the bed of Lake Ngami. The Kalahari, part of the immense
inner table-land of South Africa, has an average elevation of over 3000
ft. with a general slope from east to west and a dip northward to Ngami.
Described by Robert Moffat as "the southern Sahara," the Kalahari
resembles the great desert of North Africa in being generally arid and
in being scored by the beds of dried-up rivers. It presents however many
points of difference from the Sahara. The surface soil is mainly red
sand, but in places limestone overlies shale and conglomerates. The
ground is undulating and its appearance is comparable with that of the
ocean at times of heavy swell. The crests of the waves are represented
by sand dunes, rising from 30 to 100 ft.; the troughs between the dunes
vary greatly in breadth. On the eastern border long tongues of sand
project into the veld, while the veld in places penetrates far into the
desert. There are also, and especially along the river beds, extensive
mud flats. After heavy rain these become pans or lakes, and water is
then also found in mud-bottomed pools along the beds of the rivers. The
water in the pans is often brackish, and in some cases thickly encrusted
with salt. Pans also occur in crater-like depressions where rock rises
above the desert sands. A tough, sun-bleached grass, growing knee-high
in tufts at intervals of about 15 in., covers the dunes and gives the
general colour of the landscape. Considerable parts of the Kalahari,
chiefly in the west and north, are however covered with dense scrub and
there are occasional patches of forest. Next to the lack of water the
chief characteristics of the desert are the tuberous and herbaceous
plants and the large numbers of big game found in it. Of the plants the
most remarkable is the water-melon, of which both the bitter and sweet
variety are found, and which supplies both man and beast with water. The
game includes the lion, leopard, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, buffalo,
zebra, quagga, many kinds of antelope (among them the kudu and gnu),
baboon and ostrich. The elephant, giraffe and eland are also found. The
hunting of these three last-named animals is prohibited, and for all
game there is a close time from the beginning of September to the end of
February.
The climate is hot, dry and healthy, save in the neighbourhood of the
large marshes in the north, where malarial fever is prevalent. In this
region the drainage is N.E. to the great Makarikari marsh and the
Botletle, the river connecting the marsh with the Ngami system. In the
south the drainage is towards the Orange. The Molopo and the Kuruman,
which in their upper course in eastern Bechuanaland are perennial
streams, lose their water by evaporation and percolation on their way
westward through the Kalahari. The Molopo, a very imposing river on the
map, is dry in its lower stretches. The annual rainfall does not exceed
10 in. It occurs in the summer months, September to March, and chiefly
in thunderstorms. The country is suffering from progressive desiccation,
but there is good evidence of an abundant supply of water not far
beneath the surface. In the water-melon season a few white farmers
living on the edge of the desert send their herds thither to graze. Such
few spots as have been under cultivation by artificial irrigation yield
excellent returns to the farmer; but the chief commercial products of
the desert are the skins of animals.
The Kalahari is the home of wandering Bushmen (q.v.), who live
entirely by the chase, killing their prey with poisoned arrows, of
Ba-Kalahari, and along the western border of Hottentots, who are both
hunters and cattle-rearers. The Ba-Kalahari (men of the Kalahari), who
constitute the majority of the inhabitants, appear to belong to the
Batau tribe of the Bechuanas, now no longer having separate tribal
existence, and traditionally reported to be the oldest of the Bechuana
tribes. Their features are markedly negroid, though their skin is less
black than that of many negro peoples. They have thin legs and arms.
The Ba-Kalahari are said to have possessed enormous herds of large
horned cattle until deprived of them and driven into the desert by a
fresh migration of more powerful Bechuana tribes. Unlike the Bushmen,
and in spite of desert life, the Ba-Kalahari have a true passion for
agriculture and cattle-breeding. They carefully cultivate their
gardens, though in many cases all they can grow is a scanty supply of
melons and pumpkins, and they rear small herds of goats. They are also
clever hunters, and from the neighbouring Bechuana chiefs obtain
spears, knives, tobacco and dogs in exchange for the skins of the
animals they kill. In disposition they are peaceful to timidity, grave
and almost morose. Livingstone states that he never saw Ba-Kalahari
children at play. An ingenious method is employed to obtain water
where there is no open well or running stream. To one end of a reed
about 2 ft. long a bunch of grass is tied, and this end of the reed is
inserted in a hole dug at a spot where water is known to exist
underground, the wet sand being rammed down firmly round it. An
ostrich egg-shell, the usual water vessel, is placed on the ground
alongside the reed. The water-drawer, generally a woman, then sucks up
the water through the reed, dexterously squirting it into the adjacent
egg-shell. To aid her aim she places between her lips a straw, the
other end of which is inserted in the shell. The shells, when filled,
are buried, the object of the Ba-Kalahari being to preserve their
supplies from any sudden raid by Bushmen or other foe. Early
travellers stated that no amount of bullying or hunting in a
Ba-Kalahari village would result in a find of water; but that on
friendly relations being established the natives would bring a supply,
however arid the district. The British government has since sunk wells
in one or two districts. Though the Ba-Kalahari have no religion in
the strict sense of the word, they show traces of totemism, and as
Batau, i.e. "men of the lion," revere rather than fear that beast.
The Kalahari was first crossed to Lake Ngami by David Livingstone,
accompanied by William C. Oswell, in 1849. In 1878-1879 a party of
Boers, with about three hundred wagons, trekked from the Transvaal
across the Kalahari to Ngami and thence to the hinterland of Angola.
Many of the party, men, women and children, perished of thirst during
the journey. Survivors stated that in all some 250 people and 9000
cattle died.
See BECHUANALAND. _Die Kalahari_, by Dr Siegfried Passarge (Berlin,
1904), is a valuable treatise on the geology, topography, hydrography,
climate and flora of the desert, with maps and bibliography. The
author spent two years (1896-1898) in the Kalahari. See also
_Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_, &c., by David
Livingstone (London, 1857).
KALAMATA (officially [Greek: Kalamai], from an ancient town near the
site), chief town of the modern Greek nomarchy of Messenia in the Morea,
situated on the left bank of the Nedon, about 1 m. from the sea. Pop.
(1907), 13,123. There is a suburb on the right bank of the stream. On a
hill behind the town are the ruins of a medieval castle, but no ancient
Greek remains have been discovered, although some travellers have
identified the site with that of the classical Pharae or Pherae. It is
the seat of a court of justice and of an archbishop. During the middle
ages it was for a time a fief of the Villehardouins. In 1685 Kalamata
was captured by the Venetians; in 1770, and again in 1821, it was the
revolutionary headquarters in the Morea. In 1825 it was sacked by
Ibrahim Pasha. Kalamata is situated in a very fruitful district, of
which it is the emporium. The harbour, though recently improved, offers
little shelter to shipping. Vessels load and discharge by means of
lighters, the outer harbour having a depth at entrance of 24 ft. and
inside of 14 ft. The inner harbour has a depth of 15 ft. and is
sheltered by a breakwater 1640 ft. in length; in the winter months the
fishing craft take shelter in the haven of Armyro. The silk industry,
formerly important, still employs about 300 women and girls in four
spinning establishments. Olive oil and silk are the chief exports.
KALAMAZOO, a city and the county-seat of Kalamazoo county, Michigan,
U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Kalamazoo River, about 49 m. S. of Grand
Rapids and 144 m. W. of Detroit. Pop. (1900) 24,404, of whom 4710 were
foreign-born; (1910 census) 39,437. It is served by the Michigan
Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Rapids & Indiana,
the Kalamazoo, Lake Shore & Chicago, and the Chicago, Kalamazoo &
Saginaw railways, and by interurban electric lines. The city has a
public library, and is the seat of Kalamazoo college (Baptist), which
grew out of the Kalamazoo literary institute (1833) and was chartered
under its present name in 1855; the Michigan female seminary
(Presbyterian), established in 1866; the Western State normal school
(1904); Nazareth Academy (1897), for girls; Barbour Hall (1899), a
school for boys; two private schools for the feeble-minded; and the
Michigan asylum for the insane, opened in 1859. The surrounding country
is famous for its celery, and the city is an important manufacturing
centre, ranking third among the cities of the state in the value of its
factory products in 1904. The value of the factory product in 1904 was
$13,141,767, an increase of 82.9% since 1900. The waterworks and
electric-lighting plant are owned and operated by the municipality.
Kalamazoo was settled in 1829, was known as Bronson (in honour of Titus
Bronson, an early settler) until 1836, was incorporated as the village
of Kalamazoo in 1838, and in 1884 became a city under a charter granted
in the preceding year.
KALAPUYA, or CALLAPOOYA, a tribe and stock of North-American Indians,
whose former range was the valley of the Willamette River, Oregon. They
now number little more than a hundred, on a reservation on Grande Ronde
reservation, Oregon.
KALAT, the capital of Baluchistan, situated in 29 deg. 2' N. and 66 deg.
35' E., about 6780 ft. above sea-level, 88 m. from Quetta. The town
gives its name also to a native state with an area, including Makran and
Kharan, of 71,593 m. and a population (1901) of 470,336. The word Kalat
is derived from _kala_--a fortress; and Kalat is the most picturesque
fortress in the Baluch highlands. It crowns a low hill, round the base
of which clusters the closely built mass of flat-roofed mud houses which
form the insignificant town. A _miri_ or citadel, having an imposing
appearance, dominates the town, and contains within its walls the palace
of the khan. It was in an upper room of this residence that Mehrab Khan,
ruler of Baluchistan, was killed during the storming of the town and
citadel by the British troops at the close of the first Afghan War in
1839. In 1901 it had a population of only 2000. The valleys immediately
surrounding the fortress are well cultivated and thickly inhabited, in
spite of their elevation and the extremes of temperature to which they
are exposed. Recent surveys of Baluchistan have determined the position
of Hozdar or Khozdar (27 deg. 48' N., 66 deg. 38' E.) to be about 50 m.
S. of Kalat. Khozdar was the former capital of Baluchistan, and is as
directly connected with the southern branches of the Mulla Pass as Kalat
is with the northern, the Mulla being the ancient trade route to Gandava
(Kandabe) and Sind. In spite of the rugged and barren nature of the
mountain districts of the Kalat highlands, the main routes through them
(concentrating on Khozdar rather than on Kalat) are comparatively easy.
