In this section we will take up five questions, around which all others
in this connection revolve. In the first place a proof of the creation
of the universe; secondly, the advent of the prophets; thirdly,
predestination and fate; fourthly, Divine justice and injustice; and
fifthly, the Day of Judgment.
First Problem: the Creation of the Universe:--The Law teaches that the
universe was invented and created by God, and that it did not come
into being by chance or by itself. The method adopted by the Law for
proving this is not the one upon which the Asharites have depended.
For we have already shown that those methods are not specially certain
for the learned, nor common enough to satisfy all the classes of men.
The methods which are really serviceable are those which have a very
few premises, and the results of which fall very near to the commonly
known ideas. But in instructing the common people the Law does not
favour statements composed of long and complete reasonings, based
upon different problems, So everyone who, in teaching them, adopts a
different course, and interprets the Law according to it, has lost
sight of its purpose and gone astray from the true path. And so also,
the Law in giving illustrations for its reasonings uses only those
which are present before us. Whatever has been thought necessary for
the common people to know, has been explained to them by the nearest
available examples, as in the case of the Day of Judgment. But whatever
was unnecessary for them to know, they have been told that it was
beyond their knowledge, as the words of God about the Soul.[91] Now
that we have established this, it is necessary that the method adopted
by the Law for teaching the creation of the universe to the common
people be such as would be acknowledged by all. It is also necessary
that since there cannot be found anything present to illustrate the
creation of the universe the Law must have used the examples of the
creation of things in the visible world.
So the method adopted by Law is that the universe was made by God. If
we look intently into the verse pertaining to this subject we shall
see that the method adopted is that of divine solicitude, which we
know to be one of those which prove the existence of God. When a man
sees a thing made in a certain shape, proportion and fashion, for a
particular advantage is derived from it, and purpose which is to be
attained, so that it becomes clear to him, that had it not been found
in that shape, and proportion, then that advantage would have been
wanting in it, he comes to know for certain that there is a maker of
that thing, and that he had made it in that shape and proportion, for
a set purpose. For it is not possible that all those qualities serving
that purpose be collected in that thing by chance alone. For instance,
if a man sees a stone on the ground in a shape fit for sitting, and
finds its proportions and fashion of the same kind, then he would
come to know that it was made by a maker, and that he had made it and
placed it there. But when he sees nothing in it, which may have made
it fit for sitting then he becomes certain that its existence in the
place was by chance only, without its being fashioned by any maker.
Such is also the case with the whole of the universe. For when a man
sees the sun, the moon, and all the stars, which are the cause of the
four seasons, of days and nights, of rain, water and winds, of the
inhabitation of the parts of the earth, of the existence of man, and
of the being of all the animals and the plants and of the earth being
fit for the habitation of a man, and other animals living on it; and
the water fit for the animals living in it; and the air fit for birds,
and if there be anything amiss in this creation and edifice, the whole
world would come to confusion and disorder, then he would come to know
with certainty that it is not possible that this harmony in it for the
different members of the universe--man, animals, and plants--be found
by chance only. He will know that there is one who determined it, and
so one who made it by intention, and that is God, exalted and magnified
may He be. He would know with certainty that the universe is a created
thing, for he would necessarily think that it is not possible that in
it should be found all this harmony, if it be not made by some one,
and had come into existence by chance alone. This kind of argument is
quite definite and at the same time clear, and some have mentioned it
here. It is based upon two principles which are acknowledged by all.
One of them being, that the universe, with all its component parts, is
found fit for the existence of man and things; secondly, that which is
found suitable in all its parts, for a single purpose, leading to a
single goal, is necessarily a created thing. So those two principles
lead us naturally to admit that the universe is a created thing, and
that there is a maker of it. Hence “the argument of analogy” leads to
two things at one and the same time, and that is why it is the best
argument for proving the existence of God. This kind of reasoning is
also found in the Quran in many verses in which the creation of the
universe is mentioned. For instance, “Have We not made the earth a
bed, and the mountains for shelter to fix the same? And have We not
created you of two sexes; and appointed your sleep for rest and made
the night a garment to cover you, and destined the day to a gaining of
a livelihood; and built over you seven heavens, and placed therein a
burning lamp? And do We not send down from the clouds pressing forth
rain, water pouring down in abundance, that We may hereby produce corn
and herbs, and gardens planted thick with trees.”[92] If we ponder over
this verse it would be found that our attention has been called to the
suitability of the different parts of the universe for the existence
of man. In the very beginning we are informed of a fact well-known to
all--and that is that the earth has been created in a way which has
made it suitable for our existence. Had it been unstable, or of any
other shape, or in any other place, or not of the present proportion,
it would not have been possible to be here, or at all created on it.
All this is included in the words, “Have We not made the earth a
bed for you?” for in a bed are collected together all the qualities
of shape, tranquility, and peace, to which may be added those of
smoothness and softness. So how strange is this wonderful work and
how excellent this blessedness, and how wonderful this collection of
all the qualities! This is so because in the word _mihad_ (bed) are
brought together all those qualities, which are found in the earth,
rendering it suitable for the existence of man. It is a thing which
becomes clear to the learned after much learning and a long time, “But
God will appropriate His mercy unto whom He pleaseth.”[93] Then as to
the divine words, “And the mountains for stakes,”--they tell us of the
advantage to be found in the tranquility of the earth on account of
the mountains. For had the earth been created smaller than it is now,
that is, without mountains it would have been quivered by the motion
of other elements, the water and the air, and would have been shaken
and thus displaced. This would naturally have been the cause of the
destruction of the animal world. So when its tranquility is in harmony
with those living on it, it did not come into being by chance alone,
but was made by some one’s intention, and determination. Certainly it
was made by One who intended it, and determined it, for the sake of
those living on it. Then He calls our attention to the suitability of
the existence of night and day for animals. He says, “And made the
night a garment to cover you; and destined the day to a gaining of your
livelihood.” He means to say that He has made the night like a covering
and clothing for all the things, from the heat of the sun. For had
there been no setting of the sun at night, all the things, whose life
has been made dependent upon the sun, would have perished--that is, the
animals and the plants. As clothing protects the people from the heat
of the sun, in addition to its being a covering, so God likened the
night to it. This is one of the most beautiful of the metaphors. There
is also another advantage in the night for the animals: their sleep in
it is very deep, after the setting of the sun, which keeps faculties in
motion, that is, wide awake. So God has said, “And appointed your sleep
for rest,” on account of the darkness of the night. Then He says, “And
built over you seven heavens, and placed therein a burning lamp.” Here
by the word building He means their creation, and their harmony with
the created things, and their arrangement and system. By strength He
means that power of revolution and motion which is never slackened, and
never overtaken by fatigue; and they never fall like other roofs and
high edifices. To this refer the words of God, “And made the heaven a
roof well-supported.”[94] By all this He shows their fitness in number,
shape, fashion, and movement, for the existence of those who live on
the earth round it. Were one of the heavenly bodies, not to speak of
all, to stop for a moment all would be chaos on the face of the earth.
Some people think the blast of the last trumpet, which will be the
cause of the thunderbolt, will be nothing but a stop in the revolution
of the heavenly bodies. Then He tells us of the advantage of the sun
for those living on the earth and says, “And placed therein a burning
lamp.” He calls it a lamp because in reality it is all darkness, and
light covers the darkness of the night, and if there be no lamp, man
can get no advantage out of his sense of sight at night time; and in
the same way if there were no sun the animals can have no benefit of
their sense of seeing. He calls our attention to this advantage of the
sun, ignoring others because it is the noblest of all the advantages
and the most apparent of all. Then He tells us of His kindness in
sending down rain, for the sake of the plants and the animals. The
coming down of rain in an appointed proportion, and at an appointed
season, for the cultivated fields cannot be by chance alone, but is
the result of divine solicitude for us all. So He says, “And do We
not send down from the clouds pressing forth rain, water pouring down
in abundance that We may hereby produce corn and herbs, and gardens
planted thick with trees.” There are many verses of the Quran on this
subject. For instance, He says, “Do ye not see how God hath created the
seven heavens, one above another, and hath placed the moon therein for
a light, and hath appointed the sun for a taper? God hath also provided
and caused you to bring forth corn from the earth.”[95] If we were to
count all such verses and comment upon them showing the kindness of
the Creator for the created, it would take too many volumes. We do not
intend to do it in this book. If God should grant us life and leisure
we shall write a book to show the kindness of God to which He has
called our attention.
It should be known that this kind of argument is just contrary to that
which the Asharites think leads to the knowledge of God. They think
that the creation does not lead us to the knowledge of God through any
of His goodness, but through possibility, that is, the possibility
which is found in all things, which we can understand to be of his
shape or of quite a contrary one. But if this possibility be found
alike in both the cases, then there is no wisdom in the creation of the
universe, and there is found no harmony between man and the parts of
it. For, as they think, if it is possible for the things to have any
other form than they have now, then there can exist no harmony between
man and other existent things by the creation of which God has obliged
man and commanded him to be thankful to Him. This opinion, by which the
creation of man, as a part of the universe, is just as possible, for
instance, as his creation in the void, is like the opinion of those who
say that man exists but he could have been created in quite a different
shape, and yet could perform actions like a man. According to them it
is also possible that he may have formed the part of another universe
quite different from the existing one. In that case the blessing of the
universe can have no obligation for man, for they are not necessary for
his purpose. Hence man is quite careless of them and they of him. So
their existence is no blessing to him. This is all against the nature
of man.
