Once issued from the Red Sea and arrived_Climate and Health in Hot Countries and the Outlines of Tropical Climatology A Popular Treatise on Personal Hygiene in the Hotter Parts of the World, and on the Climates That Will Be Met Within Them.

begin to improve, as although the thermometer may show but little

difference from the conditions left behind in the Red Sea, it is at once

felt that the heat is of quite a different kind, and that it is not, as

Gilbert’s heroine would describe it, “such a stuffy class of death.”

There is nearly always a fresh sea breeze, and for several months of the

year the climate is much less oppressive than that of Bombay, especially

in the spring. Strange as it may appear to those who have only seen the

grim fortress from the sea, Aden seems to have a queer fascination about

it, and is generally rather liked than otherwise, many preferring to

serve there to remaining in Bombay.

_THE ASIATIC CONTINENT._--Owing to the fact that the distinction between

Europe and Asia is a purely geographical convention, and that the area

of the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean is of too small an area to

exercise any marked influence, we find that once the Syrian shore is

left behind we are at once under typical intra-continental weather

conditions, with a wide range of temperature, and a rainfall either

small or almost non-existent. Speaking generally, these arid conditions

prevail over the whole of south-western Asia, from the coast of

Palestine till we have crossed the five waters of the Punjab, and within

these limits there are many places that can put the maximum thermometers

of even Omdurman and Suakim to shame.

The scanty rainfall is almost confined to the hills, so that cultivation

in the lower lands depends more or less completely on irrigation from

the rivers that have their origin in the mountain masses, which attract

to their peaks the lion’s share of the little moisture obtainable. On

this account the greater part of western tropical Asia is desert, but in

spite of this under-irrigation, Mesopotamia was once the granary of the

world, and might still, under a more enlightened government, soon regain

her position.

_Palestine._--On account of its petty area, the whole of Palestine must

be considered as a part of the Mediterranean littoral, and hence enjoys

a moderate rainfall, which, combined with almost continuous sunshine,

without really excessive heat at any period of the year, renders the

enthusiasm with which this little land is described by the sacred

writers easily understood.

The following table will give some idea of the amount and distribution

of the rainfall:--

=========+===========+===========+===========+===========+===========

---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----

Latitude | 31° 47′ N.| 26° 38′ N.| 32° 4′ N. | 33° 54′ N.| 37° 20′ N.

---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----

Scale | Ins.|~Mm.~| Ins.|~Mm.~| Ins.|~Mm.~| Ins.|~Mm.~| Ins.|~Mm.~

---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----

January | 6·30|~160~| 4·14|~105~| 5·71|~145~| 7·40|~188~| 3·47| ~88~

February | 5·75|~146~| 2·95| ~75~| 3·63| ~92~| 6·03|~153~| 3·08| ~78~

March | 3·58| ~91~| 3·35| ~85~| 1·46| ~37~| 3·89| ~98~| 0·93| ~24~

April | 1·73| ~44~| 1·78| ~45~| 1·08| ~27~| 2·32| ~59~| 0·78| ~20~

May | 0·29| ~7~| 1·26| ~32~| 0·28| ~7~| 0·55| ~14~| 0 | ~0~

June | 0 | ~0~| 0·49| ~12~| 0·18| ~2~| 0·28| ~7~| 0 | ~0~

July | 0 | ~0~| 0·19| ~5~| 0 | ~0~| 0·03| ~1~| 0 | ~0~

August | 0 | ~0~| 0·12| ~3~| 0·04| ~1~| 0·03| ~1~| 0 | ~0~

September| 0·04| ~1~| 0·90| ~23~| 0·04| ~1~| 0·28| ~7~| 0 | ~0~

October | 0·39| ~10~| 1·79| ~43~| 0·68| ~17~| 1·93| ~49~| 0 | ~0~

November | 2·04| ~52~| 4·25|~108~| 3·32| ~84~| 5·39|~137~| 1·03| ~26~

December | 5·35|~136~| 4·41|~112~| 5·39|~137~| 7·40|~188~| 3·70| ~94~

---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----

Year |25·48|~647~|25·59|~650~|21·66|~550~|35·59|~904~|11·2 |~283~

=========+===========+===========+===========+===========+===========

At Jerusalem the annual extremes of temperature are from 101·7° F.

(38·7° C.) to just above freezing point, while on the sea-coast the

range of climate is rather less marked.

The following table, adapted, like the preceding, from Hann, epitomises

most of the necessary temperature data:--

=========+===========+============+===========+===========+

| | | | |

+-----+-----+-----+------+----+------+----+------+

| Ft. | ~M.~| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ |

---------+-----+-----+-----+------+----+------+----+------+

Jerusalem|2,510|~765~|47·3 | ~8·4~|59·9|~15·5~|75·7|~24·3~|

Smyrna | -- | -- |45·5 | ~7·5~|56·8|~13·8~|79·5|~26·4~|

Jaffa | 50| ~15~|54·0 |~12·2~|68·4|~20·2~|83·5|~28·6~|

Beirut | 115| ~35~|55·5 |~13·0~|65·2|~18·4~|81·5|~27·5~|

Damascus |2,380|~725~|45·0 | ~7·2~|58·7|~14·8~|80.0|~26·7~|

Mosul | 400|~120~|44·7 | ~7·0~|59·7|~15·4~|93.5|~34·2~|

=========+=====+=====+=====+======+====+======+====+======+

=========+===========+===========+===========+===========

| | | | Annual

| Elevation | October | Annual | Range of

Place | above Sea | Mean | Mean |Temperature

+-----+-----+----+------+----+------+----+------

| Ft. | ~M.~| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~

---------+-----+-----+----+------+----+------+----+------

Jerusalem|2,510|~765~|68·7|~20·5~|62·9|~17·1~|67·3|~38·5~

Smyrna | -- | -- |65·4|~18·5~|61·7|~16·5~|79·2|~44·0~

Jaffa | 50| ~15~|78·8|~26·0~|70·2|~21·2~| -- | --

Beirut | 115| ~35~|75·2|~24·0~|68·7|~20·4~|56·1|~31·2~

Damascus |2,380|~725~|67·0|~19·4~|63·4|~17·4~| -- | --

Mosul | 400|~120~|72·3|~22·4~|68·2|~20·1~| -- | --

=========+=====+=====+====+======+====+======+====+======

Between the cultivations of Syria and Mesopotamia there stretches a wide

extent of desert country of which, as yet, but little is known, as it is

even now, not altogether too safe a land to travel in.

In the upper part of the Euphrates valley, at Mosul, which, to save

space, is included in the two above tables, the climate, though hotter

in summer, does not differ to any great extent from that of Palestine.

The rainfall is, however, very much smaller and absolutely confined to

the winter.

Of the lower and better known part of the valley; once the granary of

the world, and even now a rich country; the climate of Bagdad, lat.

_circa_ 33° 30′ N., in Turkish Arabia, may serve as a specimen.

=========+============+===========+======+============

Month | Mean | Mean | Rela-| Rainfall

| Maximum | Minimum | tive |

| Temperature|Temperature|Humid-|

+-----+------+----+------+ ity +----+-------

| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | % |Ins.|~Mm.~

---------+-----+------+----+------+------+----+-------

January | 63·3|~17·3~|39·9| ~4·4~| 84 |1·59|~40·5~

February | 65·6|~18·6~|40·3| ~4·6~| 76 |2·49|~63·0~

March | 74·7|~23·8~|47·1| ~8·4~| 62 |1·93|~49·3~

April | 80·9|~27·0~|54·4|~12·4~| 52 |1·19|~30·3~

May | 90·6|~32·5~|67·3|~19·6~| 42 |0·21| ~5·2~

June |103·2|~39·5~|76·3|~24·6~| 35 |0 | ~0~

July |106·8|~41·6~|78·8|~25·9~| 33 |0 | ~0~

August |107·8|~42·1~|78·2|~25·7~| 32 |0·13| ~3·2~

September|100·8|~38·2~|71·1|~21·8~| 37 |0 | ~0~

October | 91·3|~33·0~|62·2|~16·8~| 52 |0·10| ~2·5~

November | 76·6|~24·7~|50·0|~10·0~| 74 |1·03|~26·6~

December | 64·3|~17·9~|43·0| ~6·1~| 81 |1·16|~29·5~

=========+=====+======+====+======+======+====+=======

The intense heat and dryness of the summer months are very noticeable,

but the locality does not suffer from hot nights to the same extent as

parts of Northern India.

_Persian Gulf._--The delights of service in this inland sea are only too

well known to most of H.M.’s Indian Marine, and to many naval officers,

but it must be remembered that although the climate presents much

resemblance to that of the Red Sea, the Gulf corresponds to the northern

end of those unpleasant waters, and that in winter the climate is

further tempered by breezes from the high Persian plateau, so that in

the cold weather it would be difficult to choose a more pleasant scene

for a yachting cruise, coral reefs and Arabs permitting, and it is only

from the middle of June to that of October that anything like the

stew-pan of the southern Red Sea is met with. This, combined with the

circumstance that the passage of the Gulf should only last half as long

as that of the Red Sea, is one of the strongest arguments in favour of

the adoption of the Euphrates valley as a rapid route of communication

with the East. The climate may best be realised by an inspection of the

climatic table for Bushire, which is included in the following brief

note on the climate of Persia.

Persia is continental and sub-tropical in geographical position, but

does not, as a matter of fact, for the most part, properly come under

the category of hot climates, as, with the exception of “the

Dashtistan,” or narrow belt of recently upheaved coral forming the

northern shore of the Gulf, the whole country is a mountainous mass, the

lowest portions of which are sufficiently elevated to bring them, from

the point of view of climate, within the temperate zone. For practical

purposes the country is absolutely without roads, the tracks that

connect the various towns being merely made by the constant passage of

travellers without any assistance whatever from art, and was probably a

good deal more “advanced” two thousand years ago than it is now. On this

account travelling is a very slow business, and any one proposing to

visit the country must necessarily be prepared for a somewhat extended

stay. As all routes cross over a succession of passes which often

closely approach the snow-line, intending visitors should bring not

merely clothes suitable for an English winter, but some fur-lined

garment, such as is used by an automobilist, only slit behind so as to

be wearable when mounted, as any one unprovided with a semi-arctic

outfit may have to endure a good deal of suffering in surmounting the

passes even during the summer.

Properly provided, however, travel in Persia offers many attractions, as

the people are a pleasant, intelligent race, who make excellent camp

servants in any capacity but as cooks, for which an Indian servant is

better suited if obtainable. They are often spoken of as “the French of

the East,” and there is no doubt a good deal of justification for the

parallel, but, however this may be, they are not at present likely to

produce an Oriental Soyer.

The Dashtistan is simply an emerged portion of the coral bed of the

Persian Gulf, and the abominable character of its climate goes far to

counterpoise the bright, temperate weather of the rest of the country.

It is often no more than 20 miles or less wide, and is badly off for

fresh water, most of the wells being brackish. Even here, the cold

weather is extremely pleasant, so that one is glad to sit over a big

coal fire in February in rooms not directly warmed by the sun, and there

is nothing much to complain of till early June--the earlier hot months

being rendered quite endurable by strong breezes which make punkahs

quite needless. This, however, is succeeded by a period of intense,

damp, breathless heat, entirely unassuaged by a drop of rain, which

requires to be endured to be thoroughly appreciated.

The climax of discomfort is attained somewhere about the middle of

August, but it is well on in October before any very decided improvement

sets in, the hot weather being thus prolonged far on into the autumn.

Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that cases of heat

apoplexy are far from uncommon, but fortunately there is comparatively

little malaria, though digestive disturbances arising from the

brackishness of drinking water are naturally rather common. There is

nothing like the proportion of cases of eye diseases that is to be met

with in Egypt, but the intense glare and the sparseness of the

vegetation make the use of neutral-tinted spectacles very advisable.

The following table of the temperature and rainfall of Bushire (Abusher)

will serve as a sufficient example of the climate of the Dashtistan

generally:--

=========+===========+===========+======+=============

Month | Mean | Mean | Rela-| Rainfall

| Maximum | Minimum | tive |

|Temperature|Temperature|Humid-|

+----+------+----+------+ ity +----+--------

| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | % |Ins.| ~Mm.~

---------+----+------+----+------+------+----+--------

January |65·2|~18·4~|52·0|~11·1~| 79 |3·39| ~86·2~

February |66·0|~18·9~|52·5|~11·4~| 80 |2·51| ~63·7~

March |72·6|~22·5~|58·2|~14·5~| 72 |0·87| ~21·7~

April |84·6|~29·3~|66·1|~18·9~| 61 |0·58| ~15·1~

May |89·8|~32·0~|75·3|~24·1~| 60 |0·02| ~0·5~

June |92·2|~33·4~|80·3|~26·8~| 61 |0 | ~0~

July |95·5|~35·3~|84·0|~28·9~| 65 |0 | ~0~

August |96·5|~35·8~|83·6|~28·7~| 64 |0 | ~0~

September|94·2|~34·5~|78·8|~26·0~| 65 |0 | ~0~

October |87·9|~31·0~|70·7|~21·5~| 65 |0 | ~0~

November |78·0|~25·6~|62·1|~16·8~| 74 |2·16| ~54·7~

December |69·7|~20·9~|55·5|~13·1~| 73 |3·98|~101·3~

=========+====+======+====+======+======+====+========

The Dashtistan forms, however, a very small percentage of the area of

Persia, as its level plain is abruptly succeeded by the mountains,

which rise, terrace over terrace, to a height of 5,000 to 6,000 feet,

and once the plateau of Fars is reached the traveller finds himself in

surroundings which, although suffering a good deal from the scarcity of

water, have much to recommend them in the purity and dryness of the air,

and which would no doubt be thoroughly healthy under a decently sanitary

_régime_. At present the country is out of the question for purposes of

health, as one requires to be pretty “hard bitten” to get about it at

all; but assuming the introduction of the amenities of civilisation

there can be little doubt as to its suitability for the treatment of

pulmonary disorders; and even as matters stand, I cannot recall meeting

with cases of tuberculous disease amongst the natives of the country.