The old "Pathan vat," the trade highway between Kalat and Karachi by the
Hab valley, passes through Khozdar. From Khozdar another route strikes a
little west of south to Wad, and then passes easily into Las Bela. This
is the "Kohan vat." A third route runs to Nal, and leads to the head of
the Kolwa valley (meeting with no great physical obstruction), and then
strikes into the open high road to Persia. Some of the valleys about
Kalat (Mastang, for instance) are wide and fertile, full of thriving
villages and strikingly picturesque; and in spite of the great
preponderance of mountain wilderness (a wilderness which is, however, in
many parts well adapted for the pasturage of sheep) existing in the
Sarawan lowlands almost equally with the Jalawan highlands, it is not
difficult to understand the importance which the province of Kalat,
anciently called Turan (or Tubaran), maintained in the eyes of medieval
Arab geographers (see BALUCHISTAN). New light has been thrown on the
history of Kalat by the translation of an unpublished manuscript
obtained at Tatta by Mr Tate, of the Indian Survey Department, who has
added thereto notes from the Tufhat-ul-Kiram, for the use of which he
was indebted to Khan Sahib Rasul Baksh, mukhtiardar of Tatta. According
to these authorities, the family of the khans of Kalat is of Arabic
origin, and not, as is usually stated, of Brahuic extraction. They
belong to the Ahmadzai branch of the Mirwari clan, which originally
emigrated from Oman to the Kolwa valley of Mekran. The khan of Kalat,
Mir Mahmud Khan, who succeeded his father in 1893, is the leading
chieftain in the Baluch Confederacy. The revenue of the khan is
estimated at nearly L60,000, including subsidies from the British
government; and an accrued surplus of L240,000 has been invested in
Indian securities.
See G. P. Tate, _Kalat_ (Calcutta, 1896); _Baluchistan District
Gazetteer_, vol. vi. (Bombay, 1907). (T. H. H.*)
KALAT-I-GHILZAI, a fort in Afghanistan. It is situated on an isolated
rocky eminence 5543 ft. above sea-level and 200 ft. above the plain, on
the right bank of the river Tarnak, on the road between Kabul and
Kandahar, 87 m. from Kandahar and 229 m. from Kabul. It is celebrated
for its gallant defence by Captain Craigie and a sepoy garrison against
the Afghans in the first Afghan War of 1842. In memory of this feat of
arms, the 12th Pioneers still bear the name of "The Kalat-i-Ghilzai
Regiment," and carry a special colour with the motto "Invicta."
KALB, JOHANN ("BARON DE KALB") (1721-1780), German soldier in the
American War of Independence, was born in Huttendorf, near Bayreuth, on
the 29th of June 1721. He was of peasant parentage, and left home when
he was sixteen to become a butler; in 1743 he was a lieutenant in a
German regiment in the French service, calling himself at this time Jean
de Kalb. He served with the French in the War of the Austrian
Succession, becoming captain in 1747 and major in 1756; in the Seven
Years' War he was in the corps of the comte de Broglie, rendering great
assistance to the French after Rossbach (November 1757) and showing
great bravery at Bergen (April 1759); and in 1763 he resigned his
commission. As secret agent, appointed by Choiseul, he visited America
in 1768-1769 to inquire into the feeling of the colonists toward Great
Britain. From his retirement at Milon la Chapelle, Kalb went to Metz for
garrison duty under de Broglie in 1775. Soon afterwards he received
permission to volunteer in the army of the American colonies, in which
the rank of major-general was promised to him by Silas Deane. After many
delays he sailed with eleven other officers on the ship fitted out by
Lafayette and arrived at Philadelphia in July 1777. His commission from
Deane was disallowed, but the Continental Congress granted him the rank
of major-general (dating from the 15th of September 1777), and in
October he joined the army, where his growing admiration for Washington
soon led him to view with disfavour de Broglie's scheme for putting a
European officer in chief command. Early in 1778, as second in command
to Lafayette for the proposed expedition against Canada, he accompanied
Lafayette to Albany; but no adequate preparations had been made, and the
expedition was abandoned. In April 1780, he was sent from Morristown,
New Jersey, with his division of Maryland men, his Delaware regiment and
the 1st artillery, to relieve Charleston, but on arriving at Petersburg,
Virginia, he learned that Charleston had already fallen. In his camp at
Buffalo Ford and Deep River, General Horatio Gates joined him on the
25th of July; and next day Gates led the army by the short and desolate
road directly towards Camden. On the 11th-13th of August, when Kalb
advised an immediate attack on Rawdon, Gates hesitated and then marched
to a position on the Salisbury-Charlotte road which he had previously
refused to take. On the 14th Cornwallis had occupied Camden, and a
battle took place there on the 16th when, the other American troops
having broken and fled, Kalb, unhorsed and fighting fiercely at the head
of his right wing, was wounded eleven times. He was taken prisoner and
died on the 19th of August 1780 in Camden. Here in 1825 Lafayette laid
the corner-stone of a monument to him. In 1887 a statue of him by
Ephraim Keyser was dedicated in Annapolis, Maryland.
See Friedrich Kapp, _Leben des amerikanischen Generals Johann Kalb_
(Stuttgart, 1862; English version, privately printed, New York, 1870),
which is summarized in George W. Greene's _The German Element in the
War of American Independence_ (New York, 1876).
KALCKREUTH (or KALKREUTH), FRIEDRICH ADOLF, COUNT VON (1737-1818),
Prussian soldier, entered the regiment of Gardes du Corps in 1752, and
in 1758 was adjutant or aide de camp to Frederick the Great's brother,
Prince Henry, with whom he served throughout the later stages of the
Seven Years' War. He won special distinction at the battle of Freiberg
(Sept. 29, 1762), for which Frederick promoted him major. Personal
differences with Prince Henry severed their connexion in 1766, and for
many years Kalckreuth lived in comparative retirement. But he made the
campaign of the War of the Bavarian Succession as a colonel, and on the
accession of Frederick William II. was restored to favour. He greatly
distinguished himself as a major-general in the invasion of Holland in
1787, and by 1792 had become count and lieutenant-general. Under
Brunswick he took a conspicuous part in the campaign of Valmy in 1792,
the siege and capture of Mainz in 1793, and the battle of Kaiserslautern
in 1794. In the campaigns against Napoleon in 1806 he played a marked
part for good or evil, both at Auerstadt and in the miserable retreat of
the beaten Prussians. In 1807 he defended Danzig for 78 days against the
French under Marshal Lefebvre, with far greater skill and energy than he
had shown in the previous year. He was promoted field marshal soon
afterwards, and conducted many of the negotiations at Tilsit. He died as
governor of Berlin in 1818.
The _Dictees du Feldmarechal Kalckreuth_ were published by his son
(Paris, 1844).
KALCKREUTH, LEOPOLD, COUNT VON (1855- ), German painter, a direct
descendant of the famous field-marshal (see above), was born at
Dusseldorf, received his first training at Weimar from his father, the
landscape painter Count Stanislaus von Kalckreuth (1820-1894), and
subsequently studied at the academies of Weimar and Munich. Although he
painted some portraits remarkable for their power of expression, he
devoted himself principally to depicting with relentless realism the
monotonous life of the fishing folk on the sea-coast, and of the
peasants in the fields. His palette is joyless, and almost melancholy,
and in his technique he is strongly influenced by the impressionists. He
was one of the founders of the secessionist movement. From 1885 to 1890
Count von Kalckreuth was professor at the Weimar art school. In 1890 he
resigned his professorship and retired to his estate of Hockricht in
Silesia, where he occupied himself in painting subjects drawn from the
life of the country-folk. In 1895 he became a professor at the art
school at Karlsruhe. The Munich Pinakothek has his "Rainbow" and the
Dresden Gallery his "Old Age." Among his chief works are the "Funeral at
Dachau," "Homewards," "Wedding Procession in the Carpathian Mountains,"
"The Gleaners," "Old Age," "Before the Fish Auction," "Summer," and
"Going to School."
See A. Ph. W. v. Kalckreuth, _Gesch. der Herren, Freiherren und Grafen
von Kalckreuth_ (Potsdam, 1904).
KALEIDOSCOPE (from Gr. [Greek: kalos], beautiful, [Greek: eidos], form,
and [Greek: skopein], to view). The article REFLECTION explains the
symmetrical arrangement of images formed by two mirrors inclined at an
angle which is a sub-multiple of four right angles. This is the
principle of the kaleidoscope, an optical toy which received its present
form at the hands of Sir David Brewster about the year 1815, and which
at once became exceedingly popular owing to the beauty and variety of
the images and the sudden and unexpected changes from one graceful form
to another. A hundred years earlier R. Bradley had employed a similar
arrangement which seems to have passed into oblivion (_New Improvements
of Planting and Gardening_, 1710). The instrument has been extensively
used by designers. In its simplest form it consists of a tube about
twelve inches long containing two glass plates, extending along its
whole length and inclined at an angle of 60 deg. The eye-end of the tube
is closed by a metal plate having a small hole at its centre near the
intersection of the glass plates. The other end is closed by a plate of
muffed glass at the distance of distinct vision, and parallel to this is
fixed a plate of clear glass. In the intervening space (the
_object-box_) are contained a number of fragments of brilliantly
coloured glass, and as the tube is turned round its axis these fragments
alter their positions and give rise to the various patterns. A third
reflecting plate is sometimes employed, the cross-section of the three
forming an equilateral triangle. Sir David Brewster modified his
apparatus by moving the object-box and closing the end of the tube by a
lens of short focus which forms images of distant objects at the
distance of distinct vision. These images take the place of the coloured
fragments of glass, and they are symmetrically multiplied by the
mirrors. In the _polyangular kaleidoscope_ the angle between the mirrors
can be altered at pleasure. Such instruments are occasionally found in
old collections of philosophical apparatus and they have been used in
order to explain to students the formation of multiple images.
(C. J. J.)
KALERGIS, DIMITRI (DEMETRIOS) (1803-1867), Greek statesman, was a Cretan
by birth, studied medicine at Paris and on the outbreak of the War of
Greek Independence went to the Morea and joined the insurgents. He
fought under Karaiskakis, was taken prisoner by the Turks before Athens
and mulcted of an ear; later he acted as aide de camp to the French
philhellene Colonel Fabvier and to Count Capo d'Istria, president of
Greece. In 1832 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel. In 1843, as
commander of a cavalry division, he was the prime mover in the
insurrection which forced King Otto to dismiss his Bavarian ministers.
He was appointed military commandant of Athens and aide de camp to the
king, but after the fall of the Mavrocordato ministry in 1845 was forced
to go into exile, and spent several years in London, where he became an
intimate of Prince Louis Napoleon. In 1848 he made an abortive descent
on the Greek coast, in the hope of revolutionizing the kingdom. He was
captured, but soon released and, after a stay in the island of Zante,
went to Paris (1853). At the instance of the Western Powers he was
recalled on the outbreak of the Crimean War and appointed minister of
war in the reconstituted Mavrocordato cabinet (1854). He was, however,
disliked by King Otto and his consort, and in October 1855 was forced to
resign. In 1861 he was appointed minister plenipotentiary in Paris, in
which capacity he took an important part in the negotiations which
followed the fall of the Bavarian dynasty and led to the accession of
Prince George of Denmark to the Greek throne.
