AN EXPOSITION OF THE METHODS OF ARGUMENTS CONCERNING THE BELIEFS OF
THE FAITH, AND A DETERMINATION OF UNCERTAIN DOUBTS AND MISLEADING
INNOVATIONS IN INTERPRETATIONS.
AN EXPOSITION OF THE METHODS OF ARGUMENTS CONCERNING
THE BELIEFS OF THE FAITH
AND
A DETERMINATION OF UNCERTAIN DOUBTS
AND
MISLEADING INNOVATIONS IN INTERPRETATIONS.[25]
And after--Praise be to God, who sets apart anyone whom He will for His
knowledge, rendering him fit for understanding His Law and following
His path, informing him of the hidden recesses of His knowledge, the
real meaning of His inspiration, and the purpose of sending the Apostle
to creatures, in spite of what has become clear about the doubt of the
doubters among the Prophet’s own followers, and changes of meanings
introduced by the false among his own people. He has disclosed to him
that there are interpretations which God and His Apostle have not
ordered. May there be the most perfect blessings upon the Trusty of
His inspiration, and the Seal of His prophets, and upon his family and
relations.
We have already described in the foregoing tractate the conformity of
philosophy with the Law, and its other relations. We have said there
that the Law is of two kinds: exoteric and esoteric. The duty of the
common people is to follow the exoteric law; while the duty of learned
men is to follow the esoteric one. So the duty of the common people
is to follow the meanings of the Law in their literal sense, leaving
aside every interpretation of it. The learned men are not permitted
to expose their interpretations to the common people, as Ali, (upon
whom be peace) has said, “Tell the people what they can understand. Do
you wish to give the lie to God and His Apostle?” So I thought that
in the present book I should examine the exoteric meanings which the
Law intends the common people to follow, and in those, search the real
purpose of the Law-giver, (on whom be peace) according to my ability
and knowledge. For the people of His Law have been extremely disturbed,
so much so that many misguided sects and different divisions, have been
produced, every one of which thinks that it is following the best Law,
and that he who disagrees is either an innovator or an infidel whose
life and property is at stake. All this is directly opposed to the
purpose of the Law-giver. Its cause lies in the misleading things about
the Law which have been put forward.
In our own times, there are four of these sects which are famous. In
the first place, there is the sect of the Asharites, and these are
the people who are commonly taken to be men of _Sunna_. Then there
are Mutazilites, the sects of the Batinites, (Esoteric), and the
sect of the Bombasts. Every one of these sects has its own peculiar
beliefs about God, and has turned many an exoteric word of the law
to interpretations, which they have applied to those beliefs. They
think that theirs was the original Law which all the people are asked
to follow, and he who deviates from it is either an innovator or an
infidel. But when you look into all their views and then examine the
purpose of the Law, it would appear that a great part of them are
recent opinions and innovating interpretations. Of them I will mention
here those indispensable beliefs in the Law, without which Faith does
not become complete, and will search, in every one of them, the real
purpose of the Law-giver, (peace be upon him,) beyond that which has
been made the basis of the Law, and its beliefs before the coming
into use of incorrect interpretations. I will begin by explaining the
intention of the Law-giver as to the beliefs which should be held by
the common people about God, and the methods which He adopted towards
them. All this is contained in the Divine Book. We will begin by an
exposition of the methods which leads to the knowledge of the existence
of the Creator, for this is the first thing which a student ought to
know. But before this, it is necessary that we should mention the
opinions of the well-known sects.
The _Bombasts_ hold that the method of obtaining knowledge of the
existence of the Creator is by hearing and not by reason, that is,
the belief in His existence, the verification of which is incumbent
upon all men, is enough to be taught by the Law-giver, and believed
as an article of Faith, as is the case with his teachings about the
condition of the Day of Judgment, and others with which our reason has
no power to deal. This is obviously a misleading sect, for it falls
short of the purpose of the Law, as regards the method adopted towards
all the people, leading them to the knowledge of the existence of God,
and calling them to the confession of His belief. It is quite evident
from many verses of the Divine Book, that in it the people have been
called to verify the existence of the Creator by arguments of reason
which are mentioned in it. For instance, there are the following verses
of the Quran, “O men of Mecca, serve your Lord who has created you
and those before you,”[26] and “Is there any doubt concerning God,
the Creator of heaven and earth?”[27] and other verses on the subject
found therein. It is not fit for a man to say, that if these arguments
had been necessary for believing in God--that is, had his faith been
not completed without understanding them--the Prophet would not have
invited anybody to Islam without presenting to him all these arguments,
for the Arabs already knew the existence of the Creator, so that God
has said, “If thou asketh them who has created the heavens and the
earth, they will surely answer, God,”[28] and hence there was no use
giving arguments. It is impossible to find a man so stupid and dull,
that he cannot understand the arguments advanced by Law for the common
people, through the Prophet. This is to say the least. If there be
found such a man, then it is his duty to believe in God by hearing
alone. So much for the ideas of the _Bombasts_ about the exoterics of
the Law.