Owing to the very different levels, it is difficult to give any general

idea of the climate, but the climate of two of the principal towns given

below must suffice as a sufficient example.

=========++====================================++

Month || TEHERAN. ||

|| Lat. 85° 41′ N.; Long. 57° 25′ E. ||

|| E.F., 3,700; E.M., 1,130. ||

++===========+===========+============++

|| Mean | Mean | Rainfall ||

|| Maximum | Minimum | ||

||Temperature|Temperature| ||

++----+------+----+------+----+-------++

|| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ |Ins.| ~Mm.~ ||

---------++----+------+----+------+----+-------++

January ||42·3| ~5·7~|26·2|~-3·2~|1·17| ~29·6~||

February ||52·1|~11·2~|32·9|~-0·5~|0·85| ~21·6~||

March ||57·2|~14·0~|38·4| ~3·5~|2·44| ~62·1~||

April ||71·4|~21·8~|49·9| ~9·9~|0·87| ~21·7~||

May ||82·9|~28·2~|59·4|~15·2~|0·41| ~10·3~||

June ||94·4|~34·6~|67·1|~19·5~|0·04| ~1·2~||

July ||98·4|~36·8~|72·1|~22·3~|0·35| ~8·9~||

August ||96·7|~35·9~|70·7|~21·5~|0·04| ~1·2~||

September||90·7|~32·6~|64·9|~18·2~|0·11| ~2·6~||

October ||77·5|~25·3~|54·0|~12·2~|0·14| ~3·7~||

November ||61·4|~16·3~|42·2| ~5·7~|1·17| ~29·6~||

December ||57·3|~14·1~|33·9| ~0·5~|1·33| ~34·0~||

---------++----+------+----+------+----+-------++

Year ||73·0|~22·8~|57·0|~10·6~|8·92|~227·0~||

=========++====+======+====+======+====+=======++

=========++====================================

Month || ISPAHAN.

|| Lat. 32° 38′ N.; Long. 57° 40′ E.

|| E.F., 5,000; E.M., 1,530.

++===========+===========+============

|| Mean | Mean | Rainfall

|| Maximum | Minimum |

||Temperature|Temperature|

++----+------+----+------+----+-------

|| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ |Ins.| ~Mm.~

---------++----+------+----+------+----+-------

January ||46·5| ~8·1~|23·1|~-5~ |0·21| ~5.2~

February ||54·3|~12·3~|29·2|~-1·6~|0·21| ~5·2~

March ||61·0|~16·1~|36·2| ~2·3~|0·83|~20·8~

April ||73·1|~22·9~|45·7| ~7·6~|0·60|~15·2~

May ||84·1|~29·0~|54·1|~12·3~|0·10| ~2·5~

June ||94·4|~34·6~|61·9|~16·6~|0 | ~0~

July ||98·4|~36·8~|66·3|~19·1~|0·05| ~1·3~

August ||95·5|~35·3~|61·5|~16·4~|0 | ~0~

September||90·4|~32·4~|55·1|~12·9~|0 | ~0~

October ||77·4|~25·2~|44·4| ~6·9~|0·27| ~6·5~

November ||61·9|~16·6~|35·9| ~2·1~|0·84|~21·5~

December ||52·3|~11·3~|29·2|~-1·7~|0·47|~12·0~

---------++----+------+----+------+----+-------

Year ||74·1|~23·4~|45·2| ~7·3~|3·58|~90·3~

=========++====+======+====+======+====+=======

The better rainfall of Teheran is no doubt due to its proximity to the

Caspian, but in both places the climate is typically continental, both

the daily and annual ranges of temperature being very considerable.

The climate of Beluchistan resembles closely that of Persia in its

general characters, but owing to the generally lower level of the

country the temperature is necessarily higher, approaching that of the

Dashtistan.

_Arabian Peninsula._--With the exception of Muskat, which does not

differ very markedly from the other Gulf ports, we have no reliable

information as to the climate of Arabia proper, beyond the fact that it

is a hot and arid land. The climate of the southern coast is, however,

much more tolerable than that of the Persian Gulf, owing to the

influence of the south-western monsoon, during the worst months.

_India and Ceylon._--If we draw a line from Karachi, at the mouth of the

Indus, to those of the Hughli, a little south of Calcutta, it will be

found that we have divided the irregular diamond-formed outline of the

country into two triangles, the upper or northern of which may be called

the continental, and the lower the peninsular triangle. We also find

that the dividing line coincides pretty accurately with the Tropic of

Cancer, and that, therefore, all to the north of it is sub-tropical,

while in the southern triangle there is, as one travels south, an

increasingly marked tendency to a duplication of the rainy season and of

weather conditions generally, with a resulting general uniformity of

climate throughout the year, while the proximity of the sea ensures that

the daily range of temperature will be also small. North of this,

therefore, there is a distinct “cold weather,” while to the south this

pleasant climatic interlude can scarcely be said to exist. One of my

predecessors, writing at the end of the eighteenth century, in the

course of some 300 very sober pages devoted to life and habits in India,

perpetrated “with deeficulty” a single joke. He devotes a table of some

six lines to the elucidation of the subject of climate, the columns

being headed, Hot--Cold--Rainy Seasons. Opposite Madras the first column

stated, “Begins January 1, ends December 31.” From his ill-concealed

contempt of Madras and Bombay “presidencies” I am sure this old “Qui

hai” hailed from “the Bengal side,” but, prejudice apart, there is a

good deal of truth in the impeachment.

Taking first the northern or sub-tropical triangle, we find that it

presents a much greater variety of climate than can be found to the

south, for while its north-western side is intensely dry and arid, the

eastern angle of the triangle contains the wettest spot in the world.

This triangle includes, too, within its boundaries another “record,”

viz., that for extreme heat. The man who “sent back for his blankets”

resided, I believe during life, somewhere in the United States; but I

fear he must have been a person of comparatively small endurance, as in

the entire American continent there is no spot that in the matter of

heat is in the same field with Jacobabad, where 127° F. (52·8° C.) in

the shade has actually been registered, and, in fact, the whole of Scind

easily “licks creation” in this unenviable detail.

The northern triangle may be divided into three distinct climatic

regions, viz.:--

(1) The Persian frontier zone, including the Punjab, Scind and

Rajputana.

(2) The _Old_ North-west zone, containing Oudh, Rohilkhand, Benares,

&c., Behar, and a good deal of Central India.

(3) Lower Bengal, including Assam.

It must not, of course, be imagined that there is any distinct line of

demarcation between these “zones,” as each climate, of course, shades

off gradually into the next, but this division greatly facilitates

description.

The Persian frontier zone, especially in its western portion, closely

resembles Persia in climate, and gives one a very good notion of what

that country would be, were it not an elevated plateau. Excluding, of

course, from consideration the Himalayas and Suleiman Range, its highest

part, near Rawal Pindi, is only about 1,700 feet above the sea (E.M.,

530), which is too little to sensibly modify the temperature.

Along the actual north-west frontier, the rainfall is very small and the

summer heat intense. The daily range is very small at the worst time of

the year, as the arid soil gets so baked during the day that it is able

to give out an ample supply of heat to make the short night intolerable,

without having time to cool down to any appreciable extent. The few

scanty showers that occur relieve matters for a few hours only, after

which the only trace of their passage is an increased dampness of the

air, with the concomitant exacerbation of “prickly heat.” In certain

places situated in some of the confined valleys that are to be found at

the foot of the Suleiman Range, the heat, day and night, is perfectly

appalling. Unfortunately, some of these choice localities are of

administrative importance, as affording the best alignment for our

railways, and their continuous occupation by a number of unfortunate

European officials and by a native staff little better able to bear it,

is an unfortunate necessity.

In one of these pleasant spots the Anglo-Indian community are said to

save themselves from the sun during the day by sitting beneath the Club

billiard table, still wearing their solar hats, to cut off certain of

the rays that have found their way through the slate bed of the table,

and there is a good deal of foundation in fact for the “yarn,” as one

requires to have lived there to have any adequate conception of what it

is like. For seven months in the year indeed the climate is extremely

trying, but as some compensation the cold weather, which lasts a full

five months, at Peshawar in the north is most enjoyable and goes far to

brace up residents to bear the horrors of the hot season.

At Peshawar I have been glad to sit over a blazing fire all day at the

end of February, and even in Scind there are some three months of very

pleasant weather. In the Eastern Punjab there is, however, a much more

respectable rainfall, and the climate closely approaches that of the

next zone. During the cold weather the daily range of temperature is

considerable, so that if chills are to be avoided it is necessary to put

on additional clothing after sunset.

The Old North-west, so called because up to “the forties” it formed our

actual frontier, has in many ways the best climate to be found in the

plains of India, the best part of the area being undoubtedly the

Rohilkhand division. During the hot weather, it is true, the heat rivals

that of the Punjab, and one may at times have a long succession of hot

nights, but the worst is over by the middle of June, as with the

“bursting of the monsoon” comes a great and welcome relief, which in

good years is kept up through the rest of the warm weather. When,

however, a “break in the rains” of any duration occurs, the climate for

the time becomes, if anything, more trying than the contemporaneous

conditions in the Punjab. The cold weather, however, goes on for four

months, and affords one of the finest climates in the world for those

who are not enthusiasts for the miseries of ice and snow.

TABLE SHOWING THE MONTHLY RAINFALL AND MEAN TEMPERATURE OF THIRTY-ONE

INDIAN STATIONS.

===+=============+=+===========+===========+===========+===========+

| | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

| | |fall | Tem-|fall | Tem-|fall | Tem-|fall | Tem-|

| | | | per-| | per-| | per-| | per-|

| | | | a- | | a- | | a- | | a- |

---+-------------+ +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

1|Simla | | 2·35|41·5°| 2·68|41·5°| 2·24|50·7°| 1·90|59·7°|

---+-------------+ +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

2|Peshawar (N.)| | 1·77|51·7 | 0·98|53·6 | 1·70|64·2 | 1·84|73·7 |

|Lahore (Mid.)|S| 1·06|54·4 | 1·10|57·1 | 0·73|69·2 | 0·46|80·7 |

|Multan (S.) |u| 0·48|56·3 | 0·38|59·5 | 0·38|72·1 | 0·07|82·7 |

---+-------------+b+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

3|Meerut |-| 1·27|57·4 | 0·79|61·0 | 0·77|72·4 | 0·24|83·2 |

|Agra |T| 0·53|61·0 | 0·21|65·0 | 0·31|77·2 | 0·14|88·2 |

|Allahabad |r| 0·85|60·8 | 0·28|65·3 | 0·32|77·8 | 0·11|88·1 |

|Benares |o| 0·79|61·2 | 0·37|65·9 | 0·28|77·8 | 0·08|87·9 |

|Jhansi |p| 0·59|63·3 | 0·33|67·3 | 0·35|79·3 | 0·13|89·9 |

---+-------------+i+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

4|Patna |c| 0·65|61·3 | 0·53|65·3 | 0·38|77·4 | 0·26|87·0 |

|Hazaribagh |a| 0·56|61·7 | 0·82|65·8 | 0·75|76·3 | 0·41|85·2 |

---+-------------+l+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

5|Calcutta | | 0·60|66·2 | 1·38|70·7 | 1·57|80·0 | 1·74|85·5 |

|Dhubri |I| 0·40|62·5 | 0·53|66·0 | 1·93|75·6 | 4·83|79·4 |

|Sibsagar |n| 1·47|59·9 | 1·96|62·9 | 5·07|69·7 | 9·37|74·6 |

---+-------------+d+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

6|Jaipur |i| 0·69|61·1 | 0·19|63·0 | 0·39|75·4 | 0·09|84·9 |

---+-------------+a+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

7|Kurrachi |.| 0·72|66·8 | 0·31|69·4 | 0·23|76·8 | 0·33|82·2 |

---+-------------+ +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

8|Deesa | | 0·17|67·1 | 0·10|70·2 | 0·05|79·9 | 0·01|86·9 |

===+=============+=+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+

9|Khandwa | | 0·31|67·6 | 0·06|71·7 | 0·13|81·3 | 0·17|89·3 |

|Jubulpur | | 0·76|62·8 | 0·47|66·8 | 0·51|77·2 | 0·18|86·2 |

|Nagpur | | 0·55|69·2 | 0·27|74·2 | 0·61|83·1 | 0·34|90·8 |

---+-------------+T+-----+-----+----+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+