KALEWALA, or KALEVALA, the name of the Finnish national epos. It takes
its name from the three sons of Kalewa (or Finland), viz. the ancient
Wainamoinen, the inventor of the sacred harp Kantele; the cunning
art-smith, Ilmarinen; and the gallant Lemminkainen, who is a sort of
Arctic Don Juan. The adventures of these three heroes are wound about a
plot for securing in marriage the hand of the daughter of Louhi, a hero
from Pohjola, a land of the cold north. Ilmarinen is set to construct a
magic mill, the Sanpo, which grinds out meal, salt and gold, and as this
has fallen into the hands of the folk of Pohjola, it is needful to
recover it. The poem actually opens, however, with a very poetical
theory of the origin of the world. The virgin daughter of the
atmosphere, Luonnotar, wanders for seven hundred years in space, until
she bethinks her to invoke Ukko, the northern Zeus, who sends his eagle
to her; this bird makes its nest on the knees of Luonnotar and lays in
it seven eggs. Oat of the substance of these eggs the visible world is
made. But it is empty and sterile until Wainamoinen descends upon it
and woos the exquisite Aino. She disappears into space, and it is to
recover from his loss and to find another bride that Wainamoinen makes
his series of epical adventures in the dismal country of Pohjola.
Various episodes of great strangeness and beauty accompany the lengthy
recital of the struggle to acquire the magical Sanpo, which gives
prosperity to whoever possesses it. In the midst of a battle the Sanpo
is broken and falls into the sea, but one fragment floats on the waves,
and, being stranded on the shores of Finland, secures eternal felicity
for that country. At the very close of the poem a virgin, Mariatta,
brings forth a king who drives Wainamoinen out of the country, and this
is understood to refer to the ultimate conquest of Paganism by
Christianity.
The _Kalewala_ was probably composed at various times and by various
bards, but always in sympathy with the latent traditions of the Finnish
race, and with a mixture of symbolism and realism exactly accordant with
the instincts of that race. While in the other antique epics of the
world bloodshed takes a predominant place, the _Kalewala_ is
characteristically gentle, lyrical and even domestic, dwelling at great
length on situations of moral beauty and romantic pathos. It is entirely
concerned with the folk-lore and the traditions of the primeval Finnish
race. The poem is written in eight-syllabled trochaic verse, and an idea
of its style may be obtained from Longfellow's _Hiawatha_, which is a
pretty true imitation of the Finnish epic.
Until the 19th century the _Kalewala_ existed only in fragments in the
memories and on the lips of the peasants. A collection of a few of
these scattered songs was published in 1822 by Dr Zacharius Topelius,
but it was not until 1835 that anything like a complete and
systematically arranged collection was given to the world by Dr Elias
Lonnrot. For years Dr Lonnrot wandered from place to place in the most
remote districts, living with the peasantry, and taking down from
their lips all that they knew of their popular songs. Some of the most
valuable were discovered in the governments of Archangel and Olonetz.
After unwearied diligence Lonnrot was successful in collecting 12,000
lines. These he arranged as methodically as he could into thirty-two
runes or cantos, which he published exactly as he heard them sung or
chanted. Continuing his researches, Dr Lonnrot published in 1849 a new
edition of 22,793 verses in fifty runes. A still more complete text
was published by A. V. Forsman in 1887. The importance of this
indigenous epic was at once recognized in Europe, and translations
were made into Swedish, German and French. Several translations into
English exist, the fullest being that by J. M. Crawford in 1888. The
best foreign editions are those of Castren in Swedish (1844), Leouzon
le Duc in French (1845 and 1868), Schiefner in German (1852).
(E. G.)
KALGAN (CHANG-CHIA K'OW), a city of China, in the province of Chih-li,
with a population estimated at from 70,000 to 100,000. It lies in the
line of the Great Wall, 122 m. by rail N.W. of Peking, commanding an
important pass between China and Mongolia. Its position is stated as in
40 deg. 50' N. and 114 deg. 54' E., and its height above the sea as 2810
ft. The valley amid the mountains in which it is situated is under
excellent cultivation, and thickly studded with villages. Kalgan
consists of a walled town or fortress and suburbs 3 m. long. The streets
are wide, and excellent shops are abundant; but the ordinary houses have
an unusual appearance, from the fact that they are mostly roofed with
earth and become covered with green-sward. Large quantities of soda are
manufactured; and the town is the seat of a very extensive transit
trade. In October 1909 it was connected by railway with Peking. In early
autumn long lines of camels come in from all quarters for the conveyance
of the tea-chests from Kalgan to Kiakhta; and each caravan usually makes
three journeys in the winter. Some Russian merchants have permanent
residences and warehouses just outside the gate. On the way to Peking
the road passes over a beautiful bridge of seven arches, ornamented with
marble figures of animals. The name Kalgan is Mongolian, and means a
barrier or "gate-beam."
KALGOORLIE, a mining town of Western Australia, 24 m. by rail E.N.E. of
Coolgardie. Pop. (1901), 6652. It is a thriving town with an electric
tramway service, and is the junction of four lines of railway. The
gold-field, discovered in 1893, is very rich, supporting about 15,000
miners. The town is supplied with water, like Coolgardie, from a source
near Perth 360 m. distant.
KALI (black), or _Kali Ma_ (the Black Mother), in Hindu mythology, the
goddess of destruction and death, the wife of Siva. According to one
theory, Calcutta owes its name to her, being originally Kalighat,
"Kali's landing-place." Siva's consort has many names (e.g. Durga,
Bhawani, Parvati, &c.). Her idol is black, with four arms, and red palms
to the hands. Her eyes are red, and her face and breasts are besmeared
with blood. Her hair is matted, and she has projecting fang-like teeth,
between which protrudes a tongue dripping with blood. She wears a
necklace of skulls, her earrings are dead bodies, and she is girded with
serpents. She stands on the body of Siva, to account for which attitude
there is an elaborate legend. She is more worshipped in Gondwana and the
forest tracts to the east and south of it than in any other part of
India. Formerly human sacrifice was the essential of her ritual. The
victim, always a male, was taken to her temple after sunset and
imprisoned there. When morning came he was dead: the priests told the
people that Kali had sucked his blood in the night. At Dantewara in
Bastar there is a famous shrine of Kali under the name of Danteswari.
Here many a human head has been presented on her altar. About 1830 it is
said that upwards of twenty-five full-grown men were immolated at once
by the raja. Cutting their flesh and burning portions of their body were
among the acts of devotion of her worshippers. Kali is goddess of
small-pox and cholera. The Thugs murdered their victims in her honour,
and to her the sacred pickaxe, wherewith their graves were dug, was
consecrated.
The _Hook-swinging Festival_ (_Churruk_ or _Churuck Puja_), one of the
most notable celebrations in honour of the goddess Kali, has now been
prohibited in British territory. Those who had vowed themselves to
self-torture submitted to be swung in the air supported only by hooks
passed through the muscles over the blade-bones. These hooks were hung
from a long crossbeam, which see-sawed upon a huge upright pole. Hoisted
into the air by men pulling down the other end of the see-saw beam, the
victim was then whirled round in a circle. The torture usually lasted
fifteen or twenty minutes.
See A. A. Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_ (Strassburg, 1897).
KALIDASA, the most illustrious name among the writers of the second
epoch of Sanskrit literature, which, as contrasted with the age of the
Vedic hymns, may be characterized as the period of artificial poetry.
Owing to the absence of the historical sense in the Hindu race, it is
impossible to fix with chronological exactness the lifetime of either
Kalidasa or any other Sanskrit author. Native tradition places him in
the 1st century B.C.; but the evidence on which this belief rests is
worthless. The works of the poet contain no allusions by which their
date can be directly determined; yet the extremely corrupt form of the
Prakrit or popular dialects spoken by the women and the subordinate
characters in his plays, as compared with the Prakrit in inscriptions of
ascertained age, led such authorities as Weber and Lassen to agree in
fixing on the 3rd century A.D. as the approximate period to which the
writings of Kalidasa should be referred.
He was one of the "nine gems" at the court of King Vikramaditya or
Vikrama, at Ujjain, and the tendency is now to regard the latter as
having flourished about A.D. 375; others, however, place him as late as
the 6th century. The richness of his creative fancy, his delicacy of
sentiment, and his keen appreciation of the beauties of nature, combined
with remarkable powers of description, place Kalidasa in the first rank
of Oriental poets. The effect, however, of his productions as a whole is
greatly marred by extreme artificiality of diction, which, though to a
less extent than in other Hindu poets, not unfrequently takes the form
of puerile conceits and plays on words. In this respect his writings
contrast very unfavourably with the more genuine poetry of the Vedas.
Though a true poet, he is wanting in that artistic sense of proportion
so characteristic of the Greek mind, which exactly adjusts the parts to
the whole, and combines form and matter into an inseparable poetic
unity. Kalidasa's fame rests chiefly on his dramas, but he is also
distinguished as an epic and a lyric poet.
He wrote three plays, the plots of which all bear a general
resemblance, inasmuch as they consist of love intrigues, which, after
numerous and seemingly insurmountable impediments of a similar nature,
are ultimately brought to a successful conclusion.
Of these, _Sakuntala_ is that which has always justly enjoyed the
greatest fame and popularity. The unqualified praise bestowed upon it
by Goethe sufficiently guarantees its poetic merit. There are two
recensions of the text in India, the Bengali and the Devanagari, the
latter being generally considered older and purer. _Sakuntala_ was
first translated into English by Sir William Jones (Calcutta, 1789),
who used the Bengali recension. It was soon after translated into
German by G. Forster (1791; new ed. Leipzig, 1879). An edition of the
Sanskrit original, with French translation, was published by A. L.
Chezy at Paris in 1830. This formed the basis of a translation by B.
Hirzel (Zurich, 1830); later trans. by L. Fritze (Chemnitz, 1876).
Other editions of the Bengali recension were published by Prema
Chandra (Calcutta, 1860) for the use of European students and by R.
Pischel (2nd ed., Kiel, 1886). The Devanagari recension was first
edited by O. Bohtlingk (Bonn, 1842), with a German translation. On
this were based the successive German translations of E. Meier
(Tubingen, 1851) and E. Lobedanz (8th ed., Leipzig, 1892). The same
recension has been edited by Dr C. Burkhard with a Sanskrit-Latin
vocabulary and short Prakrit grammar (Breslau, 1872), and by Professor
Monier Williams (Oxford, 2nd ed. 1876), who also translated the drama
(5th ed., 1887). There is another translation by P. N. Patankar
(Poona, 1888- ). There are also a South Indian and a Cashmir
recension.
The _Vikramorvasi_, or _Urvasi won by Valour_, abounds with fine
lyrical passages, and is of all Indian dramas second only to
_Sakuntala_ in poetic beauty. It was edited by R. Lenz (Berlin, 1833)
and translated into German by C. G. A. Hofer (Berlin, 1837), by B.
Hirzel (1838), by E. Lobedanz (Leipzig, 1861) and F. Bollensen
(Petersburg, 1845). There is also an English edition by Monier
Williams, a metrical and prose version by Professor H. H. Wilson, and
a literal prose translation by Professor E. B. Cowell (1851). The
latest editions are by S. P. Pandit (Bombay, 1879) and K. B. Paranjpe
(ibid. 1898).