On the whole, a man who denies the existence of the effects arranged
according to the causes in the question of arts, or whose wisdom
cannot understand it, then he has no knowledge of the art of its
Maker. So also a man who denies the existence of an order of effects
in accordance with causes in this universe, denies the existence of
the Creator altogether. Their saying that God is above these causes,
and that they cannot have any bearing on the effects by His command,
is very far from the true nature of philosophy, nay, it is a destroyer
of it. For if it is possible to have the same effects with other than
the prescribed causes just in the same degree as by them, then where
is the greatness in producing the effects from the known Causes? It is
so because the effects from the causes have one of the following three
reasons. Either the existence of the causes will be in place of the
effects by compulsion, as a man’s taking his food; or their being more
perfect that is, the effect becoming better and more perfect through
them, as a man’s having two eyes, or they may have neither a better nor
a more compulsive effect. In this case the existence of the effect and
the cause would be by chance, without any intention at all; and hence,
there would be no greatness found in it. For instance, if the shape
of human hand, the number of the fingers, and their length be neither
necessary nor adding any perfection in its work in seizing things of
different kind, then the actions of the hand from this shape, and
number of parts, would be by chance alone. If it be so, then it makes
no difference whether a man is given a hand or a hoof, or something
else, like the different animals, for their particular actions. On the
whole, if we ignore the causes and their effects, then there remains
nothing to refute the arguments of those who believe in the creation of
the universe by chance alone, that is, those who say that there is no
Creator at all, and that which has come into being in this universe is
the result of material causes. For taking one of the two alternatives
it is not more possible that it may have happened by chance, than done
by an independent Actor. So when the Asharites say that the existence
of one or more possibilities shows that there is a particular Maker of
these things, they can answer and say that the existence of things by
one of these possibilities was by chance alone, for intention works as
one of the causes, and that which happens without any means or cause
is by chance. We see that many things come into being in this way.
For example, the elements mix together by chance, and then by this
unintentional mixing there is produced a new thing. They mix again,
and this quite unintentionally produces quite a new thing. In this
way every kind of creation may be said to have come into existence by
chance.
We say that it is necessary that there be found order and arrangement,
the more perfect and finished than what can be imagined. This mixing
together of elements is limited and prearranged, and things produced
by them are sure to happen, and no disorder has ever happened in them.
But all this could not happen by chance alone, for that which happens
in this way by chance is of the least value. It is to this that God
refers, “It is the work of the Lord, who has rightly disposed all
things.”[96] I would like to know what completeness can be found in
things made by chance, for such things are by no means better than
their opposites. To this God refers in the following words, “Thou
canst not see in the Creation of the most Merciful any unfitness or
disproportion. Lift thy eyes again to heaven, and _look whether thou
seest any flaw_.”[97] But what defect can be greater than that all the
things can be found with any other quality than they really possess.
For the non-existent quality may be better than the existing one.
In this way, if one thinks that were the Eastern movement to become
Western and vice versa, there would be no difference in the universe,
then he has destroyed philosophy altogether. He is like a man who
thinks that were the right side of the animals to become left, and
vice versa, there would be no difference at all for one of the two
alternatives is there. For as it is possible to say that it is made
according to one alternative by an independent Maker, so it is possible
to assert that it was all made by chance alone. For we see so many
things coming into being by themselves.
It is quite clear to you that all the people see that lower kinds of
creation could have been made in a different way from that in which
they really are and as they see this lower degree in many things they
think that they must have been made by chance. But in the higher
creation they know that it is impossible to have been made in a more
perfect and excellent form than that given to it by the Creator. So
this opinion, which is one of the opinions of the Mutakallimun is both
against the Law and philosophy. What we say is that the opinion of
possibility in creation is closer to a complete denial of God, than
leading us nearer to Him. At the same time it falsifies philosophy. For
if we do not understand that there is a mean between the beginnings
and ends of the creation, upon which is based the ends of things, then
there can neither be any order nor any method in it. And if they be
wanting then there can be no proof of the existence of an intelligent
and knowing Maker; for taking them together with cause and effect
we are led to the fact that they must have been created by wisdom
and knowledge. But on the other hand the existence of either of two
possibilities shows that they may have been performed by a not-knowing
Maker and by chance alone. Just as a stone falling on the earth may
fall in any place, on any side, and in any form. It will show the want
of the existence either of a creator at all or at least of a wise and
knowing Creator. The thing which has compelled the Mutakallimun of the
Asharites to adopt this opinion is a denial of the action of those
natural forces which God has put in all things, as He has endowed them
with life, power and so forth. They avoided the opinion that there was
any other creator but God, and God forbid that there be any other, for
he is the only creator of the causes and they are made effective by
His command only. We will talk of this in detail when discoursing on
Fate and Predestination. They were also afraid that by admitting the
natural causes they might be accused of saying that the universe came
into being by chance only. They would have known that a denial of it
means a denial of a great part of the arguments, which can be advanced
for a proof of the existence of God. One who denies any part of God’s
creation denies His work which falls very near to a denial of a part
of His attributes. On the whole as their opinion is based upon hasty
conclusions, which come to the mind of a man by superficial thought
and as apparently it appears that the word “intention” can be applied
to one who has power to do bad or otherwise, they saw that if they did
not admit that all the creation is possible, they would not be able to
say that it came into existence by the action of an intending creator.
So they say that all the creation is possible so that they may prove
that the creator is an intelligent one. They never thought of the order
which is necessary in things made, and with that their coming from an
intelligent creator. These people have also ignored the blame they will
have to bear in thus denying wisdom to the creator; or maintaining that
chance should be found governing creation. They know, as we have said,
that it is necessary, on account of the order existent in nature, that
it must have been brought into being by some knowing creator, otherwise
the order found in it would be by chance. When they were compelled to
deny the natural forces, they had to deny with them a large number of
those forces which God has made subservient to His command for the
creation and preservation of things. For God has created some things
from causes which He has produced from outside, these are the heavenly
bodies; there are other things which He has made by causes placed in
the things themselves, that is, the soul, and other natural forces,
by which he preserves those things. So how wicked is the man who
destroyeth philosophy, and “inventeth a lie about God.”[98]
This is only a part of the change which has taken place in the Law,
in this and other respects, which we have already mentioned, and will
mention hereafter. From all this it must have become clear to you
that the method which God had adopted for teaching His creatures that
the universe is made and created by Him is the method of kindness
and wisdom, towards all His creatures and especially towards man.
It is a method which bears the same relation to our intellect, as
the sun bears to our senses. The method which it has adopted towards
the common people about this problem, is that of illustration from
things observed. But as there was nothing which could be given as an
illustration, and as the common people cannot understand a thing, an
illustration of which they cannot see, God tells us that the universe
was created in a certain time out of a certain thing, which He made.
He tells us His condition before the creation of the universe, “His
throne was above the waters.”[99] He also says, “Verily your Lord is
God who created the heavens and the earth in six days,”[100] and “Then
He set His mind to the creation of the heavens, and it was smoke.”[101]
In addition to these there are other verses of the Book, pertaining to
this subject. So it is incumbent that nothing out of them should be
interpreted for the common people, and nothing should be presented to
them in explaining it but this illustration. For one who changes it,
makes the wisdom of the Law useless. If it be said that the Law teaches
about the universe that it is created, and made out of nothing and in
no time, then it is a thing which even the learned cannot understand,
not to speak of the common people. So we should not deviate in this
matter of the Law, from the method laid down in it for instructing
the common people, and should not tell them except this regarding the
creation of the universe, which is found alike in the Quran, the Bible,
and other revealed books. The wonder is that the example in the Quran
is quite in accordance with the creation of the things in the visible
world. But the Law does not say so, which is a warning to the learned
people that the creation of the universe is not like the creation of
all other things. He has used the words _creation_ and _flaw_, because
they connote two things,--Conception of the things that can be seen,
and the creation of the things which the learned prove in the invisible
world. So the use of the words _creation_ (Huduth) and _eternal_ is an
innovation in religion, and the cause of great doubt and corruption of
the belief of the common people, especially of the argumentative among
them. This has greatly perplexed the Mutakallimun of the Asharites,
and has proved them in great doubt. For if they explain that God
intends doing things by an eternal intention--which, as we said, is an
innovation--they have put it down that the universe is _created_. Then
they are asked how can a created thing come from an eternal intention.
They answer that the eternal intention became connected with the action
at the time of the creation especially, and that is the time in which
the universe was made. Then they may be asked, that if the relation
of the intending Creator towards the created thing at the time of its
non-existence be the same as at the time of its creation, then that
created thing is by no means better than the other thing, when at the
time of its making, the action which was not found in its non-existence
is not connected with it. If the relation be different then there must
necessarily be a created intention otherwise the created result of an
action would come from an eternal action, for what is necessary of it
in action, is necessary also in intention. If it be said that when the
time of its making comes it is found done; it may be asked: is it so
by an eternal or a created action? If they say by an eternal action,
they admit the existence of a created thing by an eternal action; and
if they say by a created action, then there must be a created intention
also. They may say that intention is the action itself, but this is
impossible. For intention is the only cause of the action in the
intender. If an intender, intending to do an act in a certain time,
finds that act quite another than that which he intended, then that
act would have come into being without any intender at all. At the
same time, if it is thought that from a created intention there can
only be a created thing, then as a rule an eternal intention should
give an eternal thing, otherwise the result of a created or eternal
intention would be the same, which is impossible. All these doubts
are found in Islam only through the Mutakallimun, by their explaining
things in Law, which God had forbidden them to do. For in the Quran it
is not said whether intention is created or eternal. So they neither
adhere to the exoteric meanings of the Law, which may have given them
beatitude and salvation, nor did they attain the degree of certain and
exact knowledge, so that they may have had this blessing. Hence they
are neither to be counted among the learned nor among the masses, who
believe and have strong faith. They are the people “whose hearts are
perverse”[102] and “whose hearts are diseased.”[103] They say things by
their tongues which are quite contrary to those which they believe in
their hearts, a cause of which is their tenacity, and love of upholding
their opinions at any cost. By a repetition of attitudes like these
they become quite devoid of all philosophy, as we see the case of
those who are completely accustomed to the Asharite school of thought,
and are well pleased with it, even to the degree of love. They are
certainly veiled on account of their habit and environment.