The _Asharites_ are of opinion that the verification of the existence
of God cannot be attained but by reason. But about this they have
adopted a method, which is not among the methods adopted by Law, and
is not mentioned in the Quran, nor the people invited through it to
believe. Their well-known method is founded upon the fact that the
universe is a created thing, which is itself based upon the theory
of the composition of atoms, and that the atom is a created thing,
and that other bodies are created out of it. The method which they
adopt for the exposition of the creation of an atom, which they call
_al-Jauharat u’l Faridah_ (sole Essence), is a misleading one even for
many religious men in the business of controversy, not to speak of the
common people. And despite this it is a method devoid of philosophy,
and does not lead to a belief in the existence of the Creator. For if
we suppose the universe is a created thing, it becomes necessary, as
they say, that its Creator must also be a “Created” object. But a doubt
presents itself about the existence of this created thing, which is
not in the power of scholastic theology to solve. And that is this,
that we can take this thing to be neither eternal nor created. For if
we take it as created, then it must require another created thing, and
this another, and so on to infinity. This is impossible. On the other
hand, if we take Him as eternal, then it is necessary that his action
in connection with the result must also be eternal. In this way the
results also become eternal. It is necessary for a created thing that
its existence be dependent upon a created action. Their hypothesis can
only be proved if they admit that a created action can be performed by
an eternal agent. For the result of the action might be dependent on
the action of the agent. But they do not admit it, for according to
their principles what is coeval with created things is itself created.
Moreover, if the agent sometimes acts and at other times remains
inactive, it is necessary, that there be a condition better applicable
in one state of things than in the other. Then about this condition
the same question will rise, and so it will go on till infinity. And
what the Mutakallimun say in answer to this objection that the created
action is the result of eternal intention, does not relieve us of our
doubt or satisfy our mind. For intention without action is dependent
upon the act, and if the act is a created thing, then it is necessary
that the intention in connection with it must also be a created thing.
It makes no difference whether we take the intention as eternal or
created, rising before the action or with it. So we may take it as
we like. All the same it is necessary for them to admit either of
the three things about the universe--either a created action, with a
created intention or a created action and an eternal intention, or
an eternal action with an eternal intention. But a created thing is
impossible from an eternal action without any expedient, even if we
admit for their sake, that it comes into existence by eternal action;
and putting intention itself or the action, connected with the act is a
thing which cannot be understood. This is supposing an act without an
agent, with a result, without any intention. Intention is a condition
of the action and not the action itself. Also it is necessary that this
eternal intention, should be connected with non-existence of a created
thing, for a period of time which is indefinite. So if a created thing
be non-existence for an unknown period of time, then it does not become
connected with the intention at the time of its creation, except after
the completion of a time of which there is no limit, and that which has
no limit has no end. So it becomes necessary that the intention should
never take the form of action, or a time without limit should come to
an end, which is impossible. This is the argument of the Mutakallimun,
on which they rely in proving that the revolutions of the heavens are
created. Moreover, it is necessary that to the intention which precedes
the object, and is connected with it, at a certain time, there should
be created in it at the time of creation of the object a determination
for doing so. For the determination for the creation of an object
cannot be found before that time, because if at the time of action
there be found no additional quality in the agent, than that he had at
the time of intention, then action from him at that time would not be
quite as necessary from him as inactivity. We may go on in this way,
finding all the obscure and intricate doubts, from which, not to speak
of the common people, even clever men, learned in scholastic theology,
in philosophy, cannot escape. So if the common people be burdened with
a knowledge of these things, it would be an unbearable problem for them.