The third play, entitled _Malavikagnimitra_, has considerable poetical
and dramatic merit, but is confessedly inferior to the other two. It
possesses the advantage, however, that its hero Agnimitra and its
heroine Malavika are more ordinary and human characters than those of
the other plays. It is edited by O. F. Tullberg (Bonn, 1840), by
Shankar P. Pandit, with English notes (1869), and S. S. Ayyar (Poona,
1896); translated into German by A. Weber (1856), and into English by
C. H. Tawney (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1898).
Two epic poems are also attributed to Kalidasa. The longer of these is
entitled _Raghuvamsa_, the subject of which is the same as that of the
_Ramayana_, viz. the history of Rama, but beginning with a long
account of his ancestors, the ancient rulers of Ayodhya (ed. by A. F.
Stenzler, London, 1832; and with Eng. trans. and notes by Gopal
Raghunath Nandargikar, Poona, 1897; verse trans. by P. de Lacy
Johnstone, 1902). The other epic is the _Kumarasambhava_, the theme of
which is the birth of Kumara, otherwise called Karttikeya or Skanda,
god of war (ed. by Stenzler, London, 1838; K. M. Banerjea, 3rd ed.
Calcutta, 1872; Parvanikara and Parab, Bombay, 1893; and M. R. Kale
and S. R. Dharadhara, ibid. 1907; Eng. trans. by R. T. Griffith,
1879). Though containing many fine passages, it is tame as a whole.
His lyrical poems are the _Meghaduta_ and the _Ritusamhara_. The
_Meghaduta_, or the Cloud-Messenger, describes the complaint of an
exiled lover, and the message he sends to his wife by a cloud. It is
full of deep feeling, and abounds with fine descriptions of the
beauties of nature. It was edited with free English translation by H.
H. Wilson (Calcutta, 1813), and by J. Gildemeister (Bonn, 1841); a
German adaptation by M. Muller appeared at Konigsberg (1847), and one
by C. Schutz at Bielefeld (1859). It was edited by F. Johnson, with
vocabulary and Wilson's metrical translation (London, 1867); later
editions by K. P. Parab (Bombay, 1891) and K. B. Pathak (Poona, 1894).
The _Ritusamhara_, or Collection of the Seasons, is a short poem, of
less importance, on the six seasons of the year. There is an edition
by P. von Bohlen, with prose Latin and metrical German translation
(Leipzig, 1840); Eng. trans. by C. S. Sitaram Ayyar (Bombay, 1897).
Another poem, entitled the _Nalodaya_, or Rise of Nala, edited by F.
Benary (Berlin, 1830), W. Yates (Calcutta, 1844) and Vidyasagara
(Calcutta, 1873), is a treatment of the story of Nala and Damayanti,
but describes especially the restoration of Nala to prosperity and
power. It has been ascribed to the celebrated Kalidasa, but was
probably written by another poet of the same name. It is full of most
absurd verbal conceits and metrical extravagances.
So many poems, partly of a very different stamp, are attributed to
Kalidasa that it is scarcely possible to avoid the necessity of
assuming the existence of more authors than one of that name. It is by
no means improbable that there were three poets thus named; indeed
modern native astronomers are so convinced of the existence of a triad
of authors of this name that they apply the term Kalidasa to designate
the number three.
On Kalidasa generally, see A. A. Macdonell's _History of Sanskrit
Literature_ (1900), and on his date G. Huth, _Die Zeit des K._
(Berlin, 1890). (A. A. M.)
KALIMPONG, a village of British India, in the Darjeeling district of
Bengal, 4000 ft. above sea-level; pop. (1901), 1069. It is a frontier
market for the purchase of wool and mules from Tibet, and an important
agricultural fair is held in November. In 1900 Kalimpong was chosen by
the Church of Scotland as the site of cottage homes, known as St
Andrew's Colonial Homes, for the education and training of poor European
and Eurasian children.
KALINGA, or CALINGA, one of the nine kingdoms of southern India in
ancient times. Its exact limits varied, but included the eastern Madras
coast from Pulicat to Chicacole, running inland from the Bay of Bengal
to the Eastern Ghats. The name at one time had a wider and vaguer
meaning, comprehending Orissa, and possibly extending to the Ganges
valley. The Kalinga of Pliny certainly included Orissa, but latterly it
seems to have been confined to the Telugu-speaking country; and in the
time of Hsuan Tsang (630 A.D.) it was distinguished on the south and
west from Andhra, and on the north from Odra or Orissa. Taranatha, the
Tibetan historian, speaks of Kalinga as one division of the country of
Telinga. Hsuan Tsang speaks of Kalinga ("Kie-ling-kia") having its
capital at what has been identified with the site either of Rajahmundry
or Coringa. Both these towns, as well as Singapur, Calingapatam and
Chicacole, share the honour of having been the chief cities of Kalinga
at different periods; but inscriptions recently deciphered seem to prove
that the capital of the Ganga dynasty of Kalinga was at Mukhalingam in
the Ganjam district.
KALINJAR, a town and hill fort of British India in the Banda district of
the United Provinces. Pop. (1901), 3015. The fort stands on an isolated
rock, the termination of the Vindhya range, at an elevation of 1203 ft.,
overlooking the plains of Bundelkhand. Kalinjar is the most
characteristic specimen of the hill-fortresses, originally hill-shrines,
of central India. Its antiquity is proved by its mention in the
_Mahabharata_. It was besieged by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1023, and here the
Afghan emperor Sher Shah met his death in 1545, and Kalinjar played a
prominent part in history down to the time of the Mutiny in 1857, when
it was held by a small British garrison. Both the fort and the town,
which stands at the foot of the hill, are of interest to the antiquary
on account of their remains of temples, sculptures, inscriptions and
caves.
KALIR [QALIR], ELEAZER, Hebrew liturgical poet, whose hymns (_piyyutim_)
are found in profusion in the festival prayers of the German synagogal
rite. The age in which he lived is unknown. Some (basing the view on
Saadiah's _Sefer ha-galuy_) place him as early as the 6th century,
others regard him as belonging to the 10th century. Kalir's style is
powerful but involved; he may be described as a Hebrew Browning.
Some beautiful renderings of Kalir's poems may be found in the volumes
of Davis & Adler's edition of the German Festival Prayers entitled
_Service of the Synagogue_.
KALISCH, ISIDOR (1816-1886), Jewish divine, was born at Krotoschin in
Prussia on the 15th of November 1816, and was educated at Berlin,
Breslau and Prague. In 1848 he came to London, but passed on in 1849 to
America, where he ministered as rabbi in Cleveland, Cincinnati,
Milwaukee, Detroit and Newark, New Jersey. At Newark from 1875 he gave
himself entirely to literary work, and exercised a strong influence as
leader of the radical and reforming Jewish party.
Among his works are _Wegweisen fur rationelle Forschungen in den
biblischen Schriften_ (1853); and translations of _Nathan der Weise_
(1869); _Sepher Jezirah_ (1877); and Munz's _History of Philosophy
among the Jews_ (1881). He also wrote a good deal of German and Hebrew
verse.
KALISCH, MARCUS (or MAURICE) (1828-1885), Jewish scholar, was born in
Pomerania in 1828, and died in England 1885. He was one of the pioneers
of the critical study of the Old Testament in England. At one time he
was secretary to the Chief Rabbi; in 1853 he became tutor in the
Rothschild family and enjoyed leisure to produce his commentaries and
other works. The first instalment of his commentary on the Pentateuch
was _Exodus_ (1855); this was followed by _Genesis_ (1858) and
_Leviticus_ in two parts (1867-1872). Kalisch wrote before the
publication of Wellhausen's works, and anticipated him in some important
points. Besides these works, Kalisch published in 1877-1878 two volumes
of Bible studies (on _Balaam_ and _Jonah_). He was also author of a once
popular Hebrew grammar in two volumes (1862-1863). In 1880 he published
_Path and Goal_, a brilliant discussion of human destiny. His
commentaries are of permanent value, not only because of the author's
originality, but also because of his erudition. No other works in
English contain such full citations of earlier literature. (I. A.)
KALISPEL, or PEND D'OREILLE, a tribe of North-American Indians of
Salishan stock. They formerly ranged the country around Pend d'Oreille
Lake, Washington. They number some 600, and are settled on a reservation
in Montana.
KALISZ, a government of Russian Poland, having Prussia on the W., and
the governments of Warsaw and Piotrkow on the E. Its area is 4390 sq. m.
Its surface is a lowland, sloping towards the west, and is drained by
the Prosna and the Warta and their tributaries, and also by the Bzura.
It was formerly covered with countless small lakes and thick forests;
the latter are now mostly destroyed, but many lakes and marshes exist
still. Pop. (1897), 844,358 of whom 427,978 were women, and 113,609
lived in towns; estimated pop. (1906), 983,200. They are chiefly Poles.
Roman Catholics number 83%; Jews and Protestants each amount to 7%.
Agriculture is carried to perfection on a number of estates, as also
livestock breeding. The crops principally raised are rye, wheat, oats,
barley and potatoes. Various domestic trades, including the weaving of
linen and wool, are carried on in the villages. There are some
factories, producing chiefly cloth and cottons. The government is
divided into eight districts, the chief towns of which, with their
populations in 1897, are: Kalisz (21,680), Kolo (9400), Konin (8530),
Leczyca (8863), Slupec (3758), Sieradz (7019), Turek (8141) and Wielun
(7442).
KALISZ, the chief town of the above government, situated in 51 deg. 46'
N. and 18 deg. E., 147 m. by rail W.S.W. of Warsaw, on the banks of the
Prosna, which there forms the boundary of Prussia. Pop. (1871), 18,088;
(1897), 21,680, of whom 37% were Jews. It is one of the oldest and
finest cities of Poland, is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, and
possesses a castle, a teachers' institute and a large public park. The
industrial establishments comprise a brewery, and factories for ribbons,
cloth and sugar, and tanneries.
Kalisz is identified with the _Calisia_ of Ptolemy, and its antiquity
is indicated by the abundance of coins and other objects of ancient
art which have been discovered on the site, as well as by the numerous
burial mounds existing in the vicinity. It was the scene of the
decisive victory of Augustus the Strong of Poland over the Swedes on
the 29th of October 1706, of several minor conflicts in 1813, and of
the friendly meeting of the Russian and Prussian troops in 1835, in
memory of which an iron obelisk was erected in the town by Nicholas I.
in 1841. The treaty of 1813 between Russia and Prussia was signed
here.
KALK, a town in the Prussian Rhine province, on the right bank of the
Rhine, 2 m. E. of Cologne. Pop. (1905), 25,478. Kalk is an important
junction of railway lines connecting Cologne with places on the right
bank of the river. It has various iron and chemical industries,
brickworks and breweries, and an electric tramway joins it with Cologne.