What we have said about this question is enough for our purpose. Now we
would take up the second problem.
Problem Second: Prophetic Mission:--There are two points which are to
be discussed in this problem. First, the proof of the coming of the
prophets; and secondly an explanation of the fact that the man claiming
to be a prophet is really so and does not lie. Many people are desirous
of proving the existence of the prophets by analogy--and such are the
Mutakallimun. They say that it is proved that God speaks and intends,
and is the master of His creatures. It is quite consistent for such a
being in the visible world to send a messenger to his dependent people.
Hence such a thing is also possible in the unseen world. They have
thought of making this valid for proving the advent of the prophets, by
absurd and far-fetched arguments which only Brahmins should use. They
say that it is possible both in the observed and unseen world. In the
observed world it is quite evident, that when a man stands up before a
king and says, “O ye men, I am the messenger of the king towards you”
and produces credentials for his claim, it is necessary to acknowledge
him to be true. They say that in the case of the prophets, the
credentials are the miracles which they perform. For certain reasons
this method is quite fit and satisfactory for the common people,
but when investigated there appear many flaws in the principle. Our
acknowledgement of a man who claims to be the messenger of a king is
not true unless we know that the symbols which he has are those of the
royal messenger, which can only happen, if a king tells his subjects
that whenever they happen to see such and such symbols with a man,
which are particularly his, they should take him as his messenger. When
this is so, one can object, from where does it appear that performance
of miracles is the special sign of the prophets? This can be proved
neither by law nor by reason. To prove it by religion is still more
impossible; it does not admit it. Reason alone cannot affirm that they
are the special symbols of prophecy, except that in many cases they
were found in people who claimed to be prophets and in none other. So
in this case a proof of anyone’s prophecy is based upon two premises.
First, the man who claims to be a prophet has performed a miracle, and
secondly, everyone who performs a miracle is a prophet.
Now as to the premise that the claimant for prophecy has performed
miracles we can say that it pertains to our senses after we have
admitted that there are actions performed by men, which can neither
be made by wondrous workmanship or by some particular forces, but are
beyond our conception. The second premise can only be true when we
admit the existence of the prophets, and that the miracles are only
performed by those who are the true claimants for prophetic mission.
We would say that this premise is not true but for those who believe
the existence of the prophets and the miracles. For instance if it has
become clear to man, that the universe is created, then he certainly
knows that the world exists and the Creator too. This being so, a man
can object and say how can we say that one who performs the miracles
is a prophet, when the prophetic mission itself remains unproved? Even
after we admit the existence of miracle in the manner in which it
may seem quite impossible, it is necessary that the two sides of the
premise be admitted first and then the one can be applied to the other.
One cannot say that the existence of the prophets can be proved by
reason, because of its possibility. For the possibility to which they
refer is in fact really ignorance, and is not found in the nature of
things. For instance, if we say that it is possible that it will rain
or not, then the possibility is found in the nature of things, that
is, it is felt that a thing may sometimes be, and at others not be, as
in the case of rain. Here, reason can exactly decide the possibility
of a thing by its nature. The necessary (_wajib_) is quite contrary to
it; that is, it is a thing the existence of which is always found.
In this case reason can always decide without a mistake, because its
nature cannot be changed or transformed. So when one party admits the
existence of a prophet, at a certain time it appears that the prophetic
mission is a thing whose existence is possible and the other party says
that it cannot feel it, then that possibility becomes mere ignorance in
its case. Now we believe in the existence of this possibility because
we have known the prophets. We say that a knowledge of the messengers
from man, leads us to a belief in the existence of messengers from God,
as the existence of a messenger from Anir, leads us to the conclusion
of there being a messenger from Zaid also. This requires a similarity
in the natural dispositions of both men and it is here where the
difficulty lies. If we suppose this possibility by itself even in the
future, it will only be by the means of the known fact and not by our
knowledge and reason. Now one of the premises of this possibility has
come into existence. For the possibility is in our knowledge, and the
fact in itself is an established one, by one of the two alternatives,
that is, whether he sent a messenger or did not. So we have nothing
in this case but sheer ignorance, as is the doubt whether Anir sent
any messengers in the past or did not, which is quite different from
our doubting, whether or not he will send any in future. So when we do
not know about Zaid, for instance, whether he has or has not sent any
messenger in the past, it is not correct for us to suppose anybody to
be his messenger, if he happens to have his symbols upon him. We can
admit his claim only after we know that Zaid did send a messenger. So
when we admit the existence of the prophetic mission, and the miracles,
then how can it be correct for us to say that one who performs the
miracles is a prophet. We cannot believe in this by hearing only, for
this faculty is not the thing by which such things can be proved. At
the same time we cannot claim this premise to be true by experience
and habit, except that the miracles performed by the prophets can be
seen by one who believes in their mission, and has never seen them to
have been performed by anybody else, so that they may be taken as a
convincing sign for distinguishing a prophet of God, from one who is
not, that is a distinction between one whose claim is right, and one
whose claim is wrong.
By these things it is seen that the Mutakallimun have missed the
whole purpose of the argument from miracles because they have put
possibility in the place of real existence, possibility which is in
reality ignorance. Then they have believed in the premise that every
one who performs miracles is a prophet, which cannot be true except
when the miracles prove the prophetic mission itself, and the sender of
messengers. It is not by reason that we can believe in these marvelous
things, which happen again and again, and are divine, as a conclusive
proof of the existence of prophetic mission, except that one who can do
such things is an excellent person, and that such persons cannot lie.
But it can prove the prophetic mission of a person only when we admit
that the mission does exist, and that such marvelous things cannot be
performed by any person, however good he may be, except by one who is a
a prophet. The miracles cannot prove the prophetic mission of a person,
because there is no connection between them and reason, except that
we admit that the miracles are one of the works of the prophets, just
as curing is the work of the physicians, so that one who can cure is
certainly a physician. This is one of the fallacies of the argument.
Moreover, if we admit the existence of the prophetic mission, by
putting the idea of possibility, which is in fact ignorance, in place
of certainty, and make miracles a proof of the truth of man who claims
to be a prophet it becomes necessary that they should not be used by a
person, who says that they can be performed by others than prophets,
as the Mutakallimun do. They think that the miracles can be performed
by the magicians and saints. The condition which they attach with them
is that miracles prove a man to be a prophet, when he at the same time
claims to be so, for the true prophet can perform them as opposed to
the false ones. This is an argument without any proof, for it can be
understood either by hearing or reason. That is, it is said that one
whose claims to prophecy are wrong, cannot perform miracles, but as
we have already said, when they cannot be performed by a liar, then
they can only be done by the good people, whom God has meant for this
purpose. These people, if they speak a lie, are not good, and hence
cannot perform the miracles. But this does not satisfy the people who
think miracles to be possible from the magicians, for they certainly
are not good men. It is here that the weakness of the argument lies.
Hence some people have thought that the best thing is to believe that
they cannot be performed but by the prophets and hence magic is only
imagination, and not a change of essence. Among these are also men who
deny all sorts of marvelous things from the saints.
It is clear to you from the life of the prophet, peace be upon him,
that he never invited any man or community to believe in his prophecy,
and that which he has brought with him from God, by means of the
performance of any miracles, in support of his claim, such as changing
one element into another. Whatever miracles did appear from him were
only performed in the natural course of things, without on his part
any intention of contention or competition. The following words of
the Quran will make this clear; “And they say: We will by no means
believe in thee, until thou cause a spring of water to gush forth
for us out of the earth, and thou have a garden of palm-trees and
vines, and thou cause rivers to spring forth from the midst thereof in
abundance; or thou cause the heaven to fall down in pieces upon us, as
thou hast given out, or thou bring down God and the angels to vouch
for thee; or thou have a house of gold, or thou ascend by a ladder to
heaven; neither will we believe thy ascending thither alone, until
thou cause a book to descend unto us, bearing witness of thee which we
may read. Answer: My Lord be praised, Am I other than a man sent as
an apostle?”[104] Then again, “Nothing hindered us from sending thee
with miracles, except that the former nations have charged them with
imposture.”[105] The thing by which we invited the people to believe in
him, and with which he vied with them is the Quran. For says God, “Say,
verily, if men and genii were purposely assembled, that they might
produce a book like this Quran, they could not produce one like unto
it, although the one of them assigned the other.”[106] Then further he
says, “will they say, He hath forged the Quran? Answer, bring therefore
ten chapters like unto it forged by yourself.”[107] This being the case
the miracle of the Prophet with which he vied with the people and which
he advanced as an argument for the truth of his claim to the prophetic
mission, was the Quran. If it be said, that this is quite clear, but
how does it appear that the Quran is a miracle, and that it proves his
prophecy, while just now we have proved the weakness of the proof of
prophecy by means of miracles without any exceptions in the case of
any prophet. Besides the people have differed in taking the Quran to
be a miracle at all. For in their opinion one of the conditions of a
miracle is that it should be quite different from any act which may
have become habitual. But the Quran is of this sort, because it is only
word, though it excels all created words. So it becomes a miracle by
its superiority only, that is, the impossibility for people bringing
anything like it, on account of its being highly eloquent. This being
the case it differs from the habitual, not in genus but in details
only, and that which differs in this way is of the same genus. Some
people say that it is a miracle by itself, and not by its superiority.