Then again the methods adopted by the Asharites in proving the
creation of the universe are defective for all classes of men. The
common people, by their very nature, cannot understand them, and
they are at the same time in no way reasonable. So they are neither
fit for the learned, nor for the masses. We warn our readers of them
and say: The methods which they adopt are of two kinds. One of them,
the more famous of the two and upon which a majority of them relies,
is based upon three premises, from which they derive the proof for
the creation of the universe. They are: (1) that essences cannot be
separated from accidents, that is, they cannot be devoid of them; (2)
that the accidents are created things; (3) that that which cannot be
separated from a created thing is itself created, that is, that which
cannot be severed from the created thing is itself created. Now, if
by the first premise which says that the essences cannot be separated
from the accidents, they mean the bodies which stand by themselves,
then the premise is correct. But if by essence they mean the particle
which cannot be divided, which they call _Sole Essence_, then there is
doubt about it, which is not easy to solve. For the existence of an
indivisible essence is not well established in itself, and about it
there are many opposite and highly contradictory opinions, and it is
not in the power of scholastic theology to bring truth out of them.
That is the business of philosophers who are very few in number.
The arguments which Asharites use are for the most part exhortative.
For their famous argument on this is that they say that our first
knowledge about a thing is, for instance, that an elephant is bigger
than an ant, for it is accepted that the former has more particles in
it than the latter. If it be so, then it is made up of particles and is
not a compact whole in itself. So when the body is destroyed it changes
into particles, and when composed it is composed of them. But this is
wrong. For they have taken a divisible quantity as a continuous one,
and then thought that that which is applicable to the divisible is also
applicable to the continuous. This is true about numbers, that is, we
say that a certain number is more than the other, by its containing
more particles in it, that is, more units. But it cannot be true of
a continuous quantity, of which we say that it is bigger or greater.
In this way everything may be enumerated without any reference to its
bulk at all. And the science of mathematics becomes the science of
number only. It is well-known that every bulk can be considered with
regard to line, surface and volume. Moreover, a continuous quantity
it is possible to cut in the middle and thus get two parts. But this
is impossible in the units of number, nay, it is opposed to it. Then,
again, the body and other particles of a continuous quantity are
capable of being divided. But everything divisible is either divided
into other divisible quantities, or into indivisible ones. If it is
divided into indivisible ones then we have found particles which cannot
be divided. And if it is divided into other divisible parts, then again
the question arises whether these can be divided into divisible or
indivisible parts. So if it can be divided a limitless number of times,
there would be limitless particles in a limited thing. But it is one of
the primary principles of knowledge that particles in a limited thing
are limited.
Among the obscure doubts which can be attributed to the Asharites
is the question whether if an atom is brought into being, this is
different from creation itself, for it is one of the accidents? When
the created thing exists the act of creation is non-existent for
according to their principles, the accidents cannot be separated from
their essences. So this has compelled them to regard creation as
pertaining to the existent things and not for it. Then they may be
asked; if creation implies the non-existence of a thing, with what
is the act of the agent connected, for, according to them, there is
no mean between existence and non-existence. If this be so, and,
according to them, the action of the agent is connected neither with
non-existence, nor with that which is and nevertheless brings about an
existence, it must be connected with a middle substance. This doubt
has compelled the Mutazilites to say that there is a substance, even
in non-existence, which they call Matter or First Element. They should
admit that that which is non-existent can be made existent by action.
Both of these sects must also admit the existence of a void. These are
questions, which as you see, cannot be solved by dogmatics. Thus, it
is clear that such a method cannot be made a basis of the knowledge
of God, especially for the masses. We will shortly describe a clearer
method of knowing God.
Now as to the second premise, according to which it is said that all
the accidents are created things:--This is a premise concerning which
there are doubts, and its meaning is as hidden as the soul in a body.
For we have observed many bodies to be created and such is also the
case with some accidents. So there is no difference in transferring
an observed object to the invisible, in both the cases. For if it is
necessary, with regard to accidents, to apply what applies of the
visible things to the invisible, that is, if we should suppose a thing
which we have not seen, so created, by the analogy of that which we
have observed, then we should also apply it to the essences. Thus we
can become quite careless of proving the creation of accidents, as
distinct from that of essences. The creation of the accidents of the
heavenly bodies is extremely doubtful to the observer just as there is
doubt in their essential creation. For the creation of their accidents
is never perceived. So it is necessary that we should clearly observe
them. This is the method which surely and certainly leads pious people
to the knowledge of God. This is the method of the chosen men, and that
with which God has particularly blessed the prophet Abraham. He says:
“And thus did We show unto Abraham the kingdom of heaven and earth,
that he might become of those who firmly believe.”[29] For the whole
doubt concerns the heavenly bodies themselves. Many controversialists
have stopped here and believed that these are so many gods.