KALKAS, or KHALKAS, a Mongoloid people mainly concentrated in the
northern steppes of Mongolia near their kinsmen, the Buriats. According
to Sir H. Howorth they derive their name from the river Kalka, which
runs into the Buir lake. Of all Mongolians they physically differ most
from the true Mongol type (see MONGOLS). Their colour is a brown rather
than a yellow, and their eyes are open and not oblique. They have,
however, the broad flat face, high cheekbones and lank black hair of
their race. They number some 250,000, and their territory is divided
into the four khanates of Tushetu (Tushiyetu), Tsetien (Setzen),
Sai'noi'm (Sain Noyan) and Jesaktu (Jassaktu).
KALKBRENNER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1784-1849), German pianist and composer,
son of Christian Kalkbrenner (1755-1806), a Jewish musician of Cassel,
was educated at the Paris Conservatoire, and soon began to play in
public. From 1814 to 1823 he was well known as a brilliant performer and
a successful teacher in London, and then settled in Paris, dying at
Enghien, near there, in 1849. He became a member of the Paris
piano-manufacturing firm of Pleyel & Co., and made a fortune by his
business and his art combined. His numerous compositions are less
remembered now than his instruction-book, with "studies," which have had
considerable vogue among pianists.
KALLAY, BENJAMIN VON (1839-1903), Austro-Hungarian statesman, was born
at Budapest on the 22nd of December 1839. His family derived their name
from their estates at Nagy Kallo, in Szabolcs, and claimed descent from
the Balogh Semjen tribe, which colonized the counties of Borsod,
Szabolcs, and Szatmar, at the close of the 9th century, when the Magyars
conquered Hungary. They played a prominent part in Hungarian history as
early as the reign of Koloman (1095-1114); and from King Matthias
Corvinus (1458-1490) they received their estates at Mezo Tur, near
Kecskemet, granted to Michael Kallay for his heroic defence of Jajce in
Bosnia, and still held by his descendants. The father of Benjamin von
Kallay, a superior official of the Hungarian Government, died in 1845,
and his widow, who survived until 1903, devoted herself to the education
of her son. At an early age Kallay manifested a deep interest in
politics, and especially in the Eastern Question. He travelled in
Russia, European Turkey and Asia Minor, gaining a thorough knowledge of
Greek, Turkish and several Slavonic languages. He became as proficient
in Servian as in his native tongue. In 1867 he entered the Hungarian
Diet as Conservative deputy for Muhlbach (Szasy-Szebes); in 1869 he was
appointed consul-general at Belgrade; and in 1872 he visited Bosnia for
the first time. His views on Balkan questions strongly influenced Count
Andrassy, the Austro-Hungarian minister for foreign affairs. Leaving
Belgrade in 1875, he resumed his seat in the Diet, and shortly
afterwards founded the journal _Kelet Nepe_, or _Eastern Folk_, in which
he defended the vigorous policy of Andrassy. After the Russo-Turkish War
of 1878 he went to Philippopolis as Austro-Hungarian envoy extraordinary
on the International Eastern Rumelian Commission. In 1879 he became
second, and soon afterwards first, departmental chief at the foreign
office in Vienna. On the 4th of June 1882 he was appointed Imperial
minister of finance and administrator of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the
distinction with which he filled this office, for a period of 21 years,
is his chief title of fame (see BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA). Kallay was an
honorary member of the Budapest and Vienna academies of science, and
attained some eminence as a writer. He translated J. S. Mill's _Liberty_
into Hungarian, adding an introductory critique; while his version of
_Galatea_, a play by the Greek dramatist S. N. Basiliades (1843-1874),
proved successful on the Hungarian stage. His monographs on Servian
history (_Geschichte der Serben_) and on the Oriental ambition of Russia
(_Die Orientpolitik Russlands_) were translated into German by J. H.
Schwicker, and published at Leipzig in 1878. But, in his own opinion,
his masterpiece was an academic oration on the political and
geographical position of Hungary as a link between East and West. In
1873 Kallay married the countess Vilma Bethlen, who bore him two
daughters and a son. His popularity in Bosnia was partly due to the tact
and personal charm of his wife. He died on the 13th of July 1903.
KALMAR (CALMAR), a seaport of Sweden on the Baltic coast, chief town of
the district (_lan_) of Kalmar, 250 m. S.S.W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop.
(1900), 12,715. It lies opposite the island of Oland, mainly on two
small islands, but partly on the mainland, where there is a pleasant
park. The streets are regular, and most of the houses are of wood. The
principal public edifices, however, are constructed of limestone from
Oland, including the cathedral, built by Nicodemus Tessin and his son
Nicodemus in the second half of the 17th century. Kalmar, a town of
great antiquity, was formerly strongly fortified, and there remains the
island-fortress of Kalmarnahus, dating partly from the 12th century, but
mainly from the 16th and 17th. It contains the beautiful chamber of King
Eric XIV. (d. 1577), an historical museum, and in the courtyard a fine
ornate well-cover. This stronghold stood several sieges in the 14th,
15th and 16th centuries, and the town gives name to the treaty (Kalmar
Union) by which Sweden, Norway and Denmark were united into one kingdom
in 1397. Kalmar has an artificial harbour admitting vessels drawing 19
ft. There are a school of navigation, and tobacco and match factories,
the produce of which, together with timber and oats, is exported.
Ship-building is carried on.
KALMUCK, or KALMYK STEPPE, a territory or reservation belonging to the
Kalmuck or Kalmyk Tatars, in the Russian government of Astrakhan,
bounded by the Volga on the N.E., the Manych on the S.W., the Caspian
Sea on the E., and the territory of the Don Cossacks on the N.W. Its
area is 36,900 sq. m., to which has to be added a second reservation of
3045 sq. m. on the left bank of the lower Volga. According to I. V.
Mushketov, the Kalmuck Steppe must be divided into two parts, western
and eastern. The former, occupied by the Ergeni hills, is deeply
trenched by ravines and rises 300 and occasionally 630 ft. above the
sea. It is built up of Tertiary deposits, belonging to the Sarmatian
division of the Miocene period and covered with loess and black earth,
and its escarpments represent the old shore-line of the Caspian. No
Caspian deposits are found on or within the Ergeni hills. These hills
exhibit the usual black earth flora, and they have a settled population.
The eastern part of the steppe is a plain, lying for the most part 30 to
40 ft. below the level of the sea, and sloping gently towards the Volga.
Post-Pliocene "Aral-Caspian deposits," containing the usual fossils
(_Hydrobia_, _Neritina_, eight species of _Cardium_, two of _Dreissena_,
three of _Adacna_ and _Lithoglyphus caspius_), attain thicknesses
varying from 105 ft. to 7 or 10 ft., and disappear in places. Lacustrine
and fluviatile deposits occur intermingled with the above. Large areas
of moving sands exist near Enotayevsk, where high dunes or _barkhans_
have been formed. A narrow tract of land along the coast of the Caspian,
known as the "hillocks of Baer," is covered with hillocks elongated from
west to east, perpendicularly to the coast-line, the spaces between them
being filled with water or overgrown with thickets of reed, _Salix_,
_Ulmus campestris_, almond trees, &c. An archipelago of little islands
is thus formed close to the shore by these mounds, which are backed on
the N. and N.W. by strings of salt lakes, partly desiccated. Small
streams originate in the Ergenis, but are lost as soon as they reach the
lowlands, where water can only be obtained from wells. The scanty
vegetation is a mixture of the flora of south-east Russia and that of
the deserts of central Asia. The steppe has an estimated population of
130,000 persons, living in over 27,700 _kibitkas_, or felt tents. There
are over 60 Buddhist monasteries. Part of the Kalmucks are settled
(chiefly in the hilly parts), the remainder being nomads. They breed
horses, cattle and sheep, but suffer heavy losses from murrain. Some
attempts at agriculture and tree-planting are being made. The breeding
of livestock, fishing, and some domestic trades, chiefly carried on by
the women, are the principal sources of maintenance.
See I. V. Mushketov, _Geol. Researches in the Kalmyk Steppe in
1884-1885_ (St Petersburg, 1894, in Russian); Kostenkov's works
(1868-1870); and other works quoted in Semenov's _Geogr. Dict._ and
_Russ. Encycl. Dict._ (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
KALNOKY, GUSTAV SIEGMUND, COUNT (1832-1898), Austro-Hungarian statesman,
was born at Lettowitz, in Moravia, on the 29th of December 1832, of an
old Transylvanian family which had held countly rank in Hungary from the
17th century. After spending some years in a hussar regiment, in 1854 he
entered the diplomatic service without giving up his connexion with the
army, in which he reached the rank of general in 1879. He was for the
ten years 1860 to 1870 secretary of embassy at London, and then, after
serving at Rome and Copenhagen, was in 1880 appointed ambassador at St
Petersburg. His success in Russia procured for him, on the death of
Baron v. Haymerle in 1881, the appointment of minister of foreign
affairs for Austria-Hungary, a post which he held for fourteen years.
Essentially a diplomatist, he took little or no part in the vexed
internal affairs of the Dual Monarchy, and he came little before the
public except at the annual statement on foreign affairs before the
Delegations. His management of the affairs of his department was,
however, very successful; he confirmed and maintained the alliance with
Germany, which had been formed by his predecessors, and co-operated with
Bismarck in the arrangements by which Italy joined the alliance.
Kalnoky's special influence was seen in the improvement of Austrian
relations with Russia, following on the meeting of the three emperors in
September 1884 at Skiernevice, at which he was present. His Russophile
policy caused some adverse criticism in Hungary. His friendliness for
Russia did not, however, prevent him from strengthening the position of
Austria as against Russia in the Balkan Peninsula by the establishment
of a closer political and commercial understanding with Servia and
Rumania. In 1885 he interfered after the battle of Slivnitza to arrest
the advance of the Bulgarians on Belgrade, but he lost influence in
Servia after the abdication of King Milan. Though he kept aloof from the
Clerical party, Kalnoky was a strong Catholic; and his sympathy for the
difficulties of the Church caused adverse comment in Italy, when, in
1891, he stated in a speech before the Delegations that the question of
the position of the pope was still unsettled. He subsequently explained
that by this he did not refer to the Roman question, which was
permanently settled, but to the possibility of the pope leaving Rome.
The jealousy felt in Hungary against the Ultramontanes led to his fall.
In 1895 a case of clerical interference in the internal affairs of
Hungary by the nuncio Agliardi aroused a strong protest in the Hungarian
parliament, and consequent differences between Banffy, the Hungarian
minister, and the minister for foreign affairs led to Kalnoky's
resignation. He died on the 13th of February 1898 at Prodlitz in
Moravia.