They do not lay it down as a condition for miracles that they should
be quite different from the habitual, but think that it should be
such a habitual act, as men may fall short of accomplishing. We would
reply that it is as the objectors say, but the thing about it is not
as they have thought. That the Quran is an evidence of his prophecy,
is based, we believe, upon two principles, which are found in the Book
itself. The first being that the existence of the class of men called
prophets and apostles is well-known. They are the men who lay down
laws for the people by divine revelation, and not by human education.
Their existence can be denied only by the people who deny repeated
action, as the existence of all things which we have not seen--the
lives of the famous thinkers and so forth. All the philosophers, and
other men are agreed, except those who pay no regard to their words,
(and they are the Materialists), that there are men to whom have been
revealed many commandments for the people, to perform certain good
actions, by which their beatitude may be perfected; and to make them
give up certain wrong beliefs and vicious actions. This is the business
of divine apostles. The second principle is, that everyone who does
this work, that is, lays down laws by revelation, is a prophet. This
principle is also quite in accordance with human nature. For as it
is known that the business of medicine is to cure a disease, and one
who can cure is a physician, so it is also known that the business of
the prophets is to give law to the people by divine revelation, and
one who does so is a prophet. The Book mentions the first principle
in the following:--“Verily We have revealed Our will unto thee, as We
have revealed it unto Noah, and the prophets who succeeded him, and
We have revealed it unto Abraham, and Ishmael, and Isaac and Jacob,
and the tribes, and unto Jesus, and Job, and Jonas, and Aaron and
Solomon; and we have given thee the Quran as We gave the Psalms unto
David; some apostles have We sent, whom We have mentioned unto thee,
and God spake unto Moses discoursing with him,”[108] and again: “Say,
I am not alone among the apostles.”[109] The second principle is that
Mohammed, peace be upon him, has done the work of a prophet, that is,
has given Law to the people by divine revelation. This also can be
known from the Quran, where God mentions it. He says, “O men, now is
an evident proof come unto you from your Lord, and We have sent down
unto you manifest light.”[110] By _manifest light_ is meant the Quran.
Again He says, “O men, now is the apostle come unto you from your Lord;
believe, therefore, it will be better for you,”[111] and again, “But
those among them who are well-grounded in knowledge, and faithful, who
believe in that which hath been sent down unto thee, and that which
hath been sent down unto the prophets before thee;”[112] and again “God
is the witness of the revelation which He hath sent down unto thee; He
sent it down with his special knowledge; the angels are also witness
thereof; but God is a sufficient witness.”[113] If it be said, how can
the first principle be known, that is, that there is a class of men
who give the Law to the people by divine revelation; and so also, how
to know the second principle, that is, that which the Quran contains,
about beliefs and actions, is of divine origin? We would answer that
the first principle can be known by the information which these men
give about the existence of things, which were not found before, but
come into existence after they have informed the people about them, and
in a specified time; and by their command for doing certain things, and
teaching certain precepts which do not resemble the common things and
actions, which can be taught by human agency. This is so because if the
miracles be of the kind of laying down Laws, proving that they cannot
be laid down by human education, but only through divine revelation,
then it is prophecy. But the miracles which do not take the form of
laws, as the dividing of the sea, etc., do not necessarily prove the
prophecy of anyone. But they can only be used as supplements to the
former, if they fall very near to it. But standing alone they cannot
prove it, and so by themselves alone they do not lead to a cognizance
of the prophets, if the other kind of miracles, which are its
conclusive proofs, be not found in them. So according to this principle
must be understood the proofs of prophecy afforded by miracles, that
is, the miracles of knowledge and deeds are its conclusive proofs
while others only make it strong, and can be used as witnesses. So
now it has become clear to you that men of this kind do exist, and
how can men be sure of them, except by their repeated appearance; as
is the case with physicians and other kinds of men. If it be asked:
How can it be proved that the Quran is a conclusive proof that is a
miracle which is the business of the prophets to perform, as curing is
the business of a physician, we would say that this can be known in
many ways:--First, the precepts which it contains about knowledge and
deeds, cannot be acquired by learning, but only by divine revelation;
secondly, by the information which it gives about hidden things; and
thirdly, by its poetry, which is quite different from that which can
be achieved by imagination or repetition of verses, that is, it is
known that it is of quite a different kind from the poetry of Arabic
speaking people, whether the language be acquired and learned, as is
the case with non-Arabs, or it be the mother-tongue, as it is with the
Arabs themselves. The first reason is the most weighty one. If it be
asked how can it be known that the laws which contain both knowledge
and precepts about deeds are of divine origin, so much so that they
deserve the name of the word of God, we would say also that this also
can be known in many ways. First, a knowledge of the laws cannot be
acquired except after a knowledge of God, and of human happiness and
misery; and the acts by which this happiness can be acquired, as
charity and goodness and the works which divert men from happiness
and produce eternal misery, such as evil and wickedness. Again the
knowledge of human happiness and misery requires a knowledge of the
soul and its substance, and whether it has eternal happiness or not.
If it be so, then what is the quantity of this happiness, or misery;
and also what amount of good would be the cause of happiness. For the
case of goodness and evil is just the same as with food, which does
not give health, if taken in any quantity and at any time; but must be
used in a specified quantity and at an appointed time. For this reason
we find these limited in the religious laws. All this, or a greater
part of it, cannot be known but by divine revelation, or at least a
knowledge through it would be better. Again a perfect knowledge of God
requires a knowledge of existent things. Then a law-giver must know the
quantity of this knowledge which would be good to be imparted to the
common people, and the method to be adopted in teaching them. All this,
or at least a greater part of it, cannot be acquired by education,
learning or philosophy. This can be clearly known from imparting
learning, and especially the giving of laws, making regulations, and
giving information about the conditions of the Day of Judgment. When
all this is found in the Quran in the most perfect form, there can be
no doubt that it is a divine revelation and His word, given through
the agency of His prophet. So God has said, informing the people about
it, “Say, verily if man and genii were purposely assembled, that they
might produce a book like this Quran, they could not produce one like
it.” This idea is further strengthened, nay, comes near exact surety
and certainty, when it is known that the prophet was an unlettered
man, and lived among a people, uneducated, wild, and nomadic by habit,
who had never tried to investigate the universe, as was the case with
the Greeks, and other nations, among whom philosophy was perfected in
long periods of time. To this very fact refer the words of God, “Thou
couldst not read any book before this; neither couldst thou write
it with thy right hand, then had gainsayers justly doubted of the
divine origin thereof.”[114] Hence God has repeatedly told the people
this quality of His prophet. “It is He who hath raised up among the
illiterate Arabians an apostle from among themselves,”[115] and, “Those
who shall follow the Apostle the illiterate Prophet.”[116] This matter
can also be known by another method--that of comparison of this Law
with the others. For, if the business of the prophets be the giving
of laws by divine revelation, as has been acknowledged by all who
believe in the existence of the prophets, then if you look into the
teachings of useful knowledge and actions leading to happiness, which
are contained in the Quran, and compare them with other divine books
and religious systems, you will find it excelling all the others in an
unlimited degree. On the whole, if there are books worthy to be called
the words of God, on account of their wondrous nature, and separation
from the genius of human words and their peculiarity by what they
contain in regard to knowledge and deeds, then it is clear that the
Quran is much more worth thy, and many times fitter, than they are to
be called the words of God. This would be still clearer to you if you
could know the past books--the Old and New Testaments. But that is not
possible because they have been changed to a great extent. Were we to
describe the superiority of one Law over another, and the superiority
of the teachings given to us about the knowledge of God, and the Day
of Judgment to the laws given to the Jews and the Christians, it would
require many volumes with a confession of our own short-comings in
dealing with the subject. For this very reason, the Law of ours has
been called the last of the divine dispensations. The Prophet, peace be
on him, has said, “Had Moses lived in my time, he could not have helped
following me,” and the Prophet was right, on account of the universal
nature of the teachings of the Quran, and its regulations. That is it
is able to satisfy the needs of all, being meant for the whole of the
human race. So God has said, “say, O men, Verily I am the messenger of
God unto you all.”[117] The Prophet has said, “I have been sent both to
the white and the black nations.”
The case of religions is just the same as that of God. There are some
foods which agree with all, or most of the people. Such is the case
with religions also. So the dispensations before our own were meant
for some particular peoples, ignoring all others, but our religion was
meant for the whole of the human race. This being the case, our Prophet
excels all the other Prophets, to him comes the divine revelation,
which makes a man fit to be called a prophet. So the Prophet has said
informing us of his superiority over other prophets, “There is no
prophet to whom has not been given a sign by which all the men would
have believed. I have been given divine revelation, and I hope that my
followers would be in the majority on the Day of Judgment.” All that we
have said must have made it clear to you that the proof of the prophecy
of the prophet from the Quran is not of the same kind as that of
turning a staff into a serpent for the proof of the prophecy of Moses,
or of giving life to the dead, and curing the blind and leprous for the
prophecy of Jesus. For these, although never performed by any but the
prophets, and sufficient to satisfy the common people, are not by any
means conclusive proofs of prophecy, when taken by themselves,--they
not being acts which make a prophet.