Again, time is one of the accidents, the creation of which it is
impossible to imagine, for it is necessary that the non-existence of
a thing be preceded by time. But in this case it cannot be imagined
that the non-existence of a thing can be preceded by itself, except
by accepting time as existent. So also it is difficult to imagine the
creation of the space in which the universe is, for every existent
thing occupies a former space. For if it is a void, as is the opinion
of those who think that the void itself is space, its creation also,
if we suppose it to be created, must been have preceded by another
void. And if the space be a tangible body, as is the opinion of another
group, then it should be contained in another body, which would require
another, and so on without limit. These are all obscure problems
and the arguments which are brought to disprove the eternity of the
accidents, are necessary for one who believes in the eternity of those
accidents which can be perceived; that is, one who asserts that not all
the accidents are created. For they say that the accidents which can be
perceived by the senses are created things. If they are not created,
then they will move from one place to another, or will be latent in the
place in which they are to appear, before they make their appearance.
Then they disprove both of these arguments, and think that they have
established that all the accidents are created things. But it has
become apparent from what they have said, that the apparently created
portions of the accidents are created, not those whose creation is not
apparent, nor those in whose case there is doubt, such as the accidents
which are in the heavenly bodies, in their movement, in their shape,
etc., etc. So their arguments about the creation of all accidents, can
be interpreted by the analogy of the visible to the invisible. This
is an exhortative argument, except in the suggestion of reasonable
arguments which depend here on the certainty of the similarity of the
character of the visible and the invisible.
The third premise which says, that that which cannot be separated
from a created thing is itself created, is equivocal, for it can be
understood in two ways: the thing which cannot be separated from the
class of created things, but can be removed from its units; and that
which cannot be separated from any one of the things in question, as if
one were to say, “That which cannot be separated from this blackness
in question.” The second meaning is the correct one, that is it cannot
be separated from a certain accident, which is created, for it is
absolutely necessary that it should also be a created thing. For if it
be eternal it becomes devoid of that accident, from which we suppose
that it cannot separate. This separation is impossible. The first
explanation, and that is which they mean, does not necessarily involve
the creation of place, that is, that which is not separated from the
class of created things. For it is possible to imagine a single place,
that is, a body upon which follow accidents without limit, either
opposed to one another or otherwise, as you were to say, movements
without limit. Such is the opinion of many ancient philosophers about
the universe, that it is made little by little. This is why, when
the Mutakallimun saw the weakness of this premise, they resolved to
make it strong and secure, by making it clear, that according to
them, limitless accidents cannot follow upon a single point. For they
maintain that on this occasion it is necessary that there cannot be
found any other accident, except that there be an unlimited number of
accidents before it at the place in question. This helps them to the
impossibility of their presence, for it is necessary that it should
not be there, except after the completion of an unlimited number. As
the limitless never ends, it follows that the thing which we have
supposed should not be there. For instance, consider the movement
of the heavenly bodies, as we know them today. If there were before
it limitless movements, then it is inevitable that this particular
movement should not occur. They give the example of a man, who said
to another, “I will not give you this dinar, till I have given you
before it a limitless number of dinars.” By this it is not possible
for him to give the dinar in question at all. But this example is not
a correct one. For in it there is a primary object, then a limit, and
then another object between them, which is without limit. For he has
said it in a limited time. So he has stipulated that he would give the
dinar between the time in which he is, and the time of which he speaks,
between which there is a time without limit. This is the period in
which he would give him the dinars without limit, which is impossible.
So it is quite clear that this example does not illustrate the object
for which it is given. Their opinion that the existence of a thing
which is found after limitless things, is impossible, is not correct
in all the cases. For the things which happen one after another are of
two kinds: those which come to pass in cycles, and those which occur in
order and arrangement. The things which occur in cycles are necessarily
unlimited, except that something may interfere to prevent them. For
instance if the sun rises there must be its setting; if there is a
setting then it must rise, and if it rise it must have risen before.