10|Bombay |r| 0·13|75·1 | 0·01|75·5 | 0·03|79·6 | 0·01|82·7 |

---+-------------+o+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

11|Hyderabad |p| 0·09|71·0 | 0·04|76·8 | 0·75|83·6 | 0·67|88·7 |

|Poona |i| 0·06|70·0 | 0·04|74·2 | 0·05|80·7 | 0·54|85·5 |

|Belgaum |c| 0·06|70·3 | 0·02|74·0 | 0·35|78·9 | 1·72|81·8 |

|Bellary |a| 0·13|76·0 | 0·04|79·5 | 0·22|86·1 | 0·58|90·4 |

|Bangalore |l| 0·19|67·9 | 0·11|72·0 | 0·54|77·3 | 1·15|81·2 |

|Trichinopoly | | 0·26|77·0 | 0·90|80·0 | 0·55|85·1 | 1·53|89·2 |

---+-------------+I+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

12|Cochin |n| 0·59|80·0 | 0·62|81·2 | 2·44|83·7 | 4·37|84·7 |

|(West Coast) |d| | | | | | | | |

|Madras |i| 0·89|76·0 | 0·28|77·2 | 0·39|80·6 | 0·62|85·1 |

|(East Coast) |a| | | | | | | | |

---+-------------+.+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

13|Rangoon | | 0·17|76·3 | 0·34|78·9 | 0·28|83·6 | 1·83|87·0 |

---+-------------+ +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

14|Mandalay | | 0·08|69·7 | 0·07|74·8 | 0·21|82·4 | 1·37|89·4 |

===+=============+=+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+

===+=============+=+===========+===========+===========+===========+

| | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

| | |fall | Tem-|fall | Tem-|fall | Tem-|fall | Tem-|

| | | | per-| | per-| | per-| | per-|

| | | | a- | | a- | | a- | | a- |

---+-------------+ +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

1|Simla | | 3·64|64·5°| 6·79|68·0°|17·55|65·0°|17·98|63·5°|

---+-------------+ +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

2|Peshawar (N.)| | 0·75|83·6 | 0·35|91·0 | 1·79|99·0 | 2·70|88·4 |

|Lahore (Mid.)|S| 1·03|87·4 | 1·84|92·7 | 6·67|89·5 | 5·83|87·4 |

|Multan (S.) |u| 0·42|90·3 | 0·59|94·5 | 2·94|93·1 | 1·58|91·1 |

---+-------------+b+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

3|Meerut |-| 0·69|88·5 | 2·44|91·1 | 9·54|86·3 |10·59|84·5 |

|Agra |T| 0·60|93·7 | 2·54|94·8 |11·50|86·6 | 7·67|84·5 |

|Allahabad |r| 0·39|22·4 | 5·69|92·6 |12·33|85·4 |11·10|84·1 |

|Benares |o| 0·72|91·6 | 5·13|91·6 |10·74|85·5 |11·83|84·3 |

|Jhansi |p| 0·49|94·9 | 4·89|93·5 |12·60|84·5 |12·50|82·6 |

---+-------------+i+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

4|Patna |c| 1·97|88·6 | 7·34|88·4 |11·75|85·1 |11·30|84·4 |

|Hazaribagh |a| 2·26|86·3 | 7·63|84·2 |14·16|79·0 |13·11|78·3 |

---+-------------+l+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

5|Calcutta | | 7·62|85·2 |10·74|85·0 |12·46|83·2 |12·95|82·6 |

|Dhubri |I|13·97|79·4 |24·53|81·0 |16·17|83·1 |13·76|82·3 |

|Sibsagar |n|12·63|78·9 |13·69|83·2 |17·10|84·5 |16·19|83·8 |

---+-------------+d+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

6|Jaipur |i| 0·45|90·9 | 2·49|91·4 | 9·37|84·4 |10·07|85·0 |

---+-------------+a+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

7|Kurrachi |.| 0·00|86·3 | 0·52|88·5 | 3·47|86·1 | 1·55|83·8 |

---+-------------+ +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

8|Deesa | | 0·25|91·8 | 2·62|91·1 |10·99|84·4 | 7·60|81·8 |

===+=============+=+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+

9|Khandwa | | 0·45|93·1 | 6·05|87·7 | 8·82|81·0 | 7·14|79·8 |

|Jubulpur | | 0·71|91·6 | 9·10|87·4 |20·80|80·1 |16·12|79·3 |

|Nagpur | | 0·80|94·9 | 8·74|87·9 |14·73|80·9 |10·25|81·0 |

---+-------------+T+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

10|Bombay |r| 0·94|85·2 |19·37|83·3 |27·17|80·7 |11·43|80·3 |

---+-------------+o+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

11|Hyderabad |p| 1·15|90·4 | 4·85|83·7 | 6·90|78·6 | 8·17|78·4 |

|Poona |i| 1·65|85·3 | 4·73|80·6 | 6·87|76·3 | 3·22|75·7 |

|Belgaum |c| 2·62|80·5 | 6·59|74·3 |15·37|71·2 | 8·74|71·2 |

|Bellary |a| 1·70|89·8 | 1·85|85·1 | 1·93|82·6 | 2·58|82·1 |

|Bangalore |l| 4·02|80·1 | 3·45|75·6 | 4·59|73·7 | 5·80|73·6 |

|Trichinopoly | | 3·04|89·7 | 1·62|88·3 | 1·50|87·1 | 4·67|86·2 |

---+-------------+I+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

12|Cochin |n|13·30|83·2 |28·41|79·5 |21·51|78·6 |13·31|78·7 |

|(West Coast) |d| | | | | | | | |

|Madras |i| 2·12|89·3 | 2·11|89·3 | 3·87|87·0 | 4·56|85·5 |

|(East Coast) |a| | | | | | | | |

---+-------------+.+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

13|Rangoon | | 9·42|84·9 |17·51|81·3 |21·68|80·3 |18·19|80·3 |

---+-------------+ +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

14|Mandalay | | 5·56|89·0 | 6·21|86·5 | 3·17|86·1 | 3·88|85·3 |

===+=============+=+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+

===+=============+=+===========+===========+===========+===========+

| | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

| | |fall | Tem-|fall | Tem-|fall | Tem-|fall | Tem-|

| | | | per-| | per-| | per-| | per-|

| | | | a- | | a- | | a- | | a- |

---+-------------+ +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

1|Simla | | 6·56|62·4°| 1·22|56·8°| 0·54|49·7°| 0·74|45·8°|

---+-------------+ +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

2|Peshawar (N.)| | 0·64|82·8 | 0·11|72·9 | 0·57|60·6 | 0·34|53·0 |

|Lahore (Mid.)|S| 2·49|84·9 | 0·26|76·6 | 0·10|63·7 | 0·38|56·1 |

|Multan (S.) |u| 0·42|88·5 | 0·00|70·9 | 0·10|67·8 | 0·20|58·6 |

---+-------------+b+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

3|Meerut |-| 5·74|83·2 | 0·42|76·4 | 0·08|65·3 | 0·32|58·6 |

|Agra |T| 4·91|84·3 | 0·47|80·4 | 0·05|60·5 | 0·19|62·1 |

|Allahabad |r| 6·05|83·8 | 1·83|78·8 | 0·17|68·2 | 0·32|61·2 |

|Benares |o| 6·59|84·2 | 2·30|79·3 | 0·36|68·7 | 0·24|61·4 |

|Jhansi |p| 6·80|83·1 | 0·70|80·5 | 0·12|70·4 | 0·13|64·3 |

---+-------------+i+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

4|Patna |c| 7·40|84·7 | 3·25|80·5 | 0·17|70·7 | 0·13|62·6 |

|Hazaribagh |a| 8·76|78·3 | 3·41|75·0 | 0·20|67·2 | 0·22|66·9 |

---+-------------+l+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

5|Calcutta | | 9·33|82·6 | 4·39|80·5 | 0·66|72·9 | 0·24|66·1 |

|Dhubri |I|13·35|81·4 | 3·50|79·0 | 0·26|71·8 | 0·10|65·3 |

|Sibsagar |n|12·22|82·6 | 4·84|78·0 | 0·98|69·1 | 0·57|61·1 |

---+-------------+d+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

6|Jaipur |i| 4·40|82·7 | 0·30|78·9 | 0·24|68·8 | 0·08|62·8 |

---+-------------+a+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

7|Kurrachi |.| 0·54|83·6 | 0·00|82·2 | 0·09|75·0 | 0·16|69·0 |

---+-------------+ +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

8|Deesa | | 4·83|83·1 | 0·35|81·5 | 0·16|75·6 | 0·06|68·6 |

===+=============+=+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+

9|Khandwa | | 7·56|80·2 | 1·73|78·0 | 0·31|70·4 | 0·56|65·3 |

|Jubulpur | | 8·77|79·9 | 2·07|75·6 | 0·50|66·6 | 0·38|60·6 |

|Nagpur | |10·13|81·2 | 2·95|78·9 | 0·90|71·8 | 0·64|66·8 |

---+-------------+T+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

10|Bombay |r|11·81|80·2 | 2·47|81·8 | 0·66|79·7 | 0·09|76·8 |

---+-------------+o+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

11|Hyderabad |p| 5·99|78·4 | 3·08|77·3 | 1·76|72·5 | 0·27|69·1 |

|Poona |i| 5·21|76·3 | 4·80|77·5 | 1·31|72·4 | 0·26|68·6 |

|Belgaum |c| 4·64|71·9 | 6·39|73·7 | 2·11|71·6 | 0·13|69·6 |

|Bellary |a| 4·09|81·7 | 4·29|80·1 | 2·13|76·0 | 0·14|73·0 |

|Bangalore |l| 4·72|73·5 | 7·15|72·9 | 3·59|70·3 | 0·55|68·1 |

|Trichinopoly | | 3·21|85·4 | 7·49|82·4 | 5·37|79·1 | 2·55|76·7 |

---+-------------+I+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

12|Cochin |n| 9·38|79·2 |14·01|80·1 | 6·77|80·6 | 1·81|80·3 |

|(West Coast) |d| | | | | | | | |

|Madras |i| 4·69|85·2 |11·00|82·1 |13·21|78·7 | 5·28|76·7 |

|(East Coast) |a| | | | | | | | |

---+-------------+.+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

13|Rangoon | |16·04|80·7 | 6·74|81·4 | 2·98|80·1 | 0·09|77·5 |

---+-------------+ +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

14|Mandalay | | 6·54|84·8 | 5·08|83·1 | 1·28|76·9 | 0·28|70·5 |

===+=============+=+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+

===+=============+=+==================================================

No.| Station | |Remarks

---+-------------+ +--------------------------------------------------

1|Simla | |Hill station, with practically temperate climate.

| | |Not malarious.

---+-------------+ +--------------------------------------------------

2|Peshawar (N.)| |Punjab Stations.--Intensely hot in summer, quite

|Lahore (Mid.)| |cold in winter; rainfall scanty. Malaria rife from

|Multan (S.) | |August to November; sometimes of a very virulent

| | |type.

---+-------------+ +--------------------------------------------------

3|Meerut |S|North-West Provinces.--Hot and dry from April to

|Agra |u|mid-June; then to September moderate rain; cool

|Allahabad |b|with bright sun, November to March. Malarious from

|Benares |-|August to November, but seldom of a severe type.

|Jhansi |T|

---+-------------+r+--------------------------------------------------

4|Patna |o|Upper Bengal.--Intermediate in climate and

|Hazaribagh |p|salubrity between N.W.P. and Lower Bengal.

---+-------------+i+--------------------------------------------------

5|Calcutta |c|Lower Bengal and Assam.--Moist, except for a few

|Dhubri |a|weeks in March and April; heavy and prolonged

|Sibsagar |l|rains, but seldom with intense heat. Malaria

| | |prolonged, and often of a severe type.

---+-------------+I+--------------------------------------------------

6|Jaipur |n|Rajputana.--Closely resembles the Southern Punjab.

---+-------------+d+--------------------------------------------------

7|Kurrachi |i|Seaport of Sind.--Waterless and desert; but

| |a|climate modified by proximity to sea.

| |.|Exceptionally little malaria previously to the

| | |introduction of a regular water supply.

---+-------------+ +--------------------------------------------------

8|Deesa | |Gujarat.--Scanty rainfall, July, August; heat of

| | |prolonged drought modified by proximity to sea.

| | |Malaria moderate, more or less throughout the

| | |year, with two maxima--in February and October

| | |respectively.

===+=============+=+==================================================

9|Khandwa | |Central India.--Prolonged dry season, intensely

|Jubulpur | |hot in May and June; rainfall moderate. Malaria

|Nagpur | |autumnal, prolonged far into cold weather, but

| | |seldom particularly virulent.

---+-------------+ +--------------------------------------------------

10|Bombay |T|Considerable rainfall, almost confined to three

| |r|months. Not very malarious.

---+-------------+o+--------------------------------------------------

11|Hyderabad |p|Southern plateau.--Scanty rainfall, but no great

|Poona |i|annual variation of temperature; intense heat of

|Belgaum |c|central region modified by sea breeze as ghauts

|Bellary |a|are approached. Malaria worst in August, prolonged

|Bangalore |l|far into cool season, but rarely of virulent type.

|Trichinopoly | |

---+-------------+I+--------------------------------------------------

12|Cochin |n|Southern littoral.--Climate uniform and moist. No

|(West Coast) |d|marked malaria-free season, but disease seldom

|Madras |i|specially severe.

|(East Coast) |a|

---+-------------+.+--------------------------------------------------

13|Rangoon | |Lower Burmah.--Resembles Indian Southern littoral

| | |in climate, but disease often of severe type.

---+-------------+ +--------------------------------------------------

14|Mandalay | |Climate resembles that of Southern Indian plateau.

| | |Malaria from June to December, worst in August;

| | |disease often of virulent type.