Now as to the Quran, its case is just like curing by medicine. For
instance, suppose two men were to claim to be physicians, and one were
to say that he could walk on water, and the other were to assert that
he could cure a disease, and so one walked on the water, and the other
cured a sick man. In this case, our verification for medicine would be
only for one who has cured a sick man, but in the case of the other, it
would be outward satisfaction alone. The first is far better. The only
reason by which the common people can be satisfied in this respect is
that one who can walk on water, which is against the nature of men, can
certainly cure a disease, which is what men can do. This also is one of
the reasons of the connection between miracle, which is not one of the
conditions of prophecy, and the sign which makes a man deserve the name
of a prophet: divine revelation. Of this quality is also the fact, that
there comes nothing to the mind of such a man except that which God has
ordained for this unique work, and specialised him for it, among all
his fellow-men. So it is not inconsistent if he were to claim that God
distinguished him with his revelations.
On the whole, when once it is laid down that the prophets do exist,
and that the miracles cannot be performed except by them, they can
become a prophecy, that is the miracles which are not in any way fit
to be received as a proof for it. This is the method to be adopted
with regard to the common people. For the doubts and objections which
we have described about unnatural miracles are not perceived by the
masses. But if you look intently you will find that the Law depends
upon suitable and natural miracles, and not upon unnatural ones. What
we have said about this problem is enough for our purpose and for the
sake of truth.
Problem Third: Of Fate and Predestination. This is one of the most
intricate problems of religion. For if you look into the traditional
arguments about this problem you will find them contradictory; such
also being the case with arguments of reason. The contradiction in the
arguments of the first kind is found in the Quran and the Traditions.
There are many verses of the Quran, which by their universal nature,
teach that all the things are predestined, and that man is compelled
to do his acts; then there are verses which say that man is free in
his acts and not compelled in performing them. The following verses
tell us that all the things are by compulsion, and are predestined,
“Everything have We created bound by a fixed degree;”[118] again, “With
Him everything is regulated according to a determined measure.”[119]
Further, He says, “No accident happeneth in the earth, nor in your
persons, but the same was entered in the Book verily it is easy with
God.”[120] There may be quoted many other verses on this subject. Now,
as to the verses which say that man can acquire deeds by free will,
and that things are only possible and not necessary, the following may
be quoted: “Or He destroyeth them (by ship-wreck), because of that
which their crew have merited; though He pardoneth many things.”[121]
And again, “Whatever misfortune befalleth you is sent you by God,
for that which your hands have deserved.”[122] Further, He says,
“But they who commit evil, equal thereunto.”[123] Again, He says,
“It shall have the good which it gaineth, and it shall have the evil
which it gaineth.”[124] and, “And as to Thamud, We directed them,
but they loved blindness better than the true directions.”[125]
Sometimes contradiction appears even in a single verse of the Quran.
For instance, He says, “After a misfortune hath befallen you (you had
already attained two equal advantages), do you say, whence cometh
this? Answer, This is from yourselves.”[126] In the next verse, He
says, “And what happenth unto you, on the day whereon the two armies
met, was certainly by permission of the Lord.”[127] Of this kind also
is the verse, “Whatever good befalleth thee, O man, it is from God;
and whatever evil befalleth thee, it is from thyself;”[128] while the
preceding verse says, “All is from God.”[129]
Such is also the case with the Traditions. The Prophet says, “Every
child is born in the true religion; his parents afterwards turn him
into a Jew or a Christian.” On another occasion he said, “The following
people have been created for hell, and do the deeds of those who are
fit for it. These have been created for heaven, and do deeds fit for
it.” The first Tradition says that the cause of disbelief is one’s own
environments; while faith and belief are natural to man. The other
Tradition says that wickedness and disbelief are created by God, and
man is compelled to follow them.
This condition of things has led Muslims to be divided into two
groups. The one believed that man’s wickedness or virtue is his own
acquirement, and that according to these he will be either punished
or rewarded. These are the Mutazilites. The belief of the other party
is quite opposed to this. They say that man is compelled to do his
deeds. They are the Jabarites. The Asharites have tried to adopt a mean
between these two extreme views. They say that man can do action, but
the deeds done, and the power of doing it, are both created by God.
But this is quite meaningless. For if the deed and the power of doing
it be both created by God, then man is necessarily compelled to do the
act. This is one of the reasons of the difference of opinion about this
problem.
As we have said there is another cause of difference of opinion
about this problem, than the traditional one. This consists of the
contradictory arguments advanced. For if we say that man is the creator
of his own deeds, it would be necessary to admit that there are things
which are not done according to the will of God, or His authority.
So there would be another creator besides God, while the Muslims are
agreed that there is no creator but He. If, on the other hand, we were
to suppose that man cannot act freely, we admit that he is compelled
to do certain acts, for there is no mean between compulsion and
freedom. Again, if man is compelled to do certain deeds, then on him
has been imposed a task which he cannot bear; and when he is made to
bear a burden, there is no difference between his work and the work
of inorganic matter. For inorganic matter has no power, neither has
the man the power for that which he cannot bear. Hence all people have
made capability one of the conditions for the imposition of a task,
such as wisdom we find Abul Maali, saying in his _Nizamiyyah_, that
man is free in his own deeds and has the capability of doing them. He
has established it upon the impossibility of imposing a task which one
cannot bear, in order to avoid the principle formerly disproved by the
Mutazilites, on account of its being unfit by reason. The succeeding
Asharites have opposed them. Moreover if man had no power in doing a
deed, then it will be only by chance that he may escape from evil,
and that is meaningless. Such also would be the case with acquiring
goodness. In this way all those arts which lead to happiness, as
agriculture etc., would become useless. So also would become useless
all those arts the purpose of which is protection from, and repulsion
of danger as the sciences of war, navigation, medicine etc. such a
condition is quite contrary to all that is intelligible to man.
Now it may be asked that if the case is so, how is this contradiction
which is to be found both in tradition and reason to be reconciled we
would say, that apparently the purpose of religion in this problem is
not to divide it into two separate beliefs, but to reconcile them by
means of a middle course, which is the right method. It is evident that
God has created in us power by which we can perform deeds which are
contradictory in their nature. But as this cannot be complete except
by the cause which God has furnished for us, from outside, and the
removal of difficulties from them, the deeds done are only completed
by the conjunction of both these things at the same time. This being
so the deeds attributed to us are done by our intention, and by the
fitness of the causes which are called the _Predestination_ of God,
which He has furnished for us from outside. They neither complete the
works which we intend nor hinder them, but certainly become the cause
of our intending them--one of the two things. For intention is produced
in us by our imagination, or for the verification of a thing, which in
itself is not in our power, but comes into being by causes outside us.
For instance, if we see a good thing, we like it, without intention,
and move towards acquiring it. So also, if we happen to come to a thing
which it is better to shun, we leave it without intention. Hence our
intentions are bound and attached to causes lying outside ourselves.
To this the following words of God, refer “Each of them hath angels,
mutually succeeding each other, before him and behind him; they watch
him by the command of God.”[130] As these outside causes take this
course according to a well defined order and arrangement, and never
go astray from the path which their Creator hath appointed for them,
and our own intentions can neither be compelled, nor ever found, on
the whole, but by _their_ fitness, so it is necessary that actions
too should also be within well-defined limits, that is, they be found
in a given period of time and in a given quantity. This is necessary
because our deeds are only the effects of causes, lying outside us;
and all the effects which result from limited and prearranged causes,
are themselves limited, and are found in a given quantity only. This
relation does not exist only between our actions and outside causes,
but also between them and the causes which God has created in our
body, and the well-defined order existing between the inner and outer
causes. This is what is meant by Fate and predestination, which is
found mentioned in the Quran and is incumbent upon man. This is also
the “Preserved Tablet.”[131] God’s knowledge of these causes, and that
which pertains to them, is the cause of their existence. So no one
can have a full knowledge of these things except God, and hence He
is the only Knower of secrets, which is quite true; as God has said,
“Say, None either in heaven or earth, knoweth that which is hidden
besides God.”[132] A knowledge of causes is a knowledge of secret
things, because the secret is a knowledge of the existence of a thing,
before it comes into being. And as the arrangement and order of causes
bring a thing into existence or not at a certain time, there must be
a knowledge of the existence or non-existence of a thing at a certain
time. A knowledge of the causes as a whole, is the knowledge of what
things would be found or not found at a certain moment of time. Praised
be He, Who has a complete knowledge of creation and all of its causes.