KALOCSA, a town of Hungary, in the county of Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kis-Kun, 88
m. S. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 11,372. It is situated in a
marshy but highly productive district, near the left bank of the Danube,
and was once of far greater importance than at present. Kalocsa is the
see of one of the four Roman Catholic archbishops in Hungary. Amongst
its buildings are a fine cathedral, the archiepiscopal palace, an
astronomical observatory, a seminary for priests, and colleges for
training of male and female teachers. The inhabitants of Kalocsa and its
wide-spreading communal lands are chiefly employed in the cultivation of
the vine, fruit, flax, hemp and cereals, in the capture of water-fowl
and in fishing. Kalocsa is one of the oldest towns in Hungary. The
present archbishopric, founded about 1135, is a development of a
bishopric said to have been founded in the year 1000 by King Stephen the
Saint. It suffered much during the 16th century from the hordes of
Ottomans who then ravaged the country. A large part of the town was
destroyed by a fire in 1875.
KALPI, or CALPEE, a town of British India, in the Jalaun district of the
United Provinces, on the right bank of the Jumna, 45 m. S.W. of
Cawnpore. Pop. (1901), 10,139. It was founded, according to tradition,
by Vasudeva, at the end of the 4th century A.D. In 1196 it fell to
Kutab-ud-din, the viceroy of Mahommed Ghori, and during the subsequent
Mahommedan period it played a large part in the annals of this part of
India. About the middle of the 18th century it passed into the hands of
the Mahrattas. It was captured by the British in 1803, and since 1806
has remained in British possession. In May 1858 Sir Hugh Rose (Lord
Strathnairn) defeated here a force of about 10,000 rebels under the rani
of Jhansi. Kalpi had a mint for copper coinage in the reign of Akbar;
and the East India Company made it one of their principal stations for
providing the "commercial investment." The old town, which is beside the
river, has ruins of a fort, and several temples of interest, while in
the neighbourhood are many ancient tombs. There is a lofty modern tower
ornamented with representations of the battles of the _Ramayana_. The
new town lies away from the river to the south-east. Kalpi is still a
centre of local trade (principally in grain, _ghi_ and cotton), with a
station on the Indian Midland railway from Jhansi to Cawnpore, which
here crosses the Jumna. There are manufactures of sugar and paper.
KALUGA, a government of middle Russia, surrounded by those of Moscow,
Smolensk, Orel and Tula, with an area of 11,942 sq. m. Its surface is an
undulating plain, reaching 800 to 900 ft. in its highest parts, which
lie in the S.W., and deeply trenched by watercourses, especially in the
N.E. The Oka, a main tributary of the Volga, and its confluents (the
Zhizdra and Ugra) drain all but a strip of country in the west, which is
traversed by the Bolva, an affluent of the Dnieper. The government is
built up mainly of carboniferous deposits (coal-bearing), with patches
of the soft Jurassic clays and limestones which formerly covered them.
Cretaceous deposits occur in the S.W., and Devonian limestones and
shales crop out in the S.E. The government is covered with a thick layer
of boulder clay in the north, with vast ridges and fields of boulders
brought during the Glacial Period from Finland and the government of
Olonets; large areas in the middle are strewn with flint boulders and
patches of loess are seen farther south. The mean annual temperature is
41 deg. F. Iron ores are the chief mineral wealth, nearly 40,000 persons
being engaged in mining. Beds of coal occur in several places, and some
of them are worked. Fireclay, china-clay, chalk, grindstone, pure quartz
sand, phosphorite and copper are also extracted. Forests cover 20% of
the surface, and occur chiefly in the south. The soil is not very
suitable for agriculture, and owing to a rather dense population,
considerable numbers of the inhabitants find occupation in industry, or
as carriers and carpenters for one-half of the year at the Black Sea
ports.
The population (1,025,705 in 1860) was 1,176,353 in 1897, nearly all
Great Russians. There were 116 women to 100 men, and out of the total
population 94,853 lived in towns. The estimated population in 1906 was
1,287,300. Of the total area over 4,000,000 acres are owned by the
peasant communities, nearly 3,000,000 acres by private owners and some
250,000 by the Crown. The principal crops are rye, oats, barley,
buckwheat, and potatoes. Hemp is grown for local use and export. Bees
are kept. The chief non-agricultural industries are distilleries,
iron-works, factories for cloth, cottons, paper, matches, leather and
china, flour-mills and oil works. Large quantities of wooden wares are
fabricated in the villages of the south. A considerable trade is carried
on in hemp, hempseed and hempseed oil, corn and hides; and iron,
machinery, leather, glass, chemicals and linen are exported. The
government is divided into 11 districts, the chief towns of which, with
their populations in 1897, are: Kaluga (49,728), Borovsk (8407), Kozelsk
(5908), Likhvin (1776), Maloyaroslavets (2500), Medyn (4392), Meshchovsk
(3667), Mosalsk (2652), Peremyshl (3956), Tarusa (1989) and Zhizdra
(5996). (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
KALUGA, the chief town of the above government, situated on the left
bank of the Oka, 117 m. S.W. of Moscow by rail, in 54 deg. 31' N. and 36
deg. 6' E. Pop. (1870), 36,880; (1897) 49,728. It is the see of a Greek
Orthodox bishop. The public buildings include the cathedral of the
Trinity (rebuilt in the 19th century in place of an older edifice dating
from 1687), two monastic establishments, an ecclesiastical seminary, and
a lunatic asylum. The principal articles of industrial production are
leather, oil, bast mats, wax candles, starch and Kaluga cakes. The first
historical mention of Kaluga occurs in 1389; its incorporation with the
principality of Moscow took place in 1518. In 1607 it was held by the
second false Demetrius and vainly besieged for four months by the forces
of Shuisky, who had ascended the Russian throne as Basil IV. on the
death of the first false Demetrius. In 1619 Kaluga fell into the hands
of the hetman or chief of the Zaporozhian Cossacks. Later two-thirds of
its inhabitants were carried off by a plague; and in 1622 the whole
place was laid waste by a conflagration. It recovered, however, in spite
of several other conflagrations (especially in 1742 and 1754). On
several occasions Kaluga was the residence of political prisoners; among
others Shamyl, the Lesghian chief, spent his exile there (1859-1870).
KALYAN, a town of British India, in the Thana district of Bombay,
situated 33 m. N.E. of Bombay city, where the two main lines of the
Great Indian Peninsula railway diverge. Pop. (1901), 10,749. There is a
considerable industry of rice-husking. Kalyan is known to have been the
capital of a kingdom and a centre of sea-borne commerce in the early
centuries of the Christian era. The oldest remains now existing are of
Mahommedan times.
KAMA, or KAMADEVA, in Hindu mythology, the god of love. He is variously
stated to have been the child of Brahma or Dharma (virtue). In the _Rig
Veda_, Kama (desire) is described as the first movement that arose in
the One after it had come into life through the power of fervour or
abstraction. In the Atharva-Veda Kama does not mean sexual desire, but
rather the yearning after the good of all created things. Later Kama is
simply the Hindu Cupid. While attempting to lure Siva to sin, he was
destroyed by a fiery glance of the goddess' third eye. Thus in Hindu
poetry Kama is known as Ananga, the "bodiless god." Kama's wife Rati
(voluptuousness) mourned him so greatly that Siva relented, and he was
reborn as the child of Krishna and Rukmini. The babe was called
Pradyumna (Cupid). He is represented armed with a bow of sugar-cane; it
is strung with bees, and its five arrows are tipped with flowers which
overcome the five senses. A fish adorns his flag, and he rides a parrot
or sparrow, emblematic of lubricity.
KAMALA, a red powder formerly used in medicine as an anthelmintic and
employed in India as a yellow dye. It is obtained from _Mallotus
philippinensis_, Mull., a small euphorbiaceous tree from 20 to 45 ft. in
height, distributed from southern Arabia in the west to north Australia
and the Philippines in the east. In India kamala has several ancient
Sanskrit names, one of which, kapila, signifies dusky or tawny red.
Under the name of wars, kanbil, or qinbil, kamala appears to have been
known to the Arabian physicians as a remedy for tapeworm and skin
diseases as early as the 10th century, and indeed is mentioned by Paulus
Aegineta still earlier. The drug was formerly in the British
Pharmacopoeia, but is inferior to many other anthelmintics and is not
now employed.
KAMCHATKA, a peninsula of N.-E. Siberia, stretching from the land of the
Chukchis S.S.W. for 750 m., with a width of from 80 to 300 m. (51 deg.
to 62 deg. N., and 156 deg. to 163 deg. E.), between the Sea of Okhotsk
and Bering Sea. It forms part of the Russian Maritime Province. Area,
104,260 sq. m.
The isthmus which connects the peninsula with the mainland is a flat
_tundra_, sloping gently both ways. The mountain chain, which Ditmar
calls central, seems to be interrupted under 57 deg. N. by a deep
indentation corresponding to the valley of the Tighil. There too the
hydrographical network, as well as the south-west to north-east strike
of the clay-slates and metamorphic schists on Ditmar's map, seem to
indicate the existence of two chains running south-west to north-east,
parallel to the volcanic chain of S.E. Kamchatka. Glaciers were not
known till the year 1899, when they were discovered on the Byelaya and
Ushkinskaya (15,400 ft.) mountains. Thick Tertiary deposits, probably
Miocene, overlie the middle portions of the west coast. The southern
parts of the central range are composed of granites, syenites,
porphyries and crystalline slates, while in the north of Ichinskaya
volcano, which is the highest summit of the peninsula (16,920 ft.), the
mountains consist chiefly of Tertiary sandstones and old volcanic rocks.
Coal-bearing clays containing fresh-water molluscs and dicotyledonous
plants, as also conglomerates, alternate with the sandstones in these
Tertiary deposits. Amber is found in them. Very extensive layers of
melaphyre and andesite, as also of conglomerates and volcanic tuffs,
cover the middle portions of the peninsula. The south-eastern portion is
occupied by a chain of volcanoes, running along the indented coast, from
Cape Lopatka to Cape Kronotskiy (54 deg. 25' N.), and separated from the
rest of the peninsula by the valleys of the Bystraya (an affluent of the
Bolstraya, on the west coast) and Kamchatka rivers. Another chain of
volcanoes runs from Ichinskaya (which burst into activity several times
in the 18th and 19th centuries) to Shiveluch, seemingly parallel to the
above but farther north. The two chains contain twelve active and
twenty-six extinct volcanoes, from 7000 to more than 15,000 ft. high.
The highest volcanoes are grouped under 56 deg. N., and the highest of
them, Kluchevskaya (16,990 ft.), is in a state of almost incessant
activity (notable outbreaks in 1729, 1737, 1841, 1853-1854, and
1896-1897), a flow of its lava having reached to Kamchatka river in
1853. The active Shiveluch (9900 ft.) is the last volcano of this chain.
Several lakes and probably Avacha Bay are old craters. Copper, mercury,
and iron ores, as also pure copper, ochre and sulphur, are found in the
peninsula. The principal river is the Kamchatka (325 m. long), which
flows first north-eastwards in a fertile longitudinal valley, and then,
bending suddenly to the east, pierces the above-mentioned volcanic
chain. The other rivers are the Tighil (135 m.) and the Bolstraya (120
m.), both flowing into the Sea of Okhotsk; and the Avacha, flowing into
the Pacific.