In the same way, if there are clouds there must be vapours rising from
the earth; if there rise vapours from the earth, then it must be wet,
if the earth is wet, there must have been rain, and if there was rain
there must have been clouds, and if thus there were clouds there must
similarly have been clouds before them. Again among those things which
happen by order, is, for instance, the creation of man from man, and of
that man from another. If this happens by essence then it can be taken
as limitless, for which the first link is not found, the last also
cannot be ascertained. If this is by accident, as for instance, if man
be really made by some one other than man, who must be his father, then
the position of his father would be the same as that of an instrument
in the hands of a maker. So it is not possible to find an agent doing
limitless actions, with countless different instruments. All these
views are not clear in this connection. We have mentioned them here,
that it may become known, that the arguments which these people advance
are no arguments at all, nor are they reasonings fit for the masses,
that is, open and clear arguments which God has imposed upon all his
creatures for the sake of belief. It must now have become clear to you
that this method is neither philosophical nor according to Law.
The other method is that which Abul Maali has deduced and described
in one of his tractates known as _Nizamiyyah_. He has based it upon
two premises: in the first place, that the universe and all that it
contains may be conceived as other than what it really is. It may be
quite consistent, for instance, if it may be imagined smaller than it
is, or bigger, or of some other shape than it really has or having more
bodies in number than it really contains or the movements which are
made in it may go in the opposite direction from that which they take
now. This may be so much so that it may become possible that a stone
should go upwards, and fire downwards, or that the movement starting
in the east should start in the west, or the western from the eastern.
The second premise is that every transient thing is created, and for it
there is a creator; that is, an agent who made it in this way better
than in any other.
The first premise is exhortative and very elementary. Its fallacy
is quite apparent with regard to some aspects of the universe--for
instance, the existence of man in some other form than he now
possesses; while in some others there is doubt--for instance, whether
the movement from the east might change to one from the west and _vice
versa_, for this is not known in itself. It is possible that for this
there may be a cause the existence of which is not evident, or it may
be one of those causes which are hidden from man. It is possible that
whatever of these things a man sees, is like one seeing for the first
time things of the manufacture of which he is ignorant. For such a
man may think that all or parts of the thing may possibly be made in
just the opposite fashion from that in which they really are made; and
still in spite of this idea the same work may be obtained from them
for which they were made. In this case there would be no art in them.
But its maker, and one who is associated with the maker in some of
his knowledge, know that the whole thing is just the opposite of what
that man has seen; and that there is nothing in it but that which is
absolutely necessary, or the existence of which makes it more perfect
and complete, though outwardly it may not seem quite necessary in it.
It is quite clear that this manufactured thing, may in this connection,
be taken as an illustration of God’s Creation--praised be its Great
Creator.
This premise in being exhortative might be fit for all, but being
untrue and falsifying the wisdom of the Creator, is not fit for any.
It falsifies philosophy, because philosophy is nothing else but the
knowledge of the causes of things. If there be no necessary causes for
a thing, which make its existence necessary in the form in which it
exists, then there is no particular knowledge which may be attributed
to the wise Creator. Just as if there had not been some necessary
causes for the existence of any manufactured thing, there would have
been no art at all, and no wisdom by which its maker might be praised,
and which might not be found in any man other than the maker. Where
would be found any wisdom in a man, if he could perform all his actions
by any member of his body, or without any member at all, so much
so that he could see with his ears, as he could see with his eyes,
or smell with his eyes as he could with his nose. This is all only
falsifying philosophy, and the meaning for which God has called himself
Wise (_Hakim_)--High and Holy be his name from such imputations. We find
that Avicenna has also adopted this doctrine, for many reasons. He says
that everything, except the maker, when taken by itself, may either
be possible or allowable. Of the latter--that is, things allowable,
there are two kinds: One is allowable as regards its maker, the
other is necessary as regards the maker; and possible as regards its
essence. The only thing which is necessary, according to all reasons,
is the first maker. This opinion is extremely incorrect. Because that
which is possible in itself and its essence, will not possibly turn a
necessity beyond its maker, but by a change of the possible nature into
a necessary one. If it be said that by these words he means “Possible
with regard to itself”, that is, when the maker arises it will rise
also, then we would say that this rising is impossible. But this is
not the place to discuss the matter with this man. We ventured to talk
of him, because of the many views which he has invented. Now we would
return to our former theme. The second premise, which says that every
transient thing is created, is not in itself obvious. The philosophers
have differed about it. Plato allows that the apparently transient
thing may be eternal, while Aristotle denies it. It is a very intricate
matter, and cannot be made clear except to the philosophers, that is,
learned men, whom God has set apart for His knowledge, and has in His
Book, coupled their witness with that of Himself and His angels.