===+=============+=+==================================================

In the third zone, that of Bengal, the cold weather is short, but even

in Calcutta there are two months during which ordinary European clothing

becomes desirable. There is a short hot weather, relieved by a rainy

period, the “chota barsât,” about Easter, but the heat never approaches

that of the western part of the continental triangle. The rainfall is

extremely heavy towards the east, as in Assam, so that extensive floods

are common, and malaria necessarily very common and often serious.

In the northern part of the peninsular triangle we find the same

tendency to dryness in the west and moisture in the east, Khathiawar and

Surat having but moderate rainfalls, while that of Orissa is very heavy;

but in neither is either the fierce heat or bracing cold weather of the

northern triangle to be met with.

Between the two lie the “Central” Provinces, which, apart from some

favoured spots, such as Saugor and Chindwara, which have an elevation of

over 2,000 feet, undoubtedly possess one of the vilest climates in

India, or in the world. The hot, dry weather is severe and prolonged,

and towards the burst of the monsoon is combined with a moist atmosphere

without any alleviation of the heat. The writer has personally verified

in the Nerbudah valley a temperature of 105° F. (40·6° C.) at 4.30 a.m.

in the open, the observation being taken carefully with a swung Kew

thermometer.

The so-called cold weather lasts barely two months, and the only time of

the year that by any stretch of politeness can be said to be pleasant,

is that of the rains, which probably rather by force of contrast than by

virtue of any real superiority to the same season elsewhere, includes

days when the air seems really refreshing.

The entire coast and the greater part of the surface of the southern

portion of the peninsula have a warm, equable climate with a

considerable rainfall. Portions of Haidrababad and Mysore, in the

plateau of the Deccan, approach continental conditions, being somewhat

dry and arid, and occasionally visited by droughts, but the climate of

the greater part of the country is profoundly influenced by its

proximity to the great oceans that wash its coasts. In this inland

plateau the distribution of the rainfall has the further peculiarity of

being much later than elsewhere, the rainiest month in Mysore being not

July, as in most other localities throughout India, but November: this

corresponds to the second rainy season, the first rainy season being

represented by a somewhat smaller maximum in August. There is no very

marked difference between the climates of the eastern and western

coasts, though as will be seen on comparing the figures for Chochin and

Madras in the subjoined table, the monthly rainfall is somewhat

differently distributed.

COLOMBO. LAT. 6° 50′ N.; LONG. 80° 0′ E. OBSERVATORY A FEW FEET ABOVE

SEA-LEVEL.

=========+===========+===========+======+==============

Month | Mean | Mean | Rela-| Rainfall

| Monthly | Monthly | tive |

| Maxima | Minima |Humid-|

+----+------+----+------+ ity +-----+--------

| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | | Ins.| ~Mm.~

---------+----+------+----+------+------+-----+--------

January |89·8|~32·1~|72·6|~22·6~| 80 | 3·72| ~94·6~

February |91·9|~33·2~|74·4|~23·5~| 75 | 0·63| ~16·0~

March |94·0|34·4~ |75·7|~24·3~| 73 | 3·71| ~94·1~

April |90·0|~33·2~|76·2|~24·5~| 83 | 9·73|~247·5~

May |89·8|~32·1~|78·7|~25·9~| 86 |16·0 |~406·4~

June |87·4|~30·7~|78·5|~25·8~| 84 | 7·83|~199·3~

July |86·3|~30·2~|76·5|~24·7~| 84 | 6·77|~171·5~

August |87·2|~30·7~|77·3|~25·2~| 83 | 7·35|~186·7~

September|86·9|~30·5~|76·5|~24·7~| 83 | 4·00|~101·6~

October |89·1|~31·8~|75·4|~24·1~| 82 | 9·47|~241·0~

November |88·4|~31·3~|74·3|~23·4~| 80 | 9·25|~234·9~

December |85·5|~29·7~|73·1|~22·9~| 82 | 5·20|~132·1~

=========+====+======+====+======+======+=====+========

These climatic conditions are naturally found in their most typical form

on the island of Ceylon, the climatic data of which are epitomised in

the above table for the capital of the island, Colombo, which is

situated on the western coast.

The total rainfall is about 88 ins. (2,237 mm.), and the mean annual

temperature 80° F. (26·7 C.).

The bursting of the south-west monsoon, which is one of the main factors

in determining the sequence of seasons in India, takes place in Ceylon

in the latter half of May, and gradually creeps northward, reaching

Bombay early in June, and finding its way inland in the latter half of

that month. Traditionally, the 15th June is the date for the advent of

the rains in Northern India, but it is rarely that the hopes of the

anxious denizens of the broiling plains are fulfilled by its appearance

at so early a date, and the end of the month probably more nearly

approaches the average. On rare occasions the rain may not come till the

15th July, and the last month of waiting in such years is always a time

of much tedium and suffering, as the absence of precipitation does not

prevent the air from becoming saturated with moisture, which, combined

with unabated high temperature, renders the lives of all subjected to it

barely tolerable.

India is fortunately well provided with hill-stations, Bombay being the

only presidency which is badly off in this respect. There the two or

three health resorts reach an elevation of no more than from 4,000 to

5,000 ft., and are practically utilised only during the hot, dry season

preceding the burst of the monsoon. Once the rains are established the

health-seeker has to leave these stations for Poona, a large station on

the summit of the western ghauts, where, thanks to the pleasant

sea-breeze, the climate during the rains, if rather too warm for choice,

is on the whole very pleasant.

Madras possesses excellent sanatoria in the Nihilgerris, the principal

hill-station of Ootacamand, at an elevation of over 6,000 ft., being in

many respects the best of the Indian hill-stations. Owing to its

southerly position it enjoys an admirable climate all the year round,

and unlike the Himalayan stations, which are perched on steep spurs and

peaks, is situated on a wide, rolling table-land, so that it is possible

to drive about in ordinary carriages, and even to follow the hounds,

though, it must be confessed, the hunting is much more like that to be

got with the Dartmoor hounds than in “the Shires.”

TEMPERATURE TABLE OF INDIAN STATIONS EXPRESSED IN METRIC SYSTEM.

==========================+======+=====+==============+=============

Place |Eleva-| Mean| Coldest Month|Warmest Month

| tion,| An- +---------+----+--------+----

| | Tem-| |per-| |per-

| |pera-| | a- | | a-

--------------------------+------+-----+---------+----+--------+----

{ Darjeeling | 2,107| 12·2| Jan. | 5·0| July |17·2

{ Calcutta | 6| 25·4|Dec.-Jan.|18·4| May |29·5

BENGAL { Saugor Dl | 7| 25·7| Dec. |19·2| May |29·5

{ Dacca | 6| 25·4| Jan. |18·9| July |28·4

{ Chittagong | 26| 24·9| Jan. |19·1| May |27·8

| | | | | |

{ Sibsagar | 101| 19·1| Jan. |14·3| July |28·3

ASSAM { Goalpara | 118| 23·6| Jan. |17·2| July |27·2

{ Silchar | 31| 22·4| Jan. |14·3| July |28·4

| | | | | |

{ False Point | 4| 25·4| Dec. |19·2| June |28·9

OUSSA AND{ Kutták | 24| 26·7| Dec. |20·4| May |30·9

CENTRAL { Jubulpur | 404| 24·1| Dec. |15·7| May |32·7

PROVINCES{ Pachmari | 1,070| 20·9| Dec. |13·7| May |29·3

{ Nagpur | 312| 26·2| Dec. |19·3| May |34·4

{ Sironcha | 122| 27·6| Dec. |20·6| May |35·0

| | | | | |

{ Peshawar | 420| 21·7| Jan. |10·8| June |32·8

PUNJAB { Lahore | 150| 22·8| Jan. |12·2| June |33·3

{ Multán | 130| 23·9| Jan. |13·3| June |34·7

| | | | | |

UNITED { Meerut | 100| 22·8| Jan. |57·4| June |32·8

PROVINCES { Jhánsi | 200| 23·3| Jan. |63·3| June |34·2

| | | | | |

{ Bombay | 11| 26·4| Jan. |22·8| May |29·3

WESTERN { Poona | 561| 24·3| Jan. |20·2| April |29·2

PRESIDENCY{ Sholapur | 485| 26·1| Jan. |21·4| May |31·8

{ Secunderabád | 544| 25·7| Jan. |20·8| May |31·8

| | | | | |

{ Vizagapatám | 9| 28·2| Jan. |24·0| May |31·1

{ Belgaum | 769| 22·4| Jan. |20·6| April |35·9

{ Bellary | 450| 26·9| Jan. |22·5| April |31·8

{ Madras | 7| 27·7| Jan. |24·2|May-June|30·7

EASTERN { Trichinopoly | 78| 28·1| Jan. |24·6| April |31·2

PRESIDENCY{ Mercára | 1,152| 19·8| Jan. |18·4| April |22·7

{ Wellington | 1,890| 16·2| Jan. |12·8| May |18·8

{ Dodabetta Peak| 2,633| 11·2| Jan. | 9·7| May |13·8

{ Agustia Peak | 1,890| 14·3| Jan. |12·2| April |16·3

{ Tevandrum | 4| 25·5| Jan. |24·5| April |27·0

==========================+======+=====+==============+========+====

The Northern, or sub-tropical, triangle possesses a large number of

elevated health stations, varying from 5,000 to 9,000 ft., from

Darjeeling, north of Calcutta, to Thandiani, near Peshawar. All of these

afford an excellent refuge from the extreme heat of the plains, but the

eastern stations have so heavy a rainfall as to make them barely tenable

during the rains, although Assam possesses, in Shillong, a delightful

health resort, not unlike Ootacamand in miniature, where the rainfall is

comparatively moderate and it is possible to drive about the station, if

one is not too particular as to the size and magnificence of one’s

equipage. With this exception, however, it is better, provided the

choice be an open one, to resort to one of the western Himalayan

stations, as in the others the period of the rains is somewhat trying

even to adults, and is especially badly borne by children.

The principal data of the climates of the regions described above may be

gathered in detail from an inspection of the table on pages 56, 57, as

the places therein mentioned include one or more towns in each of the

regions into which we have, for purposes of description, divided the

Indian peninsula. Owing to the size of page it is impossible to adhere

to our general plan of tabulating the facts in both the English and

Continental scales, and in place of duplicating the table according to

the metric nomenclature, it has been thought better to reproduce a table

of the same character from Hann’s “Klimatologie,” as by this course the

facts are expressed from a different point of view, and it enables us to

some extent to supplement the original list with the data of a number of

additional places.

Lastly, the table on next page, from Blanford, is reproduced, as it

illustrates well the remarkable differences of climate in the matter of

annual ranges of temperature that are to be found within the confines of

the Indian peninsula.

The Bay of Bengal naturally has a climate which generally resembles that

of the surrounding coasts. During the south-west monsoon the winds are

strong, and there is generally a heavy sea running, but throughout the

period of north-easterly winds, from October to May, a calm sea with

moderate breezes will as a rule be met with, the pleasant weather being

interrupted only by occasional cyclonic storms during the first half of

the period. Short spells of rather bad weather due to disturbances of

this sort will be met with in every year, and it is rare for a season

to pass without rather heavy weather, but the really serious storms,

which meet the popular notions of what a “cyclone” should be, are

fortunately rather rare. Of these dangerous disturbances, the greatest

number occur in October, but they are not unknown even in the period of

the south-west monsoon. Out of 111 noticeable revolving storms “in the

Bay” that have occurred in 139 years, Blanford states that the monthly

distribution has been as follows:--

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apl. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

2 0 2 9 21 10 3 4 6 31 18 9

TABLE OF MEAN AND ABSOLUTE EXTREME TEMPERATURES IN CERTAIN INDIAN

STATIONS.