This is what is meant by the “keys of the secret,” in the following
words of God, “with Him are the keys of secret things; none knoweth
them besides Himself.”[133]
All that we have said being true, it must have become evident how we
can acquire our deeds, and how far they are governed by predestination
and fate. This very reconciliation is the real purpose of religion by
those verses and Traditions which are apparently contradictory. When
their universal nature be limited in this manner, those contradictions
should vanish by themselves, and all the doubts which were raised
before, about the contradictory nature of reason, would disappear. The
existent things from our volition are completed by two things: our
intention and the other causes. But when the deeds are referred to
only by one of these agencies, doubts would rise. It may be said is a
good answer, and here reason is in perfect agreement with religion,
but it is based upon the principles that these are agreed that there
are creative causes bringing into existence other things; while the
Muslims are agreed that there is no Creator but God. We would say that
whatever they have agreed upon is quite right, but the objection can
be answered in two ways. One of them is that this objection itself can
be understood in two ways; one of them being that there is no Creator
but God, and all those causes which He has created, cannot be called
creators, except speaking figuratively. Their existence also depends
upon Him. He alone has made them to be causes, nay, He only preserves
their existence as creative agents, and protects their effects after
their actions. He again, produces their essences at the moment when
causes come together. He alone preserves them as a whole. Had there
been no divine protection they could not have existed for the least
moment of time. Abu Hamid (Al-Ghazzali) has said that a man who makes
any of the causes to be co-existent with God is like a man who makes
the pen share the work of a scribe in writing; that is, he says
that the pen is a scribe and the man is a scribe too. He means that
_writing_ is a word which may be applied to both, but in reality they
have no resemblance in anything but word, for otherwise there is no
difference between them. Such is also the case with the word _Creator_,
when applied to God and the Causes. We say that in this illustration
there are doubts. It should have been clearly shown, whether the scribe
was the Creator of the essence (_Jawhar_) of pen, a preserver of it, as
long as it remains a pen, and again a preserver of the writing after
it is written, a Creator of it after it has come in touch with the
pen, as we have just explained that God is the Creator of the essences
(_Jawahir_) of everything which come into contact with its causes, which
are so called only by the usage. This is the reason why there is no
creator but God--a reason which agrees with our feelings, reason and
religion. Our feelings and reason see that there are things which
produce others. The order found in the universe is of two kinds: that
which God has put in the nature and disposition of things; and that
which surround the universe from outside. This is quite clear in the
movement of the heavenly bodies. For it is evident that the sun and the
moon, the day and night, and all other stars are obedient to us; and it
is on this arrangement and order which God has put in their movements
that our existence and that of all other things depends. So even if we
imagine the least possible confusion in them, with them in any other
position, size and rapidity of movement which God has made for them,
all the existent things upon the earth would be destroyed. This is so
because of the nature in which God has made them and the nature of the
things which are effected by them. This is very clear in the effects
of the sun and the moon upon things of this world; such also being the
case with the rains, winds, seas and other tangible things. But the
greater effect is produced upon plants, and upon a greater number,
or all, on the animals. Moreover, it is apparent that had there not
been those faculties which God has put in our bodies, as regulating
them that could not exist even for a single moment after birth. But
we say, had there not been the faculties found in all the bodies of
the animals, and plants and those found in the world by the movement
of the heavenly bodies, then they would not have existed at all, not
even for a twinkling of the eye. So praised be the “Sagacious, the
Knowing.”[134] God has called our attention to this fact in His book,
“And He hath subjected the night and the day to your service; and the
sun and the moon and the stars, which are compelled to serve by His
Command;”[135] again, “Say, what think ye, if God should cover you with
perpetual night, until the day of Resurrection;”[136] and again, “Of
His mercy, He hath made you night and the day, that ye may rest in the
one, and may seek to obtain provision for yourselves of His abundance,
by your industry; in the other;”[137] and, “And He obligeth whatever is
in heaven or on earth to serve you.”[138] Further He says, “He likewise
compelleth the sun and the moon, which diligently perform their
courses, to serve you; and hath subjected the day and night to your
service,”[139] There may be quoted many other verses on the subject.
Had there been any wisdom in their existence by which God has favoured
us, and there would not have been those blessings for which we are to
be grateful to Him.
The second answer to the objection is, that we say that the things
produced out of it are of two kinds: essences and substances; and
movements, hardness, coldness and all other accidents. The essences
and substances are not created by any but God. Their causes effect
the accidents of those essences, and not the essences themselves. For
instance, man and woman are only the agents, while God is the real
creator of the child, and the life in it. Such is also the case with
agriculture. The earth is prepared and made ready for it, and the seed
scattered in it. But it is God who produces the ear of the corn. So
there is no creator but God, while created things are but essences. To
this refer the words of God. “O men, a parable is propounded unto you,
therefore, hearken unto it. Verily the idols which ye invoke, besides
God, can never create a single fly, although they may all assemble for
the purpose; and if the fly snatch anything from them they cannot turn
the same from it. Weak is the petitioner and the petitioned.”[140]
This is where the unbeliever wanted to mislead Abraham, when he said,
“I give life and kill.”[141] When Abraham saw that he could understand
it, he at once turned to the conclusive argument and said, “Verily, God
bringeth the sun from the east; do thou bring it from the west.”
On the whole, if the matter about the creator and the doer be
understood on this wise, there would be no contradiction, either in
Tradition or in reason. So we say that the word Creator does not
apply to the created things by any near or far-fetched metaphor, for
the meaning of the creator is the inventor of the essences. So God
has said, “God created you, and that which ye know.” It should be
known that one who denies the effect of the causes on the results of
them, also denies philosophy and all the sciences. For science is
the knowledge of the things by their causes, and philosophy is the
knowledge of hidden causes. To deny the causes altogether is a thing
which is unintelligible to human reason. It is to deny the Creator, not
seen by us. For the unseen in this matter must always be understood by
a reference to the seen.
So those men can have no knowledge of God, when they admit that for
every action there is an actor. It being so, the agreement of the
Muslims on the fact that there is no Creator but God cannot be perfect,
if we understand by it the denial of the existence of an agent in the
visible world. For from the existence of the agent in it, we have
brought an argument for the Creator in the invisible world. But when we
have once admitted the existence of the Creator in the invisible world,
it becomes clear that there is no Creative agent except one by His
command and will. It is also evident that we can perform our own deeds,
and that one who takes up only one side of the question is wrong, as is
the case with the Mutazilites and the Jabarites. Those who adopt the
middle Course, like the Asharites, for discovering the truth, cannot
find it. For they make no difference for a man between the trembling
and the movement of his hand by intention. There is no meaning in their
admitting that both the movements are not by ourselves. Because if
they are not by ourselves we have no power to check them, so we are
compelled to do them. Hence there is no difference between trembling
of hand and voluntary movement, which they would call acquired. So
there is no difference between them, except in their names, which never
effect the things themselves. This is all clear by itself.
Fourth Problem:--Divine Justice and Injustice. The Asharites have
expressed a very peculiar opinion, both with regard to reason and
religion; about this problem. They have explained it in a way in which
religion has not, but have adopted quite an opposite method. They
say that in this problem the case of the invisible world is quite
opposed to the visible. They think that God is just or unjust within
the limits of religious actions, so when a man’s action is just with
regard to religion, he also is just; and whatever religion calls
it to be unjust; He is unjust. They say that whatever has not been
imposed as a divinely ordained duty upon men, does not come within
the four walls of religion. He is neither just or unjust, but all His
actions about such things are just. They have laid down that there
is nothing in itself which may be called just or unjust. But to say
that there is nothing which may in itself be called good or bad is
simply intolerable. Justice is known as good, and injustice as bad.
So according to them, polytheism is in itself neither injustice nor
evil, but with regard to religion, and had religion ordained it, it
would have been just and true. Such also would have been the case with
any kind of sin. But all this is quite contrary to our traditions and
reason. As to tradition God has described himself as just, and denied
injustice to himself. He says “God hath borne witness that there is
no God but He; and the angels and those who are endowed with wisdom
profess the same, who executeth righteousness;”[142] and “Thy God is
not unjust towards His servants;”[143] and again, “Verily God will not
deal unjustly with men in any respect; but men deal unjustly with their
own souls.”[144] It may be asked, What is your opinion about misleading
the people, whether it is just or unjust, for God has mentioned in many
a verse of the Quran, “That He leads as well as misleads the people?”
He says, “God causeth to err whom He pleaseth, and directeth whom
He pleaseth;”[145] and, “If we had pleased, we had certainly given
every soul its direction.”[146] We would say that these verses cannot
be taken exoterically, for there are many verses which apparently
contradict them--the verses in which God denies injustice to himself.
For instance, He says, “He liketh not ingratitude (_Kufr_) in His
servant.”[147] So it is clear that as He does not like ingratitude even
from them, He certainly cannot cause them to err. As to the statement
of the Asharites that God sometimes does things which He does not like,
and orders others which He does not want, God forbid us from holding
such a view about him, for it is pure infidelity. That God has not
misled the people and has not caused them to err will be clear to you
from the following verses: “Wherefore be thou orthodox and set thy
face towards true religion, the institution of God, to which He hath
created man kindly disposed;”[148] and, “when thy Lord drew forth
their posterity from the lions of the sons of Adam.”[149] A Tradition
of the Prophet says, “Every child is born according to the divine
constitution.”
These being contradictions in this problem we should try to reconcile
them so that they may agree with reason. The verse, “Verily God will
cause to err whom He pleaseth, and will direct whom He pleaseth”
refers to the prearranged divine will, with which all things have
been endowed. They have been created erring, that is, prepared to go
astray by their very nature, and led to it by inner and outer causes.