Abul Maali has tried to make the premise clear by some other premises.
First, that there should be something unique in every transient thing,
which may make it more preferable by one of the two qualities. Second,
that this particular thing cannot be any other than that intended.
Third, that the thing which exists by intention is created. Then he
says that a transient thing comes into existence by our intention,
that is it is produced by previous volition. For all the actions are
performed either by nature or by intention. And nature is not one of
the passing things which are alike, that is, it not only creates the
dissimilar but does the both. For instance, sea-anemone will absorb
the yellow lob in the right side of the body and not in the left.
But intention is the thing which is particularly applicable to a
thing opposed to its like. Then he adds that the universe is like its
creation and exists in the position in the atmosphere where it was
made. By the void he means another void in which the world was made. So
he concluded that the universe was made by intention. The premise which
says that it is intention which fixes the shape of a thing, is correct,
but that universe is surrounded by a void is wrong, or at least not
clear. Then again according to their notions, his act of placing the
void is bad. That is, it must be eternal, otherwise it would require
another void for it. The premise saying that in this connection
intention is nothing but a created thing is not clear. For the
intention of an action is connected with the desired act itself, for it
is one of its adjuncts. And it is clear that when one adjunct is found
with the action the other must be there, for example the father and the
son. If one be found potentially the other must also be so. Hence if
the intention of the action is created, then necessarily the desired
act must also be created. If the intention of the action be eternal,
then the thing desired by that action must also be eternal. The
intention which precedes the intended object, is said to be a potential
intention only; that is, the intention which has not yet brought its
intended object into being. This is quite clear, for when the intended
object has appeared, then it becomes an existent thing, which it was
not before the appearance of the intended object in action. When this
becomes the cause of the creation of an intended thing, only by means
of action, then, if the Mutakallimun assert that intention is created,
it becomes clear that the intended object must also be created. From
the Law it is clear that there is no need to go so deeply into the
problem as far as the masses are concerned. So it has not mentioned any
eternal or created intention, but has only said that it exists and the
things are created. So God says:--“Verily, Our speech upon anything
when We will the same is, that We only say unto it, Be; and it is.”[30]
This has been so because the masses cannot understand the idea of
created things from an eternal intention. But the fact is that the Law
has not mentioned whether the intention is created or eternal, this
being a doubtful thing for many people. The Mutakallimun have also no
certain argument to advance for providing the possibility of a created
intention for creation. For the principle with which they maintain
their position for negating the existence of intention as eternal, is
the premise which we have already mentioned, that is, the thing which
cannot be separated from the created thing is itself created. We will
mention this again when talking of intention.
From the foregoing it has become clear that the well-known methods
adopted by Asharites for the knowledge of God are certain neither
philosophical, nor by Law. This would be quite clear to anyone who
would look closely into the kind of arguments advanced in the Divine
Book about the knowledge of the existence of the Creator. For if you
look closely into this matter you will find that the arguments comprise
both qualities, those of being certain and at the same time clear,
without being complex, that is, they have few premises.
As to the Sufis their method in theorising is not a philosophical
method--that is, made up of a number of premises, and syllogisms.
They maintain that the knowledge of God, or of anything existent,
is found in our own hearts, after its detachment from all physical
desires, and concentration of mind upon the desired object. In support
of their principle they bring many an argument from the exoteric side
of Law. For instance they quote the Divine words, “And fear God, and
God will instruct you,”[31] and, “Whoever do their best endeavour to
prompt our true religion, We will direct them unto Our ways;”[32] and
again, “If ye fear God, He will grant you a distinction,”[33] and
many other verses of this kind which are considered to be helpful for
their purpose. We say that this method, if we suppose it to be real,
is not meant for all people. Had this method been satisfactory for all
people then the philosophical method would have been quite futile, and
its existence among the people would have been useless, and with it
the existence of the Quran. For that always invites us to theorising,
judging, and admonishing by way of philosophy. We of course do not
deny that the control of physical desires is a condition for healthy
thinking, as physical health is one of its conditions. For the control
of desires is profitable in acquiring knowledge by itself, if it be
made a condition for it, just as health is a condition for education,
though it is not very useful for it. That is why our Law has invited
all of us to this method and has insisted upon it, that is, for work,
not that it is sufficient in itself, as these people think, but that
it is useful for thinking as we have already described. This would be
quite clear to any one who cares to ponder and think over it.