===========+=========+==========+==========+============+=============

+--+------+---+------+--+-------+-----+------+-----+-------

|F.| ~C.~ | F.| ~C.~ |F.| ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~

-----------+--+------+---+------+--+-------+-----+------+-----+-------

Leh |94|~52·2~| 90|~32·2~|-4|~-20·0~| 93 |~33·9~|-17 |~-27·2~

Quetta |84|~46·6~| 99|~37·2~|15| ~-9·4~|103 |~39·4~| 11 |~-11·8~

Simla |63|~35·0~| 88|~31·1~|25| ~-3·9~| 94·5|~34·7~| 20 | ~-6·8~

Peshawar |86|~47·8~|115|~46·1~|29| ~-1·7~|119 |~48·3~| 24·5| ~-4·1~

Multan |80|~44·5~|114|~45·6~|30| ~1·1~|118 |~47·8~| 29·1| ~-1·7~

Lahore |83|~46·1~|117|~47·2~|30| ~1·1~|120 |~49·0~| 30 | ~-1·2~

Jacobabad |86|~47·8~|118|~47·8~|32| ~0·0~|121 |~49·4~| 29 | ~-1·6~

Kurrachi |62|~34·5~|107|~41·7~|45| ~7·2~|117·5|~47·5~| 41 | ~5·0~

Mount Abu |57|~31·7~| 96|~35·6~|39| ~3·9~|101 |~38·3~| 32·6| ~0·4~

Deesa |72|~40·0~|112|~44·4~|40| ~4·4~|118·5|~48·1~| 34·2| ~1·2~

Agra |76|~42·3~|116|~46·7~|40| ~4·4~|120·5|~49·2~| 36·4| ~2·4~

Calcutta |54|~30·0~|102|~38·9~|48| ~8·9~|105·5|~40·8~| 45 | ~7·2~

Sibsagar |57|~31·6~| 99|~37·2~|42| ~5·6~|102 |~38·9~| 40 | ~4·4~

Nagpur |69|~38·3~|115|~46·1~|46| ~7·8~|117·5|~47·5~| 43·2| ~6·2~

Bombay |34|~18·9~| 95|~35·0~|61| ~16·1~|100 |~37·9~| 53·2| ~11·8~

Sholapur |63|~35·0~|110|~43·3~|47| ~8·3~|112 |~44·4~| 42·9| ~6·0~

Darjeeling |48|~26·7~| 78|~25·6~|30| ~-1·1~| 84 |~29·0~| 26·0| ~-3·3~

Madras |48|~26·6~|108|~42·2~|60| ~15·6~|113 |~45·0~| 57·5| ~14·2~

Wellington |43|~23·9~| 80|~26·7~|37| ~2·8~| 81 |~27·2~| 34·2| ~1·2~

Colombo |25|~13·9~| 93|~33·9~|68| ~20·0~| 95·5|~35·4~| 65·8| ~18·8~

Eliya |42|~23·3~| 77|~25·0~|35| ~1·7~| 79 |~26·1~| 0·0| ~0·0~

Akyab |45|~25·0~| 96|~35·6~|51| ~10·6~| 99 |~37·3~| 47·4| ~8·5~

Rangoon |46|~25·6~|104|~40·0~|58| ~14·4~|106·5|~41·5~| 55·8| ~13·2~

Port Blair |26|~14·4~| 95|~35·0~|69| ~20·6~| 96·5|~35·8~| 65·8| ~18·8~

===========+==+======+===+======+==+=======+=====+======+=====+=======

It will be noted that there is a second maximum in May, so that one of

the most important factors in determining these storms is obviously the

change of the monsoon. Their influence rarely reaches far inland, so

that one rarely hears of serious damage being inflicted much further

inland than Calcutta, and even there, the havoc seldom goes beyond the

uprooting of a few trees and the unroofing of crazy native huts. At sea

these storms are no light danger, but it is to be doubted if they ever

approach the terrific visitations that are to be met with in the West

Indies.

_The Indo-Malay Peninsula._--The climate of the coast of Arakan and

Lower Burmah generally resembles that of the other side of the Bay of

Bengal, but has a much heavier rainfall, as may be seen from an

inspection of the following table of four ports situated on the west

coast of the peninsula with that of Madras.

TABLE SHOWING COMPARISON OF RAINFALL ON WEST AND EAST COASTS, BAY OF

BENGAL.

=========+=============+==============+==============+

| MADRAS |PORT BLAIR IS-| AKYAB |

| (West Coast | LAND (nearer |(East Coast of|

| of Bay) | Burmah) | Bay to North)|

+-----+-------+------+-------+------+-------+

| Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Ins. | ~Mm.~ | Ins. | Mm. |

---------+-----+-------+------+-------+------+-------+

January | 0·98| ~28~| 0·91| ~23~| 0·13| ~3~|

February | 0·33| ~8~| 1·30| ~33~| 0·19| ~5~|

March | 0·39| ~10~| 0·39| ~10~| 0·54| ~13~|

April | 0·59| ~15~| 2·40| ~61~| 1·63| ~41~|

May | 2·20| ~56~| 15·08| ~404~| 12·21| ~310~|

June | 2·09| ~53~| 17·08| ~455~| 51·63|~1,311~|

July | 3·78| ~96~| 16·54| ~419~| 50·98|~1,295~|

August | 4·42| ~112~| 15·20| ~386~| 38·57| ~980~|

September| 4·68| ~119~| 19·65| ~498~| 22·98| ~584~|

October |10·08| ~274~| 11·80| ~300~| 12·40| ~315~|

November |13·70| ~348~| 9·49| ~241~| 3·89| ~99~|

December | 5·13| ~130~| 5·33| ~135~| 6·59| ~15~|

---------+-----+-------+------+-------+------+-------+

Year |49·12|~1,246~|116·73|~2,965~|195·72|~4,971~|

=========+=====+=======+======+=======+======+=======+

=========+==============+==============

| MOULMEIN | SELANGOR

|(East Coast of|(East Coast of

| Bay, middle) |Bay to South)

+------+-------+------+-------

| Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | ~Mm.~

---------+------+-------+------+-------

January | 0 | ~0~| 7·37| ~187~

February | 0·08| ~2~| 6·03| ~153~

March | 0·13| ~3~| 7·84| ~199~

April | 2·76| ~70~| 10·04| ~255~

May | 19·68| ~500~| 10·72| ~272~

June | 38·38| ~975~| 3·04| ~77~

July | 43·98|~1,115~| 3·98| ~101~

August | 43·0 |~1,092~| 7·68| ~195~

September| 30·32| ~770~| 7·18| ~182~

October | 8·39| ~218~| 11·17| ~283~

November | 1·49| ~38~| 11·01| ~280~

December | 0·13| ~3~| 9·77| ~248~

---------+------+-------+------+-------

Year |188·32|~4,781~|101·30|~2,573~

=========+======+=======+======+=======

The more even distribution and the appearance of two maxima as the

Equator is approached are also well shown in this table, which further

shows that the north-east coast of the Bay of Bengal includes some of

the rainiest places on the face of the globe.

Although the Burmese coast has so moist a climate, the greater part of

the moisture pouring in from the sea is precipitated on the rather high

range of hills that extends along the entire length of this peninsula,

at no great distance from the coast; so that as we ascend the Irrawaddy,

the rainfall steadily diminishes, until in the far inland regions of

Upper Burmah we get a climate reproducing, in many respects, that of

north-western India, though of course to a much less marked degree. This

change from extreme moisture to moderate dryness may be followed by

comparing the three following climatic tables of stations in Burmah.

CLIMATIC TABLE OF BURMESE STATIONS.

=========+========================+========================+

Month | RANGOON, near Coast. | MANDALAY, Inland. |

| Lat. 16° 30′ N. | Lat. 22° N. |

+------------------------+------------------------+

---------+-------+-------+--------+-------+-------+--------+

January | 89·1 | 64·2 | 0·11 | 84·1 | 56·0 | 0·06 |

February | 92·8 | 65·9 | 0·23 | 89·9 | 60·1 | 0·08 |

March | 96·6 | 71·1 | 0·16 | 97·7 | 67·9 | 0·21 |

April | 98·6 | 76·2 | 1·74 | 102·3 | 77·8 | 1·19 |

May | 91·9 | 77·3 | 11·73 | 99·0 | 79·0 | 5·26 |

June | 86·5 | 76·5 | 18·30 | 95·0 | 78·5 | 5·71 |

July | 85·3 | 75·8 | 21·37 | 94·2 | 78·4 | 3·26 |

August | 85·1 | 75·7 | 19·65 | 93·3 | 77·6 | 4·16 |

September| 85·7 | 75·9 | 15·89 | 92·8 | 76·9 | 6·21 |

October | 87·7 | 75·6 | 7·12 | 91·8 | 74·8 | 4·54 |

November | 87·6 | 72·3 | 2·52 | 86·7 | 67·2 | 1·67 |

December | 87·3 | 67·3 | 0·07 | 82·3 | 59·3 | 0·28 |

---------+-------+-------+--------+-------+-------+--------+

Year | 89·5 | 72·8 | 98·89 | 92·4 | 71·1 | 32·63 |

=========+=======+=======+========+=======+=======+========+

=========+========================

Month |BHAMO, Chinese Frontier.

| Lat. 24° 20′ N.

+------------------------

| Mean | Mean | Mean

|Monthly|Monthly|Monthly

|Maxima |Minima |Rainfall

---------+-------+-------+--------

January | 77·2 | 48·5 | 0·71

February | 82·2 | 53·1 | 0·39

March | 89·0 | 60·1 | 0·69

April | 93·9 | 67·6 | 1·65

May | 93·7 | 72·7 | 6·15

June | 90·5 | 74·9 | 13·35

July | 87·8 | 75·1 | 19·17

August | 88·1 | 75·4 | 16·40

September| 90·1 | 74·5 | 8·79

October | 88·5 | 69·6 | 3·47

November | 81·8 | 59·2 | 0·93

December | 76·3 | 50·7 | 0·44

---------+-------+-------+--------

Year | 82·6 | 65·1 | 72·14

=========+=======+=======+========

Conditions of space make it difficult here to express the data in both

scales, accordingly the English scale only is given. The higher rainfall

of Bhamo as compared with Mandalay is attributable to its proximity to

the great range of hills which divide Burmah from China.

_Straits Settlements._--Singapore has, or had, a yacht club, “The

Equatorial,” the course for whose regattas was supposed to be “the

Line,” so that the climate of this colony is necessarily of the

equatorial type. There is practically no seasonal change, as although

the maxima of rainfall occur in March-April and December, the other

months have also an amount of precipitation not far short of these

specially rainy months. The annual range of temperature is under 18° F.

(10° C), and though the climate is rather moist, excessive heat is never

met with; the mean maximum of April, the warmest month, being but 89° F.

The main climatic facts may be gathered from the subjoined table:--

SINGAPORE. LAT. 1° 16′ N.; LONG. 103° 53′ E. OBSERVATORY A FEW FEET

ABOVE THE SEA.

========+===========+===========+===========+=====+==============+=====

| |Temperature|Temperature| Hu- | | of

+----+------+----+------+----+------+midi-+-----+--------+Rainy

| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty %| Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Days

--------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+--------+-----

January |78·2|~25·7~|85·6|~29·8~|71·7|~22·0~| 79 |10·30| ~261·6~| 16

February|79·0|~26·1~|87·1|~30·6~|71·6|~21·9~| 79 | 6·18| ~156·3~| 9

March |79·9|~26·6~|88·0|~31·1~|73·3|~23·0~| 80 | 8·41| ~213·7~| 14

April |81·2|~27·3~|89·0|~31·7~|74·8|~23·7~| 79 | 8·39| ~213·5~| 15

May |82·7|~28·2~|88·9|~31·6~|76·4|~24·6~| 79 | 5·58| ~141·3~| 13

June |80·9|~27·1~|86·7|~30·4~|75·6|~24·3~| 81 | 6·37| ~161·7~| 16

July |81·7|~27·6~|87·5|~30·8~|75·4|~24·1~| 76 | 7·74| ~196·6~| 13

August |80·8|~27·0~|86·3|~30·2~|74·9|~23·8~| 78 | 6·83| ~173·0~| 14

ber |80·5|~26·9~|86·9|~30·5~|74·2|~23·5~| 77 | 5·83| ~148·2~| 12

October |80·4|~26·8~|87·1|~30·7~|74·1|~23·4~| 79 | 8·61| ~218·8~| 17

November|79·3|~26·3~|86·1|~30·1~|73·6|~23·2~| 82 | 9·24| ~234·5~| 18

December|77·4|~25·2~|83·2|~28·5~|73·5|~23·1~| 89 |10·84| ~275·5~| 17

Year |80·1|~26·7~|86·9|~30·5~|74·0|~26·7~| 80 |93·99|~2387~ | 174

--------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+--------+----

| Figures for 1896 | Averages of 10

| | years

========+=========================================+===================

During January and February the wind is mainly from the north-east, but

varies greatly, often veering round to the north-west. The south-west

monsoon, known here as the “Java winds,” comes on about April and

continues only to July, after which month, till November, the winds are

again very variable, the most common directions being south-south-west,

south-east, and west.

Considering its proximity to the Equator the climate is wonderfully

pleasant, the nights being always cool enough to sleep at ease, and

though there is generally a pleasant breeze, the island enjoys an almost

complete immunity from storms.

_Siam_, owing to its geographical position, is to some extent preserved

from the heat, rain, and devastating cyclones common in adjoining

countries, the high mountains with which it is almost completely

surrounded, cutting it off from most of their effects. The coolest month

is December, though the absolute minimum may occur at any time from

November to February; and the hottest, April.

The lowest temperature recorded during ten years by Staff-Surg. J.

Campbell, R.N., from whose observations these notes are compiled, was

57° F. (13·9° C), and the highest 97·5° F. (36·4° C). December is the

driest, and September the moistest month of the year, and hail fell once

in fifteen years. Droughts are rare. The south-west monsoon becomes weak

in September. Early in October northerly breezes set in, varying at

first to east and west of north, and by November the north-east monsoon

is established, to reach its strongest in December, and then gradually

failing till early in March, when the “Kiti” breezes--south to

south-south-west--usher in the monsoon. From May to August the winds are

sometimes boisterous. The above remarks apply to Lower Siam and to

Bangkok in particular, for which the table below, compiled from

Campbell’s figures, gives the main climatic data.

BANGKOK. LAT. 13° 58′ N.; LONG. 100° 34′ W. NEAR SEA-LEVEL.