The meaning of the verse, “If we had pleased, we have given unto every
soul its direction,” is that He thought of not creating people ready to
err, by their nature, or by the outer causes or by both, He could have
done so. But as the dispositions of men are different the words may
mislead the one and direct the other. For these are the verses which
speak of misleading the people. For instance, “He will thereby mislead
many, and will direct many thereby: but He will not mislead any thereby
except the transgressors”[150]; and, “We have appointed the vision
which we showed thee, and also the tree cursed in the Quran,”[151] and
the verses about the number of angels of hell. “Thus doth God cause
to err whom He pleaseth and He directeth whom He pleaseth.”[152] It
means that for evil natures, these verses are misleading, as for the
sick bodies even good drugs are injurious. But some one may object and
ask, what was the need of creating a class of men already prepared
to err, for this is the worst kind of injustice? We would say that
divine wisdom designated it so. The injustice would have consisted in
its being otherwise. For the nature and constitution of men, in His
very creation, are such that they require some men, though very few,
to be wicked and evil by their nature. Such is also the case with the
outer causes, made for directing the people to the right path, which
requires that some men must be bad. If many had been good then the
divine law would not have been fulfilled, because either there had not
been created things in which there is little evil and much good, for
the good would have disappeared on account of that little evil; or
there had been created things with much good and little evil. Now it is
well known that the existence of many good ones with a few evil ones,
is better than the non-existence of much good for the sake of little
evil. This very evil was the thing which remained hidden to the angels
when God informed them that He was going to create upon the earth, a
vicegerent, that is, a man. “When God said to the angels, I am going
to place a substitute on earth, they said, wilt thou place there one
who will do evil therein, and shed blood? but we celebrate thy praise,
and sanctify Thee. God answered, Verily I know that which ye know
not.”[153] He means that the thing which is hidden from them is that
when there is found both good and evil in a thing, and good overpowers
the evil, reason requires the creation of the one for the destruction
of the other. So from all these it is clear how misleading can be
attributed to Him, in spite of His justice, and injustice disproved.
The causes of misleading are created, because from them appear the
causes of direction to good. For some people have not been given causes
of direction to good in which there is found nothing which may lead to
erring. Such is the condition of the angels. So also the causes of good
have those evil, though in their nature much evil be not found; this
applies to man. It may be asked: What is the use of these contradictory
verses, thus compelling the people to take refuge in interpretations,
which you have absolutely forbidden? We would say that to explain this
problem to the common people, they have been compelled to adopt this
method. For they should know that God is just, and that He is the
Creator of all good and evil, instead of believing, as many nations
have done, that there are two Gods, the creator of good, and the
creator of evil. So now they know that He is the Creator of both. As
misleading is evil, and as there is no Creator but He, it was necessary
that it should be attributed to Him, like the creation of evil. But
this should be done without qualifying it, that is, that He created
good for its own sake, and evil for the sake of good--on account of
their connection with one another. In this way His creation of evil
would be quite just. To illustrate: fire has been made because of its
necessity for the existence of things, and without it they could not
have existed at all. It also destroys things by its very nature. But
if you think of the destruction and evil which it causes, and compare
it to the advantages which we derive out of it, you will find that its
existence is better than non-existence, that is,--good. Now the verse
of the Quran “No account shall be demanded of him for what He shall do;
but an account shall be demanded of them,” means that He does nothing
because it is incumbent upon him for it is degrading to him, to need
doing a thing. If it be so, God needs that thing for His own existence,
because of necessity or to be more perfect in His Being--and God is
free from such imperfections. Man is just because he gains something
good by being so, which he cannot gain otherwise. God is just, not that
He may become more perfect by His justice, but because His perfection
requires him to be just. When we understand it in this way it would be
evident, that He is not just in the same way as man is just. But it is
not right to say that He is not just at all, and that all His actions
are neither just nor unjust, as the Mutakallimuns have thought. For
it cannot be understood by human intellect, and is at the same time
falsifying religion. These people knew the meaning but were misled. For
if we say that He is not at all just, we falsify the principle that
there are things which are just and good in themselves and others which
are evil and unjust. Again, if we suppose that He is just in the same
way as man is, it becomes necessary to admit there is some defect in
him. For one who is just, his existence is for the sake of things for
which he is just, and so he is dependent upon another.
It should now be known that it is not necessary for all the people to
be told this interpretation in its entirety. Only those should be told
it who have some doubts about this problem. For not every one among the
common people is confronted by these contradictions in the universal
verses, and Tradition. Such people must believe in the exoteric
meanings of them. There is another reason for these verses. The common
people cannot differentiate between possible and impossible, while to
God is not ascribed power over the impossible. If they be told what is
impossible (_Mustahil_) and they think that God has power over it, and
then told that God has no power, they begin to think that there is some
defect in God, because He cannot do a certain thing and hence He is
weak. As the existence of things free from evil was possible according
to the masses, God has said, “If we had pleased, we had certainly given
every soul its direction; but the word which hath proceeded from Me
must necessarily be fulfilled, when I said, Verily I will fill the hell
with genii and men, altogether.”[154] This verse means one thing to
the common people, and the other to the learned. The former take it to
mean that it is not incumbent upon him that He should create a class of
men to whom evil may be attached. But it really means: Had we thought
we could create men with whom evil could not be attached, but would
have been good in all and all, and hence every one had been given his
guidance. This much is enough for this problem. Now we would deal with
the fifth question.
Problem fifth: Of the Conditions of the Day of Judgment:--The Day of
Judgment is a thing in which all the religions are agreed, and all the
learned men have proved it by arguments. The religions differ about
the conditions of its existence; nay, in reality they do not differ
about its condition, but about the visible things by which they should
explain to the common people the conditions of the unseen. There are
some religions which have made it only spiritual, that is, meant only
for the souls; while others have thought it to be both physical and
spiritual. The reconciliation in this matter depends upon the testimony
of divine revelation, and the necessary arguments of all the learned
men, that is, that for a man there are two blessings: of the present
world, and of the world to come, which is itself established upon
principles, admitted by all to be true. One of them is that when it is
clear that all the existent things have not been created in vain, but
for some particular work assigned to them, which is the sum total of
their life, then man is far fitter to be placed under this category.
God himself has warned us of the existence of this purpose in all the
created things. He says in the Quran, “We have created the heavens and
the earth, and whatever is between them, in vain. This is the opinion
of the unbelievers.”[155] Again, He says, describing and praising
the learned men, who have understood, the real and inner purpose of
this existence, “Who remember God standing, and sitting, and lying
on their sides; and meditate on the creation of heaven and earth,
saying, O Lord, thou hast not created this in vain; far be it from thee
therefore, deliver us from the torment of hell fire.”[156] The ultimate
purpose in the creation of man is still more evident in him, than in
other things. God has informed us of it in many a verses of the Quran.
He says, “Did ye think that we had created you in sport; and that ye
should not be brought again before us,”[157] and, “Doth man think, that
he shall be left at full liberty, without control?”[158] and further
on He says, “I have not created genii and men for any other end, but
that they should serve me.”[159] That is the genius out of all creation
which could know him. Again, He says, informing us of the importance
of knowing God, “What reason have I that I should not worship him who
hath created me? for unto him shall ye return.”[160] Now it being clear
that man has been created for a certain work, it is evident that the
work should be of a particular kind. For we see that everything has
been created for a certain work, which is found in it, and in none
other; that is, it is specialised in it. This being so, it is necessary
that the real purpose of man’s creation be those deeds which are found
in him, and in no other animal. These deeds pertain to his rational
powers. As there are two portions of the rational powers,--practical
and theoretical--it is evident that the first kind of thing is demanded
of him. That is, that his faculties of knowledge and science should be
found in their perfection. The deed by which soul acquires perfection
in those two faculties are goodness and virtue, and those that retard
it are evil and wicked. And as these actions are most of them fixed by
divine revelation, religions appeared to fix them. With that there also
appears a knowledge of those qualities, exhorting the people towards
them. They ordered men to act upon goodness, and shew evil. They taught
them the quantity of the deeds which will be good for all the people,
both in practice and in knowledge taken together. They also taught
them the theoretical knowledge of things, which all the people should
know, such as the knowledge of God, angels, of higher creation, and of
goodness. In this way they also taught them the quantity of the acts
which would be necessary to make the souls excel in virtue. This is
especially the case with our religion, Islam, for when compared with
other religions, it is found that it is absolutely _the_ best religion.
Hence it was the last of divine dispensations.
Now divine revelation has informed us in all the religions that the
soul will live, and all the argument of the learned people have
established the same. The souls are freed from physical desires after
death. If they be pure, their purity is doubled by this freedom from
desires. If they be evil this separation increases their depravity,
for they are troubled by the evil which they have already earned, and
their regret increases about the opportunities which they lost before
their separation from the body, for this purification is not possible
without it. It is to this that following verse refers:--A soul would
say, “Alas, for that I have been negligent in my duties towards God:
Verily I have been one of the scorners.”[161] All the religions agree
about this condition of man, and call it his last goodness or misery.
This being so, there could not be found in the visible world anything
which may be given as an illustration, so there is a difference in its
description in the revelations given to different prophets. We mean
to say, that there is a difference in illustrating the condition of
the good and bad soul on that occasion. There are some which have not
given any illustrations of that happiness or misery which the good and
bad souls will have there. They have only said that the conditions
there would be only spiritual, and pleasures angelic. Others have
given instances from the visible world; that is, they have given the
examples of the pleasures here for the pleasures of the next world,
after deducting the trouble borne in acquiring them, and in the same
way, they have illustrated the misery there, by the example of misery
here, after deducting the pleasure which we derive from it. Either the
people of these religions received from God revelations which those did
not receive who made the next world purely spiritual, or they saw, that
illustrations from things visible are best understood by the common
people and that they are best led so or checked from an action through
them. So they said that God will put back the good souls in their
respective bodies, and the best possible ease--in paradise. The bad
souls will also return to their bodies, where they will be in the worst
possible misery, which they call hell-fire.