As to the Mutazilites--their books have not reached us in sufficient
number in this Peninsula (Spain) that we may be able to form a fair
estimate of the method which they have adopted in this matter. But it
seems that their methods are like those of the Asharites.
If now that it is clear that none of these methods are in accordance
with that by which the Law invites all the people, according to the
difference in their dispositions, to a confession of the existence
of God, it may be asked: What is that method which the Law has
laid down in the Divine Book, and upon which the Companions of the
Prophet depended? We would say that the method which the Divine Book
has adopted, and by which it has invited all to believe, is, when
thoroughly investigated from the Quran, dependent upon two principles.
The one is a knowledge of God’s solicitude for man, and the creation of
everything for his sake. We would call this the argument of solicitude.
The second is the creation of the essences of the existent things, as
for example, the creation of life in the minerals, and feeling and
intelligence. We would call this method the “argument of creation.”
The first method is founded upon two principles: first that all the
existent things suit man; secondly, that this suitability must have
existed in the mind of the Maker before He intended to make the object
in question, for it cannot be obtained by chance alone. Now their
suitability for the existence of man can be easily ascertained by the
suitability of day and night, sun and moon, for the existence of man.
Such is also the case with the suitability of the four seasons, and of
the place in which he lives, that is, the earth. It is also apparent
with respect to animals, vegetables, and minerals; and many other
things, such as rain, rivers, seas, the whole of the earth, water,
fire and air. It is also evident from the different members of his
body, on account of their suitability for the preservation of his life
and existence. On the whole, a knowledge of the benefit derived from
all the existent things may be included in it. So it is necessary for
a man who wants to know God perfectly, to investigate the benefits
derived from existent things. In the argument of creation is included
the existence of the animal world, the plant world, and the heavens.
This method is again based upon two principles, which can be found out
by every man by his very nature. The one is that all things have been
made and created. This is quite clear in itself, in the case of animals
and plants, as God has said, “Verily the idols which ye invoke, beside
God, can never create a single fly, though they may all assemble for
that purpose.”[34] We see an inorganic substance and then there is life
in it. So we know for certain, that there is an inventor and bestower
of life, and He is God. Of the heavens we know by their movements,
which never become slackened, that they work for our benefit by divine
solicitude, and are subordinate to our welfare. Such an appointed and
subordinate object is always created for some purpose. The second
principle is that for every created thing there is a creator. So it is
right to say from the two foregoing principles that for every existent
thing there is an inventor. There are many arguments, according to
the number of the created things, which can be advanced to prove this
premise. Thus it is necessary for one who wants to know God as He
ought to be known, to acquaint himself with the essence of things, so
that he may get information about the creation of all things. For who
cannot understand the real substance and purpose of a thing, cannot
understand the minor meaning of its creation. It is to this that God
refers in the following verse, “Or do they not contemplate the heaven
and the earth, and the things which God has created?”[35] And so a
man who would follow the purpose of philosophy in investigating the
existence of things, that is, would try to know the cause which led to
its creation, and the purpose of it would know the argument of kindness
most perfectly. These two arguments are those adopted by Law.
The verses of the Quran leading to a knowledge of the existence of God
are dependent only on the two foregoing arguments. It will be quite
clear to anyone who will examine closely the verses, which occur in the
Divine Book in this connection. These, when investigated, will be found
to be of three kinds: either they are verses showing the “arguments of
kindness,” or those mentioning the “arguments of creation,” or those
which include both the kinds of arguments. The following verses may
be taken as illustrating the argument of kindness. “Have we not made
the earth for a bed, and the mountains for stakes to find the same?