=======+===========+===========+===========+=====+==============+=====

| |Temperature|Temperature| Hu- | | of

+----+------+----+------+----+------+midi-+-----+--------+Rainy

| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty | Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Days

-------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+--------+-----

January|76·1|~24·5~|87·7|~30·9~|69·4|~20·7~| 75 | 0·09| ~2·4~| 2

ry |79·1|~26·2~|88·6|~31·5~|74·1|~23·4~| 78 | 0·56| ~14·2~| 7

March |82·5|~28·1~|93·0|~33·9~|74·5|~23·6~| 74 | 0·83| ~21·4~| 1

April |83·4|~28·5~|94·1|~34·5~|79·0|~26·1~| 75 | 2·42| ~51·1~| 10

May |82·3|~27·9~|89·7|~32·0~|76·8|~24·8~| 78 |10·54| ~268·0~| 20

June |82·3|~27·9~|89·4|~31·8~|78·1|~25·7~| 78 | 7·72| ~195·7~| 16

July |81·4|~27·4~|88·1|~31·2~|76·2|~24·5~| 78 | 8·02| ~204·0~| 26

August |81·4|~27·4~|89·0|~31·7~|76·2|~24·5~| 79 | 5·65| ~143·5~| 17

ber |80·3|~26·8~|88·6|~31·5~|76·7|~24·8~| 82 |11·30| ~287·0~| 22

October|80·1|~26·7~|87·3|~30·7~|75·1|~24·0~| 82 | 7·46| ~189·3~| 14

ber |76·8|~24·9~|83·7|~28·8~|70·3|~21·3~| 77 | 2·36| ~59·8~| 6

ber |74·8|~23·8~|81·6|~27·6~|63·3|~17·4~| 74 | 0·09| ~2·4~| 2

-------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+--------+-----

Year |80·1|~26·6~|88·4|~31·3~|74·1|~23·4~| 77 |67·04|~1703~ | 143

=======+====+======+====+======+====+======+=====+=====+========+=====

Some authorities make the rainfall of Bangkok considerably less, but

Campbell’s observations extended over several years and may perhaps be

preferred. The delta of the Menam River is annually flooded between June

and November, and the spring levels are close to the surface all the

year round. North of the delta of the Menam is the Korat Plateau, some

700 feet above the sea-level, a wilderness of shadeless bush,

interspersed with salt marshes. One of the main drawbacks of the country

is the scarcity of potable water, the supplies both in the Menam delta

and on the Korat being almost always brackish and a nearly certain cause

of digestive disturbance for Europeans, who thus have to rely greatly on

aerated waters imported from the Straits.

Upper Siam, on the other hand, enjoys a dry climate with cool nights,

but speaking generally the climate is an exceptionally trying one for

European residents.

_Cochin China_ has a moist, hot climate. During the dry season, which

lasts from November to April, the temperature varies from 95° F. during

the day to 63° F. at night (35° to 17° C.), whereas during the rains,

which last from May to October, the range of variation is only between

86° and 68° F. (30° to 20° C.); the relative humidity at this season

reaching 89 per cent. Further north, in Tongking, the range of

temperature is wider, from 99° to 18° F. (36° to -7° C.). The rainfall

is much heavier than in Siam; Saigon, lat. 10° 47′ N., receiving its

maximum of 17·7 ins. (423 mm.) in September and a total rainfall of 74

ins. (1,873 mm.); while at Hue, lat. 16° 33′ N., the wettest month is

October, with 26·15 ins. (664 mm.), and a total of 102 ins. (2,592 mm.).

Further north, at Hai-fong, in lat. 20° 57′ N., the most rainy month is

August, with 14·8 ins. (374 mm.). July falls but little short of this,

but the total is less than that of the other two stations, amounting to

no more than 64 ins. (1,627 mm.).

The change to the north-east monsoon in November is not unfrequently

marked by sudden and devastating storms. The climate has a very bad

reputation, malaria, dysentery of a peculiarly deadly type, and diseases

due to internal worms, being very common, especially during the rainy

season.

_China._--Owing to the backward state of the country, there is

singularly little information of a definite character available with

respect to the enormous Chinese Empire, the entire southern half of

which comes within the scope of the tropical climatologist. In the

south, regular observations are carried on in the British colony of Hong

Kong, and in the north at Zi-ka-Wei, near Shanghai, an admirably

conducted observatory is conducted by the Jesuit missionaries, who so

often enrol themselves as the pioneers of science.

Speaking generally, however, whether in the case of littoral or

continental climates, those of China appear to compare favourably with

localities of the same latitude in India and the Indo-Malay peninsula.

The following are the figures for the island of Hong Kong for the year

1901, as I am unable to discover any collated statistics.

HONG KONG. LAT. 22° 12′ N., LONG. 114° 13′ E. NEAR SEA-LEVEL.

=========+===========+===========+=====+=============

Month | Monthly | Monthly |Rela-| Monthly

| Maxima | Minima | tive| Rainfall

| | | Hu- |

+----+------+----+------+midi-+-----+-------

| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty | Ins.| ~Mm.~

---------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+-------

January |68·5|~20·3~|62·5|~16·9~| 83 | 0·68| ~17·4~

February |59·5|~13·3~|50·5|~10·3~| 48 | 0·76| ~19·3~

March |67·9|~19·9~|60·4|~15·7~| 77 | 1·27| ~32·1~

April |75·4|~24·1~|69·1|~20·7~| 89 | 9·03|~229·9~

May |81·8|~27·7~|73·7|~23·2~| 85 |14·10|~358·1~

June |85·9|~29·9~|78·2|~25·7~| 80 | 2·33| ~59·7~

July |87·0|~30·6~|78·5|~25·8~| 81 | 5·58|~141·0~

August |85·7|~29·8~|76·9|~24·9~| 84 |14·00|~355·6~

September|86·0|~30·0~|76·4|~24·6~| 76 | 3·89| ~99·1~

October |82·6|~28·2~|73·6|~23·2~| 68 | 2·50| ~63·5~

November |75·4|~24·1~|64·9|~18·2~| 64 | 0·77| ~19·5~

December |66·9|~19·3~|57·5|~14·2~| 66 | 0·83| ~21·2~

=========+====+======+====+======+=====+=====+=======

In the _Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps_, vol. i., No. 1, Major

S. F. Clark writes: “The climate of Hong Kong varies in the different

places. At the Peak, 1,500 feet above the sea, it is always bearable in

summer, and is quite crisp in winter, an occasional film of ice being

sometimes visible in the mornings. In fact, if one had not to descend to

the lower levels for work, it would be no hardship to live at the Peak,

where the fog is really the main trouble. Children do well up there, but

get very white down below.

“In the city the summer is very trying. From May to September, both

inclusive, the sun is strong--reaching 94° or so in July and August--and

the humidity of the air is practically at saturation point. With the

breeze cut off by the Peak the situation is thus by no means pleasant,

and cases of heat apoplexy always occur at this time. The temperature

averages 86° to 88° during these months, and the nights also are

stiflingly hot. By the help of punkahs, electric fans, rickshaws and

chairs, the work of the colony goes on. The summer is also the rainy and

typhoon season, and these visitations luckily cool the air for some

days. The rain is very heavy at times, but of late years droughts have

prevailed. For the other seven months the climate is not unpleasant, and

in December, January and February, is quite cold, without reaching

freezing point. The humidity of the air, however, is always

considerable. This dampness of the air, especially foggy weather at the

Peak, is very destructive to clothing, books, &c., and tin-lined boxes

are essential. Ladies’ garments require much care to preserve them from

destruction.”

It is, however, fortunately possible for most people to live at “the

Peak,” between which and the town there is frequent communication by

means of cable tram.

Considering that Hong Kong lies well to the south of Calcutta, it must

be confessed that the climate is wonderfully good, and one cannot but

think that Major Clark would wish himself back in Hong Kong were he to

negotiate an exchange to almost any station in the plains of India.

On the mainland, at Canton, the climate is much less uniform, the

north-east wind of the cold season rendering the nights singularly cold

for so southerly a position.

The China seas are visited by revolving storms of a most violent

character, known locally as typhoons, but as in those of the Bay of

Bengal, their more serious effects do not appear to extend far inland.

The Island of Formosa, with a mean annual temperature of 74·6° F. (23·7°

C.), has a typically marine climate, the difference between the coldest

and hottest months, February and June, being but from 67·7° F. (19·8°

C.) to 81° F. (27·1° C.), or only 13·5° F. (7·3° C.). The south-west

monsoon bursts towards the end of May, and the rainfall, especially in

the north of the island, is very heavy and evenly distributed, though

there is a distinct dry, winter season in the south, as may be seen by

the contrast of the rainfall of the following two Formosan

stations--Kilung, in lat. 25° 8′ N., and Takao Anping, in 22° 47′ N.

(Hann).

RAINFALL IN THE ISLAND OF FORMOSA.

===========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+

| Jan.| Feb.| Mar.|April| May | June|

-----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

Kilung{Ins.|17·53|14·98|14·98| 8·68|10·74| 9·33|

{Mm. | 445 | 379 | 379 | 220 | 273 | 237 |

| | | | | | |

Takao {Ins.| 6·67| 0·58| 1·64| 2·48| 9·45|13·58|

{Mm. | 17 | 13 | 41 | 63 | 240 | 345 |

===========+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+

===========+=====+=====+=====+====+=====+=====

| July| Aug.|Sept.|Oct.| Nov.| Dec.

-----------+-----+-----+-----+----+-----+-----

Kilung{Ins.| 7·72| 7·53|16·53|9·84|11·61|11·63

{Mm. | 196 | 191 | 420 | 249| 294 | 294

| | | | | |

Takao {Ins.|14·65|14·63| 4·69|1·54| 0·49| 1·08

{Mm. | 372 | 370 | 119 | 39| 12 | 27

===========+=====+=====+=====+====+=====+=====

The total annual rainfall is 122 ins. (3,581 mm.) for Kilung, and 65·25

ins. (1,658 mm.) for Takao Anping.

Further north, the monsoon bursts somewhat later, very much in the same

way as it does in India; but here, again, the climate is much cooler

than would be met with west of the Malay Peninsula in the same

latitudes.

ZI-KA-WEI. LAT. 31° 12′ N.; TIME 8 HRS. 5 MINS. 43 SECS. EAST OF

GREENWICH. ELEVATION OF OBSERVATORY, 22 FEET ABOVE THE SEA.

=======+===========+===========+===========+=====+==============+=====

+----+------+----+------+----+------+midi-+-----+--------+Rainy

| F. | C. | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty | Ins.| ~Mm.~ |days

-------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+--------+-----

January|37·0| ~2·8~|60·0|~15·6~|20·0|~-6·7~| 78 | 2·03| ~51·8~| 10

ry |39·4| ~4·0~|61·9|~16·6~|23·8|~-4·9~| 79 | 2·44| ~62·0~| 11

March |46·0| ~7·8~|74·1|~23·4~|29·0|~-1·7~| 77 | 3·29| ~83·6~| 13

April |56·5|~13·6~|84·0|~28·9~|36·9| ~2·7~| 77 | 3·49| ~88·8~| 13

May |65·5|~18·6~|88·5|~31·4~|46·4| ~8·0~| 76 | 3·64| ~92·0~| 13

June |73·4|~23·0~|95·0|~34·9~|57·3|~14·1~| 79 | 6·78| ~172·0~| 14

July |80·6|~27·0~|98·5|~36·9~|67·5|~19·7~| 80 | 4·74| ~120·1~| 11

August |80·1|~26·8~|97·4|~36·3~|67·0|~19·4~| 80 | 6·08| ~154·6~| 11

ber |72·8|~22·7~|92·0|~33·3~|56·6|~13·7~| 79 | 4·89| ~124·3~| 12

October|63·2|~17·3~|83·5|~28·6~|41·4| ~5·2~| 76 | 3·23| ~82·0~| 10

ber |52·0|~11·1~|73·4|~23·0~|29·9|~-1·2~| 76 | 1·94| ~49·2~| 8

ber |41·7| ~5·5~|65·0|~18·3~|21·8|~-5·7~| 76 | 1·15| ~29·2~| 7

-------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+--------+-----

Year |59·0|~15·0~|99·4|~27·3~|20·0|~-6·7~| 78 |43·68|~1109·1~| 131

=======+====+======+====+======+====+======+=====+=====+========+=====

The above table, which is drawn up from the observations of several

years, shows, apart from the remarkably low temperatures, an amount of

both diurnal and annual variation that is very remarkable in a place so

close to the sea. Strictly speaking, indeed, it should not come in the

category of hot climates at all, but in the absence of other accurate

material it is valuable for the purpose of showing how soon tropical

temperatures are left behind as we proceed northward along the Pacific

coast of Asia.

_The Malay Archipelago._--Consists of a number of large islands situated

on either side of the Equator, and generally too close to it to enjoy

the benefits of a well-developed monsoon.

BATAVIA. LAT. 6° 11′ S.; LONG. 106° 53′ E.

=======+===========+===========+===========+=====+=============+=====

| | | | Hu- | Rainfall | of

+----+------+----+------+----+------+midi-+-----+-------+Rainy

| F. | C. | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty | Ins.| ~Mm.~ |days

-------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+-------+-----

January|77·6|~25·4~|91·5|~33·1~|68·4|~20·4~| 87·1|13·75| ~350~| 22·5

ry |77·6|~25·4~|90·5|~32·5~|69·1|~20·7~| 87·5|12·56| ~319~| 20·7

March |78·5|~25·8~|90·6|~32·6~|70·3|~21·2~| 85·9| 7·53| ~191~| 17·4

April |79·4|~26·3~|90·5|~32·5~|70·3|~21·2~| 85 | 4·78| ~121~| 14·1

May |79·5|~26·4~|91·1|~32·9~|70·3|~21·2~| 83·0| 3·48| ~88~| 9·2

June |79·4|~26·3~|90·5|~32·5~|68·6|~20·4~| 83·1| 3·64| ~92~| 9·1

July |78·5|~25·8~|90·0|~32·2~|67·0|~19·4~| 80·8| 2·53| ~64~| 6·9

August |78·9|~26·0~|92·4|~33·4~|67·0|~19·4~| 77·7| 1·49| ~38~| 8·0

ber |79·5|~26·4~|94·0|~34·4~|66·0|~18·9~| 77·5| 2·74| ~69~| 7·3

October|79·7|~26·8~|95·0|~35·0~|69·0|~20·6~| 79·0| 4·19| ~106~| 10·0

ber |79·1|~26·2~|96·0|~35·6~|68·2|~20·2~| 82·0| 5·08| ~127~| 13·7

ber |78·2|~25·7~|92·5|~33·6~|70·0|~21·1~| 84·8| 9·03| ~229~| 19·0

-------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-----+-------+-----

Year |78·9|~26·0~|96·0|~35·6~|68·2|~20·2~| 82·8|70·71|~1,796~|154·9

=======+====+======+====+======+====+======+=====+=====+=======+=====

South of lat. 10°-12°, a north-west monsoon, developing in October or

November, takes the place of the south-west monsoon appearing in May in

northern latitudes, and when we are sufficiently far from the Equator to

be clear of the zone of calms and variable winds, it is the development

of this wind that determines the appearance of the rainy season.