This is true of our religion, Islam, in illustrating the conditions
of the next world. There are many verses of the Quran which contain
arguments as to the possibilities of the conditions of that world,
which can be understood and verified by all. For our reason cannot
apprehend these things more than the possibility of knowing which is
common to all, and which is of the kind of analogy of the existence
of the like from the being of the like, that is of its coming into
being. It is an analogy of the coming into being of the small from the
existence of the big and the great. For instance, God says, “And He
propoundeth unto us a comparison and forgetteth His Creation.”[162]
In these verses the argument used is the analogy of the return of the
beginning, when both are equal. In the following verse the argument of
those is refuted who differentiate between the real and _return_ of the
same thing. He says, “He giveth you fire out of a green tree.”[163]
The doubt is that the birth was from heat and moisture, while the
return will be from cold and dryness. So this doubt is met by the fact
that God can create the contrary from the contrary, as He can create
the like from the like. The analogy is drawn from the existence of
the little from the great. For example, God says, “Is not He who has
created the Heavens and the earth able to create new creatures like
unto them! yea, certainly; for He is the wise Creator.”[164] These
verses have two arguments for proving the resurrection and at the same
time refuting the arguments of those denying it. Were we to quote the
verses which give this proof our discourse would be lengthened. But all
of them are of the kind we have mentioned.
So, as we have already said, all the religions are agreed that there
is a blessing or misery for the human soul after death, but differ in
illustrating the conditions of that moment and in explaining it to
the common people. It seems that the illustration in our religion is
the most perfect of all for the understanding of the people, and at
the same time most inciting of them all to gain for their souls the
advantages of that day. And it is the many with whom lies the primary
purpose of religion. The spiritual illustration would be least inciting
to the common people for desiring the things of hereafter. So they
would have little liking for it, while they would fear the physical
illustration. So it seems that the physical illustration would be most
exciting to them, than the spiritual, while the latter would appeal
only to the controversialists among the scholastic theologians, who are
always very few in number. Hence we find that the Muslims have been
divided into three parties about the meaning of the conditions of the
Day of Judgment. One party says that that existence would be just like
our present one, as regards pleasures and enjoyments, that is, they
think that both are of the same genius, but differ in perpetuity and
termination: the one is for ever and the others come to an end. The
other party thinks that the two existences are different. But this is
again subdivided into two parties. The one thinks that that existence
with our present faculties is spiritual, but has been described as
physical. For this there are many religious arguments which it would
be useless to repeat here. The other party says that that existence is
physical only; but they at the same time believe, that the body will
be different from our present body. This is only transient, that will
be eternal. For this also there are religious arguments. It seems that
even Abdullah B. Abbas held this view. For it is related of him that he
said, “There is nought in this world of the hereafter, but names.” It
seems that this view is better suited to the learned men because its
possibility is based upon principles, in which there is no disagreement
according to all men: the one being that the soul is immortal, and the
second is that the return of the souls into other bodies does not look
so impossible as the return of the bodies themselves. It is so because
the material of the bodies here is found following and passing from one
body to another, i. e.; one and the same matter is found in many people
and in many different times. The example of bodies cannot be found, for
their matter is the same. For instance a man dies and his body becomes
dissolved into earth. The earth ultimately becomes dissolved into
vegetable, which is eaten by quite a different man from whom another
man comes into being. If we suppose them to be different bodies, then
our aforesaid view cannot be true.
The truth about this question is that man should follow that which he
himself has thought out but anyhow it should not be the view which
may deny the fundamental principle altogether. For this would be
denying its existence. Such a belief leads to infidelity, on account
of a distinct knowledge of this condition being given to man, both
by religion and by human reason, which is all based upon the eternal
nature of the soul. If it be said whether there is any argument or
information in the Law about this eternal nature of the soul, we would
say that it is found in the Quran itself. God says, “God taketh unto
himself the souls of men at the time of their death; and those which
die not He also taketh in their sleep.”[165] In this verse sleep and
death have been placed upon the same level, on account of the change
in its instrument, and in sleep on account of a change in itself. For
had it not been so it would not have come to its former condition
after awakening. By this means we know that this cession does not
effect its essence, but was only attached to it on account of change
in its instrument. So it does not follow that with a cessation of the
work of the instrument, the soul also ceases to exist. Death is only
a cessation of work, so it is clear that its condition should be like
that of sleep. As someone has said that if an old man were to get the
eyes of the young, he would begin to see like him.
This is all that we thought of in an exposition of the beliefs of our
religion, Islam. What remains for us is to look into things of religion
in which interpretation is allowed and not allowed. And if allowed,
then who are the people to take advantage of it? With this thing we
would finish our discourse.
The things found in the Law can be divided into five kinds. But in the
first place, there are only two kinds of things: indivisible and the
divisible. The second one is divided into four kinds. The first kind
which is mentioned in the Quran, is quite clear in its meanings. The
second is that in which the thing mentioned is not the thing meant
but is only an example of it. This is again divided into four kinds.
First, the meanings which it mentions are only illustrations such that
they can only be known by the far-fetched and compound analogies,
which cannot be understood, but after a long time and much labour.
None can accept them but perfect and excellent natures; and it cannot
be known that the illustration given is not the real thing; except by
this far-fetched way. The second is just the opposite of the former:
they can be understood easily, and it can be known that the example is
just what is meant here. Thirdly, it can be easily known that it is
merely an illustration, but what it is the example of is difficult to
comprehend. The fourth kind is quite opposite to the former. The thing
of which it is an example, is easily understood; while it is difficult
to know that it is an example at all. The interpretation of the first
kind is wrong without doubt. The kind in which both the things are
far-fetched: its interpretation particularly lies with those who are
well-grounded in knowledge; and an exposition of it is not fit for any
but the learned. The interpretation of its opposite--that which can be
understood on both the sides--is just what is wanted, and an exposition
of it is necessary. The case of the third kind is like the case of the
above. For in it illustration has not been mentioned because of the
difficulty for the common people to understand it: it only incites the
people to action. Such is the case with the tradition of the prophet;
“The black stone is God’s action on Earth,” etc. etc. That which can
be easily known that is an example, but difficult to know of which it
is example, should not be interpreted but for the sake of particular
persons and learned men. Those who understand that it is only an
illustration, but are not learned enough to know the thing which it
illustrates, should be told either that it is allegorical and can be
understood by the well-established learned men; or the illustration
should be changed in a way which might be near to their understanding.
This would be the best plan to dispel doubts from their minds.
The law about this should be that which has been laid down by Abu Hamid
(Al Ghazzali) in his book, _Al Tafriga bainal Islam wal Zindiga_. It
should be understood that one thing has five existences which he calls
by the name of _essential_ (_Zati_); sensual (_Hissi_); rational (_Agli_);
imaginative (_Khayali_) and doubtful (_Shilbhi_). So at the time of doubt
it should be considered which of these five kinds would better satisfy
the man who has doubts. If it be that which he has called _essential_
then an illustration would best satisfy their minds. In it is also
included the following traditions of the Prophet, “Whatever the
earlier prophets saw I have seen it from my place here, even heaven
and hell.” “Between my cistern of water and the pulpit, there is a
garden of paradise;” and “The earth will eat up the whole of a man
except the extremity of the tail.” All these, it can easily be known
are but illustrations, but what is the thing which they illustrate,
it is difficult to comprehend. So it is necessary in this case to
give an instance to the people which they may easily understand. This
kind of illustration, when used on such an occasion is allowable; but
when used irrelevantly it is wrong. Abu Hamid has not decided about
the occasion when both the sides of the question--the illustration
and the illustrated--be both far-fetched and difficult to understand.
In this case there would apparently be a doubt, but a doubt without
any foundation. What should be done is to prove that the doubt has no
basis, but no interpretation should be made, as we have shown in many
places in our present book against the Mutakallimun, Asharites and the
Mutazalites.
The fourth kind of occasion is quite opposite to the former. In this
it is very difficult to understand that it is an example, but when
once understood, you can easily comprehend the thing illustrated.
In the interpretation of this also, there is a consideration: about
those people who know that if it is an example, it illustrates such
and such a thing; but they doubt whether it is an illustration at
all. If they are not learned people, the best thing to do with them
is not to make any interpretation, but only to prove the fallacy of
the views which they hold about its being an illustration at all. It
is also possible that an interpretation may make them still distant
from the truth, on account of the nature of the illustration and the
illustrated. For these two kinds of occasions if an interpretation is
given, they give rise to strange beliefs, far from the law which when
disclosed are denied by the common people, Such has been the case with
the Sufis, and those learned men who have followed them. When this work
of interpretation was done by people who could not distinguish between
these occasions, and made no distinction between the people for whom
the interpretation is to be made, there arose differences of opinion,
at last forming into sects, which ended in accusing one another with
unbelief. All this is pure ignorance of the purpose of the Law.
From what we have already said the amount of mischief done by
interpretation must have become clear to you. We always try to acquire
our purpose by knowing what should be interpreted, and what not, and
when interpreted, how it should be done; and whether all the difficult
portions of the Law and Traditions are to be explained or not. These
are all included in the four kinds which have already been enumerated.
The purpose of our writing this book is now completed. We took
it up because we thought that it was the most important of all
purposes--connected with God and the Law.