And have we not created you of two sexes; and appointed your sleep
for rest; and made the night a garment to cover you; and destined the
day to the gaining of your livelihood and built over you seven solid
heavens; and placed therein a burning lamp? And do we not send down
from the clouds pressing forth rain, water pouring down in abundance,
that we may thereby produce corn, and herbs, and gardens planted thick
with trees?”[36] and, “Blessed be He Who hath placed the twelve signs
in the heavens; hath placed therein a lamp by day, and the moon which
shineth by night;”[37] and again, “Let man consider his food.”[38]
The following verses refer to the argument of invention, “Let man
consider, therefore of what he is created. He is created of the seed
poured forth, issuing from the loins, and the breast bones;”[39] and,
“Do they not consider the camels, how they are created; the heaven,
how it is raised; the mountains, how they are fixed; the earth how it
is extended;”[40] and again, “O man, a parable is propounded unto you;
wherefore hearken unto it. Verily the idols which they invoke, besides
God, can never create a single fly, though they may all assemble for
the purpose.”[41] Then we may point to the story of Abraham, referred
to in the following verse, “I direct my face unto Him Who hath created
heaven and earth; I am orthodox, and not of the idolators.”[42] There
may be quoted many verses referring to this argument. The verses
comprising both the arguments are also many, for instance, “O men,
of Mecca, serve your Lord, Who has created you, and those who have
been before you: peradventure you will fear Him; Who hath spread the
earth as a bed for you, and the heaven as a covering, and hath caused
water to descend from heaven, and thereby produced fruits for your
sustenance. Set not up, therefore, any equals unto God, against your
own knowledge.”[43] His words, “Who hath created you, and those who
have been before you,” lead us to the argument of creation; while the
words, “who has spread the earth” refer to the argument of divine
solicitude for man. Of this kind also are the following verses of the
Quran, “One sign of the resurrection unto them is the dead earth; We
quicken the same by rain, and produce therefrom, various sorts of
grain, of which they eat;”[44] and, “Now in the creation of heaven and
earth, and the vicissitudes of night and day are signs unto those who
are endowed with understanding, who remember God standing, and sitting,
and lying on their sides; _and meditate on the creation of heaven and
earth, saying O Lord, Thou hast not created this in vain, far be it
from Thee, therefore deliver us from the torment of hell fire_.”[45]
Many verses of this kind comprise both the kinds of arguments.
This method is the right path by which God has invited men to a
knowledge of His existence, and informed them of it through the
intelligence which He has implanted in their nature. The following
verse refers to this fixed and innate nature of man, “And when the
Lord drew forth their posterity from the loins of the sons of Adam,
and took them witness against themselves, Am I not your Lord? They
answered, Yea, we do bear witness.”[46] So it is incumbent for one who
intends to obey God, and follow the injunction of His Prophet, that
he should adopt this method, thus making himself one of those learned
men who bear witness to the divinity of God, with His own witness, and
that of His angels, as He says, “God hath borne witness, that there is
no God but He, and the angels, and those who are endowed with wisdom
profess the same; who executeth righteousness; there is no God but He;
the Mighty, the Wise.”[47] Among the arguments for both of themselves
is the praise which God refers to in the following verse, “Neither is
there any thing which doth not celebrate his praise; but ye understand
not their celebration thereof.”[48]
It is evident from the above arguments for the existence of God that
they are dependent upon two categories of reasoning. It is also clear
that both of these methods are meant for particular people; that is,
the learned. Now as to the method for the masses. The difference
between the two lies only in details. The masses cannot understand the
two above mentioned arguments but only what they can grasp by their
senses; while the learned men can go further, and learn by reasoning
also, besides learning by sense. They have gone so far that a learned
man has said, that the benefits the learned men derive from the
knowledge of the members of human and animal body are a thousand and
one. If this be so, then this is the method which is taught both by
Law and by Nature. It is the method which was preached by the Prophet
and the divine books. The learned men do not mention these two lines
of reasonings to the masses, not because of their number, but because
of a want of depth of learning on their part about the knowledge of a
single thing only. The example of the common people, considering and
pondering over the universe, is like a man who looks into a thing, the
manufacture of which he does not know. For all that such a man can know
about it is that it has been made, and that there must be a maker of
it. But, on the other hand the learned look into the universe, just as
a man knowing the art would do; try to understand the real purpose of
it. So it is quite clear that their knowledge about the Maker, as the
maker of the universe, would be far better than that of the man who
only knows it as made. The atheists, who deny the Creator altogether,
are like men who can see and feel the created things, but would not
acknowledge any Creator for them, but would attribute all to chance
alone, and that they come into being by themselves.