The floating ice which accumulates in the northern parts of the Sea of
Okhotsk and the cold current which flows along the east coast of the
peninsula render its summers chilly, but the winter is relatively warm,
and temperatures below -40 deg. F. are experienced only in the highlands
of the interior and on the Okhotsk littoral. The average temperatures at
Petropavlovsk (53 deg. N.) are: year 37 deg. F., January 17 deg., July
58 deg.; while in the valley of the Kamchatka the average temperature of
the winter is 16 deg., and of the summer as high as 58 deg. and 64 deg.
Rain and snow are copious, and dense fogs enshroud the coast in summer;
consequently the mountains are well clothed with timber and the meadows
with grass, except in the _tundras_ of the north. The natives eat
extensively the bulbs of the Martagon lily, and weave cloth out of the
fibres of the Kamchatka nettle. _Delphinopterus leucus_, the sea-lion
(_Otaria Stelleri_), and walrus abound off the coasts. The sea-otter
(_Enhydris marina_) has been destroyed.
The population (5846 in 1870) was 7270 in 1900. The southern part of the
peninsula is occupied by Kamchadales, who exhibit many attributes of the
Mongolian race, but are more similar to the aborigines of N.E. Asia and
N.W. America. Fishing (quantities of salmon enter the rivers) and
hunting are their chief occupations. Dog-sledges are principally used as
means of communication. The efforts of the government to introduce
cattle-breeding have failed. The Kamchadale language cannot be assigned
to any known group; its vocabulary is extremely poor. The purity of the
tongue is best preserved by the people of the Penzhinsk district on the
W. coast. North of 57 deg. N. the peninsula is peopled with Koryaks,
settled and nomad, and Lamuts (Tunguses), who came from the W. coast of
the Sea of Okhotsk. The principal Russian settlements are:
Petropavlovsk, on the E. coast, on Avacha Bay, with an excellent
roadstead; Verkhne-Kamchatsk and Nizhne-Kamchatsk in the valley of the
Kamchatka river; Bolsheryetsk, on the Bolshaya; and Tighil, on the W.
coast.
The Russians made their first settlements in Kamchatka in the end of the
17th century; in 1696 Atlasov founded Verkhne-Kamchatsk, and in 1704
Robelev founded Bolsheryetsk. In 1720 a survey of the peninsula was
undertaken; in 1725-1730 it was visited by Bering's expedition; and in
1733-1745 it was the scene of the labours of the Krasheninnikov and
Steller expedition.
See G. A. Erman, _Reise um die Erde_ iii., (Berlin, 1848); C. von
Ditmar, _Reisen und Aufenthalt in Kamchatka in den Jahren 1851-1855_
(1890-1900); G. Kennan, _Tent Life in Siberia_ (1870), and paper in
_Jour. of American Geog. Soc._ (1876); K. Diener, in _Petermann's
Mitteilungen_ (1891, vol. xxxvii.); V. A. Obruchev, in _Izvestia_ of
the East Siberian Geographical Society (xxiii. 4, 5; 1892); F. H. H.
Guillemard, _Cruise of the "Marchesa"_ (2nd ed., London, 1889); and G.
E. H. Barrett-Hamilton in _Scott. Geog. Mag._ (May, 1899), with
bibliography. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
KAME (a form of Scandinavian _comb_, hill), in physical geography, a
short ridge or bunched mound of gravel or sand, "tumultuously
stratified," occurring in connexion with glacial deposits, having been
formed at the mouths of tunnels under the ice. When the ice-sheet melts,
these features, formerly concealed by the glacier, are revealed. They
are common in the glaciated portions of the lower Scottish valleys. By
some authorities the term "kame," or specifically "serpentine kame," is
taken as synonymous with "esker," which however is preferably to be
applied to the long mound deposited within the ice-tunnel, not to the
bunched mound at its mouth.
KAMENETS PODOLSKIY, or PODOLIAN KAMENETS (Polish Kamieniec), a town of
S.W. Russia, chief town of the government of Podolia. It stands in 48
deg. 40' N. and 26 deg. 30' E., on a high, rocky bluff of the river
Smotrich, a left-hand tributary of the Dniester, and near the Austrian
frontier. Pop. (1863), 20,699; (1900) 39,113, of whom 50% were Jews and
30% Poles. Round the town lies a cluster of suburban villages, Polish
Folwark, Russian Folwark, Zinkovtsui, Karvasarui, &c.; and on the
opposite side of the river, accessible by a wooden bridge, stands the
castle which long frowned defiance across the Dniester to Khotin in
Bessarabia. Kamenets is the see of a Roman Catholic and a Greek Orthodox
bishop. The Roman Catholic cathedral of St Peter and St Paul, built in
1361, is distinguished by a minaret, recalling the time when it was used
as a mosque by the Turks (1672-1699). The Greek cathedral of John the
Baptist dates from the 16th century, but up to 1798 belonged to the
Basilian monastery. Other buildings are the Orthodox Greek monastery of
the Trinity, and the Catholic Armenian church (founded in 1398),
possessing a 14th-century missal and an image of the Virgin Mary that
saw the Mongol invasion of 1239-1242. The town contains Orthodox Greek
and Roman Catholic seminaries, Jewish colleges, and an archaeological
museum for church antiquities, founded in 1890. Kamenets was laid waste
by the Mongol leader Batu in 1240. In 1434 it was made the chief town of
the province of Podolia. In the 15th and 16th centuries it suffered
frequently from the invasions of Tatars, Moldavians and Turks; and in
1672 the hetman of the Cossacks, Doroshenko, assisted by Sultan Mahommed
IV. of Turkey, made himself master of the place. Restored to Poland by
the peace of Karlowitz (1699), it passed with Podolia to Russia in 1795.
Here the Turks were defeated by the Poles in 1633, and here twenty years
later peace was concluded between the same antagonists. The
fortifications were demolished in 1813.
KAMENZ, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Black Elster, 21 m. N.E.
of Dresden, on a branch line of railway from Bischofswerda. Pop. (1900),
9726. It has four Evangelical churches, among them a Wendish one, and a
handsome new town-hall with a library. The hospital is dedicated to the
memory of Lessing, who was born here. A colossal bust of the poet was
placed opposite the Wendish church in 1863, and a monument was raised to
him on a neighbouring hill in 1864. The industries of Kamenz include
wool-spinning, and the manufacture of cloth, glass, crockery and
stoneware. Built about 1200, Kamenz, was known by the name Dreikretcham
until the 16th century. In 1318 it passed to the mark of Brandenburg; in
1319 to Bohemia; and in 1635, after suffering much in the Hussite and
Thirty Years' wars, it came into the possession of Saxony. In 1706 and
1842 it was almost entirely consumed by fire.
KAMENZ is also the name of a village in Prussia, not far from Breslau;
pop. 900. This is famous on account of its Cistercian monastery, founded
in 1094. Of the house, which was closed in 1810, only a few buildings
remain.
KAMES, HENRY HOME, LORD (1696-1782), Scottish lawyer and philosopher,
son of George Home of Kames, in Berwickshire, where he was born in 1696.
After receiving a somewhat imperfect education from a private tutor, he
was in 1712 indentured to a writer to the signet in Edinburgh, but an
accidental introduction to Sir Hew Dalrymple, then president of the
court of session, determined him to aspire to the position of advocate.
He accordingly set himself to studying various branches of literature,
specially metaphysics and moral philosophy. He was called to the bar in
January 1724, and, as he lacked those brilliant qualities which
sometimes command immediate success, he employed his leisure in the
compilation of _Remarkable Decisions in the Court of Session from 1716
to 1728_ (1728). This work having attracted attention, his power of
ingenious reasoning and mastery of law gradually gained him a leading
position at the bar. In 1752 he was appointed a judge in the court of
session under the title of Lord Kames, and in 1763 he was made one of
the lords of justiciary. In 1741 he married Agatha Drummond, through
whom in 1761 he succeeded to the estate of Blair Drummond, Perthshire.
He continued to discharge his judicial duties till within a few days of
his death at Edinburgh on the 27th of December 1782.
Lord Kames took a special interest in agricultural and commercial
affairs. In 1755 he was appointed a member of the board of trustees
for encouragement of the fisheries, arts and manufactures of Scotland,
and about the same time he was named one of the commissioners for the
management of the forfeited estates annexed to the Crown. On the
subject of agriculture he wrote _The Gentleman Farmer_ (1776). In 1765
he published a small pamphlet _On the Flax Husbandry of Scotland_;
and, besides availing himself of his extensive acquaintance with the
proprietors of Scotland to recommend the introduction of manufactures,
he took a prominent part in furthering the project of the Forth and
Clyde Canal. He was also one of the founders of the Physical and
Literary Society, afterwards the Royal Society of Edinburgh. It is,
however, as a writer on philosophy that Lord Kames is best known. In
1751 he published his _Essays on the Principles of Morality and
Natural Religion_ (Ger. trans., Leipzig, 1772), in which he
endeavoured to maintain the doctrine of innate ideas, but conceded to
man an apparent but only apparent freedom of the will. His statement
of the latter doctrine so aroused the alarm of certain clergymen of
the Church of Scotland that he found it necessary to withdraw what was
regarded as a serious error, and to attribute man's delusive sense of
freedom, not to an innate conviction implanted by God, but to the
influence of the passions. His other philosophical works are _An
Introduction to the Art of Thinking_ (1761), _Elements of Criticism_
(1762), _Sketches of the History of Man_ (1774).
See _Life of Lord Kames_, by A. F. Tytler, Lord Woodhouselee (2 vols.,
1807).
KAMMIN, or CAMMIN, a town in the Prussian province of Pomerania, 2(1/2)
m. from the Baltic, on the Kamminsche Bodden, a lake connected with the
sea by the Dievenow. Pop. (1905), 5923. Among its four Evangelical
churches, the cathedral and the church of St Mary are noteworthy.
Iron-founding and brewing are carried on in the town, which has also
some fishing and shipping. There is steamer communication with Stettin,
about 40 m. S.S.W. Kammin is of Wendish origin, and obtained municipal
privileges in 1274. From about 1200 till 1628 it was the seat of a
bishopric, which at the latter date became a secular principality, being
in 1648 incorporated with Brandenburg.
See Kuchen, _Geschichte der Stadt Kammin_ (Kammin, 1885).
KAMPEN, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, on the left bank of
the Ysel, 3(1/2) m. above its mouth, and a terminal railway station 8 m.