This, however, does not so much affect the Malay Archipelago, as nearly

the whole of it is within the zone of double annual rainy seasons, and

the winds on which they depend to temper the tropical heat are mainly

land and sea breezes of necessarily very variable direction.

The Dutch have long had a first-class observatory established at

Batavia, the capital of Java, and their results being thus of the first

value may be very well taken as a type of the weather conditions of the

islands to the south of the Equator, while the table already furnished

of Singapore will serve sufficiently to illustrate the northern portion

of the Archipelago.

A mild, equable, damp climate, not so hot as would be met with at a

corresponding distance north of the line, never cool, and equally free

from excessive heat, but very enervating; and unfortunately the health

records of these islands are by no means satisfactory.

From January to early April the winds are usually from the north-west,

and from May to October north-east, the remaining two months of the year

being characterised by winds of very variable direction.

The two following tables will give some idea of the temperature and

rainfall of a few sites in this Archipelago, arranged progressively in

their order north and south of the Equator.

As examples of places in this archipelago which chance to have a special

interest for English-speaking people on both sides of the Atlantic, I

give below fuller data of the climates of Manila in America’s new

acquisition of the Philippines, based on from 16 to 34 years of Spanish

records; and of Port Moresley, in the newly established British colony

in New Guinea, which naturally cannot as yet do more than furnish a

single year’s experience:--

MANILA. LAT. 14° 36′ N.; LONG. 120° 58′ E. NEAR SEA-LEVEL.

=========+===========+============+===========+=====+===============

+----+------+-----+------+----+------+midi-+-----+---------

| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty | Ins.| ~Mm.~

---------+----+------+-----+------+----+------+-----+-----+---------

January |77·0|~25·0~| 93·0|~33·9~|62·1|~16·7~| 77·7| 1·19| ~29·4~

February |77·7|~25·4~| 95·7|~35·4~|61·0|~16·1~| 74·1| 0·41| ~10·3~

March |80·4|~26·8~| 95·9|~35·5~|63·3|~17·4~| 71·7| 0·74| ~18·8~

April |82·9|~28·2~| 99·0|~37·2~|66·0|~18·9~| 70·9| 1·14| ~29·1~

May |83·3|~28·5~|100·0|~37·8~|71·1|~21·7~| 76·9| 4·20| ~106·7~

June |82·0|~27·8~| 97·0|~36·1~|70·9|~21·6~| 81·5| 9·62| ~244·1~

July |80·8|~27·1~| 94·8|~34·9~|70·0|~21·1~| 84·9|14·57| ~369·3~

August |80·8|~27·1~| 94·3|~34·5~|69·1|~20·6~| 84·4|13·87| ~351·8~

September|80·4|~26·8~| 93·7|~34·3~|70·5|~21·4~| 85·6|14·93| ~378·9~

October |80·4|~26·8~| 94·8|~34·8~|68·7|~20·4~| 82·6| 7·54| ~191·6~

November |79·0|~26·1~| 92·1|~33·4~|64·9|~18·2~| 81·6| 5·13| ~129·7~

December |77·4|~25·2~| 91·9|~33·2~|60·3|~15·7~| 80·7| 2·13| ~53·5~

---------+----+------+-----+------+----+------+-----+-----+---------

Year |77·0|~26·8~|100 |~37·8~|60·3|~15·7~| 97·4|75·46|~1,916·6~

=========+====+======+=====+======+====+======+=====+=====+=========

TABLE OF TEMPERATURES IN MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.

=============+==========+==========+===========+=====================+

| | |Temperature+---------+-----------+

| | +----+------+ +-----+-----+

| | | F. | ~C.~ | | F. | ~C.~ |

-------------+----------+----------+----+------+---------+----+------+

Bayombong | Lugon |16° 29′ N.|76·1|~24·8~|December |70·8|~21·6~|

C. Boliano | „ |16° 23′ N.|77·5|~25·3~| „ |73·6|~23·2~|

Manila | „ |14° 35′ N.|79·5|~26·4~| January |76·1|~24·5~|

Malion | „ |18° 9′ N.|77·6|~25·4~| „ |74·2|~23·4~|

Iloilo | Sebu |10° 42′ N.|79·8|~26·6~| „ |77·1|~25·1~|

Carlotta | Negros |10° 25′ N.|77·5|~25·3~|December |75·5|~24·2~|

Bohol | Bohol | 9° 30′ N.|78·6|~25·9~|February |76·2|~24·5~|

Sandakan | Borneo | 5° 49′ N.|80·5|~26·9~|Dec.-Jan.|79·0|~26·1~|

Papar | „ | 6° 49′ N.|77·6|~25·4~| „ „ |76·1|~24·5~|

Padang | Sumatra | 0° 56′ S.|79·8|~26·6~|November |79·1|~26·2~|

Palembang | „ | 2° 50′ S.|80·6|~27·0~| January |79·8|~26·6~|

Baryermassing| „ | 3° 34′ S.|79·9|~27·1~|December |80·0|~26·7~|

Amboina | Seram | 3° 41′ S.|79·3|~26·3~| July |77·4|~25·2~|

Lahat | Sumatra | 3° 48′ S.|78·9|~26·0~| January |79·1|~26·2~|

North Coast |New Guinea| 4° 54′ S.|79·0|~26·1~| August |77·5|~25·3~|

Batavia | Java | 6° 11′ S.|78·6|~25·9~| January |77·5|~25·3~|

Buitenzorg | „ | 6° 37′ S.|77·0|~25·0~|February |78·0|~25·5~|

Banjoewangie | „ | 8° 17′ S.|79·9|~26·7~| July |78·9|~26·0~|

South coast |New Guinea| 9° 28′ S.|80·5|~26·9~| August |77·5|~25·3~|

=============+==========+==========+====+======+=========+====+======+

=============+====================+=========

Place | Hottest Month | Diffe-

|--------+-----------+ rence

| Name |Temperature|

| +----+------+---+-----

| | F. | ~C.~ | F.| ~C.~

-------------+--------+----+------+---+-----

Bayombong | May |80·0|~26·7~|9·2|~5·1~

C. Boliano | „ |81·3|~27·4~|7·5|~4·2~

Manila | „ |82·9|~28·2~|6·6|~3·7~

Malion | „ |81·6|~27·6~|7·5|~4·2~

Iloilo | „ |82·4|~28·0~|5·2|~2·9~

Carlotta | „ |80·6|~27·0~|5·1|~2·8~

Bohol | June |80·6|~27·0~|4·5|~2·5~

Sandakan |Apl.-May|81·9|~27·7~|2·9|~1·6~

Papar | June |79·3|~26·3~|3·2|~1·8~

Padang | May |81·0|~27·2~|1·8|~1·0~

Palembang | „ |81·4|~27·4~|1·4|~0·8~

Baryermassing| „ |81·9|~27·7~|1·8|~1·0~

Amboina |February|81·0|~27·2~|3·6|~2·0~

Lahat | April |81·2|~27·3~|2·3|~1·3~

North Coast | March |79·8|~26·6~|2·8|~1·3~

Batavia |May-Oct.|79·5|~26·4~|1·9|~1·1~

Buitenzorg | Sept. |77·7|~25·5~|1·8|~1·0~

Banjoewangie | April |81·2|~27·3~|2·3|~1·3~

South coast |December|82·6|~28·2~|5·2|~2·9~

=============+========+====+======+===+=====

The remarkable uniformity of these climates, albeit with a slightly more

distinct tendency to variation as one recedes from the Equator, are well

illustrated in these tables, as also is the dependence of season on

purely local conditions in these latitudes.

TABLE SHOWING MONTHLY RAINFALL OF LOCALITIES IN THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.

=========+==============+=============+==============+

Place | SINGKEL, | KOTA RAJA, | SARAWAK, |

| S. W. coast, | N. coast, | N. coast, |

| Sumatra | Sumatra | Borneo |

---------+--------------+-------------+--------------+

Latitude | 2° 11′ N. | 5° 32′ N. | 1° 28′ N. |

---------+--------------+-------------+--------------+

Longitude| 97° 45′ E. | 95° 20′ E. | 110° 8′ E. |

---------+------+-------+-----+-------+------+-------+

Month | Ins. | ~Mm.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Ins. | ~Mm.~ |

---------+------+-------+-----+-------+------+-------+

January | 11·23| ~285~| 5·98| ~151~| 27·17| ~690~|

February | 10·68| ~271~| 3·13| ~79~| 23·67| ~601~|

March | 14·64| ~372~| 3·32| ~84~| 10·14| ~257~|

April | 15·97| ~406~| 4·58| ~116~| 10·04| ~255~|

May | 14·45| ~367~| 5·55| ~141~| 9·09| ~231~|

June | 13·18| ~335~| 3·28| ~82~| 8·73| ~222~|

July | 11·46| ~291~| 4·38| ~111~| 4·78| ~121~|

August | 15·28| ~388~| 4·84| ~123~| 8·86| ~225~|

September| 16·75| ~426~| 7·29| ~185~| 7·78| ~198~|

October | 20·16| ~512~| 7·48| ~190~| 9·92| ~252~|

November | 19·64| ~499~| 8·24| ~209~| 13·56| ~345~|

December | 16·37| ~416~| 9·17| ~233~| 25·12| ~663~|

---------+------+-------+-----+-------+------+-------+

Year |179·62|~4,562~|67·08|~1,704~|159·45|~4,050~|

=========+======+=======+=====+=======+======+=======+

=========+==============+==============+=============+

Place | SANDAKAN, | MENADO, | TERNATA, |

| British | N. Peninsula,| Small Island|

| N. Borneo | Celebes | off Jilolo |

---------+--------------+--------------+-------------+

Latitude | 5° 49′ N. | 1° 30′ N. | 0° 47′ N. |

---------+--------------+--------------+-------------+

Longitude| 118° 12′ E. | 124° 50′ E. | 127° 23′ E. |

---------+------+-------+------+-------+-----+-------+

Month | Ins. | ~Mm.~ | Ins. | ~Mm.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~ |

---------+------+-------+------+-------+-----+-------+

January | 21·43| ~544~| 18·78| ~478~| 7·83| ~199~|

February | 10·33| ~262~| 13·27| ~337~| 7·98| ~201~|

March | 7·53| ~192~| 10·67| ~271~| 6·30| ~160~|

April | 4·37| ~111~| 8·08| ~205~|10·33| ~262~|

May | 5·32| ~135~| 6·58| ~167~| 8·89| ~226~|

June | 8·32| ~211~| 7·08| ~179~| 8·89| ~226~|

July | 9·62| ~244~| 4·93| ~125~| 5·38| ~137~|

August | 6·98| ~176~| 4·78| ~121~| 4·73| ~120~|

September| 10·08| ~256~| 3·24| ~82~| 4·07| ~103~|

October | 10·07| ~255~| 4·93| ~125~| 6·58| ~167~|

November | 16·45| ~418~| 8·08| ~205~| 8·32| ~211~|

December | 19·14| ~486~| 16·45| ~418~| 9·28| ~236~|

---------+------+-------+------+-------+-----+-------+

Year |129·73|~3,296~|106·82|~2,713~|88·51|~2,248~|

=========+======+=======+======+=======+=====+=======+

=========+==============+=============+=============

Place | BENKULEN, | BANGAWANJI, | KUPANG,

| S. W. coast, | Java | N. coast of

| Sumatra | | Timor

---------+--------------+-------------+-------------

Latitude | 3° 47′ S. | 8° 13′ S. | 10° 10′ S.

---------+--------------+-------------+-------------

Longitude| 102° 15′ E. | 114° 23′ E. | 123° 34′ E.

---------+------+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------

Month | Ins. | ~Mm.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~

---------+------+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------

January | 12·40| ~315~| 7·57| ~192~|16·15| ~423~

February | 9·83| ~249~| 7·57| ~192~|15·03| ~404~

March | 11·34| ~288~| 5·38| ~138~| 7·60| ~193~

April | 10·35| ~263~| 4·08| ~104~| 2·38| ~60~

May | 10·33| ~262~| 4·97| ~126~| 1·85| ~47~

June | 9·15| ~233~| 4·62| ~117~| 0·38| ~10~

July | 7·13| ~181~| 3·03| ~77~| 0·17| ~4~

August | 9·48| ~241~| 2·48| ~63~| 0·13| ~3~

September| 9·82| ~249~| 2·67| ~68~| 0·04| ~1~

October | 14·22| ~361~| 2·60| ~66~| 0·47| ~12~

November | 13·53| ~344~| 2·77| ~70~| 3·34| ~85~

December | 13·60| ~349~| 7·97| ~202~|10·44| ~265~

---------+------+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------

Year |131·30|~3,335~|55·12|~1,415~|59·34|~1,507~

=========+======+=======+=====+=======+=====+=======

The gradual development of a dry season as one proceeds southward from

the Equator, as well as the gradual diminution of the rainfall that

accompanies it, is very instructive.