N.W. of Zwolle. It has regular steamboat communication with Zwolle,
Deventer, Amsterdam, and Enkhuizen. Pop. (1900), 19,664. Kampen is
surrounded by beautiful gardens and promenades in the place of the old
city walls, and has a fine river front. The four turreted gateways
furnish excellent examples of 16th and 17th century architecture. Of the
churches the Bovenkerk ("upper church"), or church of St Nicholas, ranks
with the cathedral of Utrecht and the Janskerk at 's Hertogenbosch as
one of the three great medieval churches in Holland. It was begun in
1369, and has double aisles, ambulatory and radiating chapels, and
contains some finely carved woodwork. The Roman Catholic Buitenkerk
("outer church") is also a fine building of the 14th century, with good
modern panelling. There are many other, though slighter, remains of the
ancient churches and monasteries of Kampen; but the most remarkable
building is the old town-hall, which is unsurpassed in Holland. It dates
from the 14th century, but was partly restored after a fire in 1543. The
exterior is adorned with niched statues and beautiful iron trellis work
round the windows. The old council-chamber is wainscoted in black oak,
and contains a remarkable sculptured chimney-piece (1545) and fine wood
carving. The town-hall contains the municipal library, collections of
tapestry, portraits and antiquities, and valuable archives relating to
the town and province. Kampen is the seat of a Christian Reformed
theological school, a gymnasium, a higher burgher school, a municipal
school of design, and a large orphanage. There are few or no local
taxes, the municipal chest being filled by the revenues derived from the
fertile delta-land, the Kampeneiland, which is always being built up at
the mouth of the Ysel. There is a considerable, trade in dairy produce;
and there are shipyards, rope-walks, a tool factory, cigar factories,
paper mills, &c.
KAMPTEE, or KAMTHI, a town of British India, in the Nagpur district of
the Central Provinces, just below the confluence of the Kanhan with the
rivers Pench and Kolar; 10 m. N.E. of Nagpur by rail. Pop. (1901),
38,888, showing a continuous decrease since 1881. Kamptee was founded in
1821, as a military cantonment in the neighbourhood of the native
capital of Nagpur, and became an important centre of trade. Since the
opening of the railway, trade has largely been diverted to Nagpur, and
the garrison has recently been reduced. The town is well laid out with
wide roads, gardens and tanks.
KAMRUP, a district of British India, in the Brahmaputra valley division
of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The headquarters are at Gauhati. Area, 3858
sq. m.; pop. (1901), 589,187, showing a decrease of 7% in the decade. In
the immediate neighbourhood of the Brahmaputra the land is low, and
exposed to annual inundation. In this marshy tract reeds and canes
flourish luxuriantly, and the only cultivation is that of rice. At a
comparatively short distance from the river banks the ground begins to
rise in undulating knolls towards the mountains of Bhutan on the north,
and towards the Khasi hills on the south. The hills south of the
Brahmaputra in some parts reach the height of 800 ft. The Brahmaputra,
which divides the district into two nearly equal portions, is navigable
by river steamers throughout the year, and receives several tributaries
navigable by large native boats in the rainy season. The chief of these
are the Manas, Chaul Khoya and Barnadi on the north, and the Kulsi and
Dibru on the south bank. There is a government forest preserve in the
district and also a plantation where seedlings of teak, _sal_, _sissu_,
_sum_, and _nahor_ are reared, and experiments are being made with the
caoutchouc tree. The population is entirely rural, the only town with
upwards of 5000 inhabitants being Gauhati (11,661). The temples of Hajo
and Kamakhya attract many pilgrims from all quarters. The staple crop of
the district is rice, of which there are three crops. The indigenous
manufactures are confined to the weaving of silk and cotton cloths for
home use, and to the making of brass cups and plates. The cultivation
and manufacture of tea by European capital is not very prosperous. The
chief exports are rice, oil-seeds, timber and cotton; the imports are
fine rice, salt, piece goods, sugar, betel-nuts, coco-nuts and hardware.
A section of the Assam-Bengal railway starts from Gauhati, and a branch
of the Eastern Bengal railway has recently been opened to the opposite
bank of the river. A metalled road runs due south from Gauhati to
Shillong.
KAMYSHIN, a town of Russia, in the government of Saratov, 145 m. by
river S.S.W. of the city of Saratov, on the right bank of the Volga.
Pop. (1861), 8644; (1897), 15,934. Being the terminus of the railway to
Tambov, Moscow and the Baltic ports, it is an important port for the
export of cereals and salt from the Volga, and it imports timber and
wooden wares. It is famous for its water-melons. Peter the Great built
here a fort, which was known at first as Dmitrievsk, but acquired its
present name in 1780.
KANAKA, a Polynesian word meaning "man," used by Polynesians to describe
themselves. Its ethnical value, never great, has been entirely destroyed
by its indiscriminate use by the French to describe all South Sea
islanders, whether black or brown. The corrupt French form _canaque_ has
been used by some English writers. The term came into prominence in
1884-1885 in connexion with the scandals arising over the kidnapping of
South Sea islanders for enforced labour on the sugar plantations of
north Queensland.
KANARA, or CANARA, the name of two adjoining districts of British India:
North Kanara in the presidency of Bombay, South Kanara in that of
Madras. Both are on the western coast.
NORTH KANARA DISTRICT forms part of the southern division of Bombay. The
administrative headquarters are at Karwar, which is also the chief
seaport. Area, 3945 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 454,490, showing an increase
of 2% in the decade. The trade of the interior, which used to pass down
to the seaports, has been largely diverted by the opening of the
Southern Mahratta railway. Along the coast rice is the chief crop, and
coco-nut palms are also important. In the upland there are valuable
gardens of areca palms, cardamoms and pepper. Rice and timber are
exported, and sandalwood-carving and salt manufacture are carried on.
The main feature in the physical geography of the district is the range
of the Western Ghats, which, running from north to south, divides it
into two parts, a lowland or coast strip (Payanghat), and an upland
plateau (Balaghat). The coast-line is only broken by the Karwar headland
in the north, and by the estuaries of four rivers and the mouths of many
smaller streams, through which the salt water finds an entrance into
numerous lagoons winding several miles inland. The breadth of the
lowlands varies from 5 to 15 miles. From this narrow belt rise a few
smooth, flat-topped hills, from 200 to 300 ft. high; and at places it is
crossed by lofty, rugged, densely wooded spurs, which, starting from the
main range, maintain almost to the coast a height of not less than 1000
ft. Among these hills lie well-tilled valleys of garden and rice land.
The plateau of the Balaghat is irregular, varying from 1500 to 2000 ft.
in height. In some parts the country rises into well-wooded knolls, in
others it is studded by small, isolated, steep hills. Except on the
banks of streams and in the more open glades, the whole is one broad
waste of woodland and forest. The open spaces are dotted with hamlets or
parcelled out into rice clearings. Of the rivers flowing eastward from
the watershed of the Sahyadri hills the only one of importance is the
Wardha or Varada, a tributary of the Tungabhadra. Of those that flow
westwards, the four principal ones, proceeding from north to south, are
the Kali, Gungawali, Tadri and Sharavati. The last of these forms the
famous Gersoppa Falls. Extensive forests clothe the hills, and are
conserved under the rules of the forest department.
SOUTH KANARA DISTRICT has its headquarters at Mangalore. Area, 4021 sq.
m. Pop. (1901), 1,134,713, showing an increase of 7% in the decade. The
district is intersected by rivers, none of which exceeds 100 miles in
length. They all take their rise in the Western Ghats, and many are
navigable during the fair weather for from 15 to 25 miles from the
coast. The chief of these streams are the Netravati, Gurpur and
Chendragiri. Numerous groves of coco-nut palms extend along the coast,
and green rice-fields are seen in every valley. The Western Ghats,
rising to a height of 3000 to 6000 ft., fringe the eastern boundary.
Forest land of great extent and value exists, but most of it is private
property. Jungle products (besides timber) consist of bamboo, cardamoms,
wild arrowroot, gall-nuts, gamboge, catechu, fibrous bark, cinnamon,
gums, resin, dyes, honey and beeswax. The forests formerly abounded in
game, which, however, is rapidly decreasing under incessant shooting.
The staple crop is rice. The chief articles of import are piece goods,
cotton yarn, oils and salt. Tiles are manufactured in several places out
of a fine potter's clay. The Azhikal-Mangalore line of the Madras
railway serves the district.
See _South Canara District Manual_ (2 vols., Madras, 1894-1895).
KANARESE, a language of the Dravidian family, spoken by about ten
millions of people in southern India, chiefly in Mysore, Hyderabad, and
the adjoining districts of Madras and Bombay. It has an ancient
literature, written in an alphabet closely resembling that employed for
Telugu. Since the 12th century the Kanarese-speaking people have largely
adopted the Lingayat form of faith, which may be described as an
anti-Brahmanical sect of Siva worshippers (see HINDUISM). Most of them
are agriculturists, but they also engage actively in trade.
KANARIS (or CANARIS), CONSTANTINE (1790-1877), Greek patriot, belonged
to the class of coasting sailors who produced if not the most honest, at
least the bravest, and the most successful of the combatants in the
cause of Greek independence. He belonged by birth to the little island
of Psara, to the north-west of Chio. He first became prominent as the
effective leader of the signal vengeance taken by the Greeks for the
massacre at Chio in April 1822 by the Turkish Capitan Pasha. The
commander of the force of fifty small vessels and eight fireships sent
to assail the Turkish fleet was the navarch Miaoulis, but it was Kanaris
who executed the attack with the fireships on the flagship of the
Capitan Pasha on the night of the 18th of June 1822. The Turks were
celebrating the feast of Bahram at the end of the Ramadan fast. Kanaris
had two small brigs fitted as fireships, and thirty-six men. He was
allowed to come close to the Turkish flagship, and succeeded in
attaching his fireships to her, setting them on fire, and escaping with
his party. The fire reached the powder and the flagship blew up, sending
the Capitan Pasha and 2000 Turks into the air. Kanaris was undoubtedly
aided by the almost incredible sloth and folly of his opponents, but he
chose his time well, and the service of the fireships was always
considered peculiarly dangerous. That Kanaris could carry out the
venture with a volunteer party not belonging to a regularly disciplined
service, not only proved him to be a clever partisan fighter, but showed
that he was a leader of men. He repeated the feat at Tenedos in November
of 1822, and was then considered to have disposed of nearly 4000 Turks
in the two ventures. When his native island, Psara, was occupied by the
Turks he continued to serve under the command of Miaoulis. He was no
less distinguished in other attacks with fireships at Samos and Mytilene
in 1824, which finally established an utter panic in the Turkish navy.
His efforts to destroy the ships of Mehemet Ali at Alexandria in 1825
were defeated by contrary winds. When the Greeks tried to organize a
regular navy he was appointed captain of the frigate "Hellas" in 1826.
In politics he was a follower of Capo d'Istria. He helped to upset the
government of King Otho and to establish his successor, was prime
minister in 1864-1865, came back from retirement to preside over the
ministry formed during the crisis of the Russo-Turkish war, and died in
office on the 15th of September 1877. Kanaris is described as of small
stature, simple in appearance, somewhat shy and melancholy. He is justly
remembered as the most blameless of the popular heroes of the War of
Independence. He was almost the only one among them whom Dundonald, with
whom he served in a successful attack on an Egyptian war-ship near
Alexandria, exempts from the sweeping charges of cowardice he brings
against the Greeks. (D. H.)