PORT MORESLEY, BRITISH NEW GUINEA. S.E. COAST.

=========+=========+=========+===========+=============+===========

+--+------+--+------+----+------+-----+-------+

|F.| ~C.~ |F.| ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~ |

---------+--+------+--+------+----+------+-----+-------+-----------

January |89|~31·7~|91|~32·8~|75 |~23·9~|11·68|~296·7~| N.W.

February |86|~30·0~|90|~32·2~|72 |~22·2~|11·88|~301·2~| N.W.

March |86|~30·0~|90|~32·2~|74 |~23·3~|10·15|~257·8~| N.W.

April |86|~30·0~|88|~31·1~|74 |~23·3~| 2·40| ~61·0~|N.W. & S.E.

May |86|~30·0~|87|~30·6~|72 |~22·2~| 2·96| ~73·0~| S.E.

June |83|~28·3~|87|~30·6~|71 |~21·7~| Wanting | S.E.

July |82|~27·8~|83|~28·3~|68·5|~20·3~| 5·94|~151·0~| S.E.

August |84|~28·9~|82|~27·8~|68 |~20·0~| 1·45| ~36·8~| S.E.

September|85|~29·4~|86|~30·0~|71 |~21·7~| 0·12| ~2·7~| S.E.

October |84|~28·9~|87|~30·6~|71 |~21·7~| 0·16| ~4·0~| S.E.

November |88|~31·1~|88|~31·1~|71 |~21·7~| 0·60| ~15·2~| S.E.

December |88|~31·1~|91|~32·8~|73 |~22·8~| 6·88|~174·8~| N.W.

=========+==+======+==+======+====+======+=====+=======+===========

The rainfall, therefore, appears to be from 56-60 ins., and the reporter

remarks:--

“On the sea coast, the experience so far gained seems to prove that the

climate of the western portion (of the island) is rainy. Port Moresley

is apparently near the centre of a dry belt that extends 100-150 miles

along the coast. Eastward of this the climate becomes more rainy as far

as the East Cape. The north-east coast, as far as Cape Nelson, is drier,

and beyond this again, more rainy--Mamlaro is a wet district. As far as

known, the mountain region is more rainy. Thunder storms are more

frequent and mist and drizzle also prevail on the high lands.”

Exploration in New Guinea is, however, a pursuit which requires the

traveller to brave to an exceptional extent the dangers of poisonous

snakes and other venomous vermin.

Capt. I. A. Lawson (“Wanderings in the Interior of New Guinea,” Chapman

and Hall, London, 1875) describes an apparently undoubted case of death

from scorpion sting in an adult, and states that large numbers of

Papuans are killed by them. He saw several scorpions ten inches long.

The patient became comatose. After about three hours, thin watery,

almost colourless, blood began to flow from his ears, eyes and nose,

which exhaled a horrible stench, and the man died. He measured one

scorpion thirteen inches long, and a second exceeded ten inches.

_Australia._--The greater part, fortunately, of the island continent is

typically “a white man’s country,” the temperature of latitudes south of

the line being so much lower than those of the northern hemisphere that

only the extreme northern part of the country comes within our limits.

One would expect, for example, Brisbane, lying in 27° 28′ S., to be very

hot, but an inspection of the table below shows that it is only in the

north of Queensland that one may expect to meet anything approaching a

tropical climate.

Unfortunately the Queensland official statistics do not appear to have

been collated, but the year chosen seems to be a fairly representative

one. This deficiency is the more surprising as, in a country so often

affected with destructive droughts, one would have expected that every

effort would have been made to elucidate, by carefully drawn-up normal

tables, the usual sequence of good and bad seasons.

BRISBANE, QUEENSLAND.

=========+===========+===========+===========+=====+===========+=====

| |Temperature|Temperature| Hu- | | of

+----+------+----+------+----+------+midi-+----+------+Rainy

| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | ty |Ins.| ~Mm.~| Days

---------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+----+------+-----

January |72·2|~22·3~|80·9|~27·1~|63·4|~17·4~| 66 |1·40|~35·6~| 10

February |76·7|~24·8~|86·2|~30·1~|67·2|~19·5~| 64 |0·75|~19·1~| 4

March |79·7|~26·5~|88·9|~31·6~|70·4|~21·3~| 62 |1·38|~35·0~| 10

April |78·4|~25·7~|87·0|~30·6~|69·8|~21·0~| 66 |2·67|~67·4~| 7

May |74·3|~23·5~|84·2|~29·0~|64·4|~18·0~| 61 |0·63|~16·0~| 2

June |69·7|~20·9~|80·5|~26·9~|58·9|~14·9~| 64 |0·17| ~4·3~| 7

July |64·7|~18·2~|75·9|~24·3~|53·5|~11·9~| 68 |0·47|~11·9~| 3

August |63·0|~17·2~|75·1|~24·0~|50·8|~10·4~| 69 |0·06| ~1·5~| 2

September|60·4|~15·7~|71·1|~21·8~|49·7| ~9·8~| 70 |0·55|~14·0~| 9

October |60·4|~15·7~|71·5|~21·9~|49·3| ~9·6~| 67 |0·98|~24·9~| 10

November |67·0|~19·4~|76·9|~24·9~|57·1|~14·0~| 71 |1·30|~33·0~| 7

December |68·9|~20·5~|78·6|~25·9~|59·2|~15·1~| 64 |3·25|~82·5~| 9

=========+====+======+====+======+====+======+=====+====+======+=====

Unfortunately, the greater part of the interior of the country is an

almost waterless desert, the development of which, unless subterranean

sources of water can be tapped, seems almost hopeless, and almost the

whole west coast shares in this terrible disability, and would probably

have remained as deserted as the interior but for the recent discoveries

of its richness in gold. Even in the extreme north, at Port Darwin, the

climate is by no means unendurable for a place within 12¹⁄₂ degrees of

the line, and the mean rainfall, 63·21 ins., is very moderate for a

place so situated.

PORT DARWIN, NORTHERN TERRITORY.

=========+===========+===========+===========+=============+======

Month +----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-------+ Rainy

| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~ |Days

---------+----+------+----+------+----+------+-----+-------+------

January |84·4|~29·1~|93·6|~34·3~|73·0|~22·8~|15·85|~402·6~| 23

February |83·5|~28·6~|93·9|~34·3~|73·4|~23·0~|13·77|~374·8~| 14

March |84·6|~29·3~|91·4|~33·0~|71·0|~21·7~|10·10|~258·5~| 26

April |84·4|~29·1~|97·8|~36·5~|69·2|~20·7~| 4·36|~110·6~| 6

May |81·5|~27·5~|95·2|~35·1~|66·6|~19·2~| 1·04| ~26·6~| --

June |78·7|~25·9~|92·4|~33·5~|59·9|~15·5~| 0·08| ~1·7~| 3

July |76·8|~24·9~|88·1|~31·2~|58·6|~14·8~| 0·01| ~0·3~| --

August |79·3|~26·3~|92·0|~33·3~|63·7|~17·6~| 0·12| ~3·0~| --

September|82·8|~28·2~|94·1|~34·5~|67·9|~19·9~| 0·43| ~10·9~| 1

October |85·7|~29·8~|96·7|~35·9~|72·4|~22·4~| 2·19| ~54·5~| 8

November |86·0|~30·0~|97·0|~36·1~|72·4|~22·4~| 5·21|~132·2~| 4

December |85·5|~29·7~|95·4|~35·2~|73·7|~23·2~|10·27|~260·4~| 16

=========+====+======+====+======+====+======+=====+=======+======

The climate of the tropical portion of Western Australia will be

sufficiently indicated by the following table for Wyndham, in lat. 15°

27′ S.

=========+============+============+=============

Month |Mean Monthly|Mean Monthly|Mean Rainfall

| Maxima | Minima | Monthly

+-----+------+-----+------+----+--------

| F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~ |Ins.| ~Mm.~

---------+-----+------+-----+------+----+--------

January | 98·0|~36·7~| 78·8|~26·0~|5·32|~134·7~

February | 98·7|~37·0~| 78·7|~25·9~|4·24|~106·8~

March | 98·2|~36·8~| 79·4|~26·3~|4·02|~102·8~

April | 98·1|~36·7~| 76·8|~24·9~| Nil

May | 93·1|~34·0~| 71·2|~21·8~| Nil

June | 89·1|~31·8~| 67·7|~19·8~|0·15| ~3·8~

July | 88·7|~31·5~| 62·8|~17·0~| Nil

August | 91·8|~33·2~| 66·8|~19·3~| Nil

September| 97·0|~36·1~| 74·0|~23·3~|0·04| ~1·2~

October |100·3|~37·9~| 78·9|~26·0~| Nil

November |101·3|~38·5~| 80·3|~26·8~|4·32|~109·4~

December |100·1|~37·8~| 80·4|~26·9~|2·47| ~62·3~

=========+=====+======+=====+======+====+========

The total annual rainfall here only amounts to 20·54 ins. (521·8 mm.);

and Freemantle, in lat. 32° S., on the coast, only receives 28·15 ins.

(715 mm.); and Coolgardie, far in the interior, but 7·18 ins. (181·7

mm.); but the temperature records of neither of the two last-mentioned

places quite entitles them to be considered in the light of hot

countries.

From 20° to 25° south latitude the coast is even drier; Cossach, in

latitude 20° 40′ S., receiving but 9·3 ins. (247 mm.), and Carnarvon,

in latitude 24° 52′ S., but 7·83 ins. (199 mm.). In these localities the

perceptible rainfall occurs in June and July. In the summer (January,

February) some of these places are no doubt very hot, but the nights are

nearly always fairly cool. In many of these places water is so scarce

that a bath is a luxury scarcely attainable by any but the very rich,

the precious fluid having to be eked out at what seems to us a fabulous

price per gallon, or even pint. This difficulty is, however, being met

in some places by enormous engineering works, and colonists may be met

with who have a good deal to say in favour of these apparently

inhospitable shores.

_Pacific Islands._--The pages of Stevenson and Ralf Bolderwood have so

familiarised us with the delights of these favoured spots--where it is

always summer, but rarely oppressively hot--that it is probable that the

general public have a better idea of their climates than is the case

with almost any other tropical region. Owing to their comparatively

small economic importance, it is, however, impossible to do more than

supply a pair of tables illustrative of the climate of a few of the

better-known spots.

TABLE OF TEMPERATURE OF PACIFIC ISLANDS.

==========+==========+======================+

Island or| Latitude | Warmest Month |

Place | +----------+-----------+

| | Name | Mean |

| | |Temperature|

| | +-----+-----+

| | | F. | ~C.~ |

----------+----------+----------+----+------+

Kauai |22° 15′ N.| August |76·4|~24·6~|

Honolulu |21° 18′ N.| August |77·5|~25·3~|

Hilo |19° 40′ N.|Aug.-Sept.|74·4|~23·5~|

Jaluit | 5° 55′ N.|Jan.-Feb. |81·0|~27·2~|

Apia |13° 49′ S.|Feb.-Mar. |78·6|~25·9~|

Papiti |17° 32′ S.| March |78·5|~25·8~|

Vanua Levu|16° 38′ S.| December |80·5|~26·9~|

Levuka |17° 4′ S.| December |79·5|~26·4~|

Tana |19° 28′ S.| March |79·7|~26·6~|

Tongatabu |21° 8′ S.| February |79·0|~26·1~|

Noumea |22° 16′ S.| February |80·0|~26·7~|

Oparu |27° 36′ S.| March |72·5|~22·3~|

==========+==========+==========+====+======+

==========+=====================+==========

Island or| Coldest Month |Difference

Place +---------+-----------+

| Name | Mean |

| |Temperature|

| +----+------+----+-----

| | F. | ~C.~ | F. | ~C.~

----------+---------+----+------+----+-----

Kauai | January |66·5|~19·2~| 9·9|~5·5~

Honolulu | January |69·5|~20·8~| 7·5|~4·4~

Hilo | January |71·5|~21·9~| 2·9|~1·6~

Jaluit | June |80·5|~26·9~| 0·7|~0·4~

Apia | July |75·5|~24·2~| 3·2|~1·8~

Papiti | July |73·5|~23·1~| 4·8|~2·7~

Vanua Levu|July-Aug.|76·0|~24·4~| 4·3|~2·4~

Levuka | July |74·5|~23·6~| 5·2|~2·9~

Tana | July |69·0|~20·6~|10·8|~6·0~

Tongatabu | August |68·5|~20·3~|10·4|~5·8~

Noumea | August |68·0|~20·0~|11·4|~6·7~

Oparu |September|65·3|~18·5~| 7·2|~4·0~

==========+=========+====+======+====+=====

The places have also been selected so as to illustrate the changes in

season we met with in passing from North to South, and indicate much the

same sequence that has already been noticed in the case of the Malay

Archipelago, but the temperatures are several degrees lower in the case

of each corresponding latitude, so that, while the Malay Islands are

stormy and trying, the Polynesian groups are amongst the most pleasant

of the warm climates of the world. Except in the Marshall groups, and in

some of the Fijis, the rainfall is moderate for localities situated so

near the equator.

TABLE OF RAINFALL OF PACIFIC ISLANDS.

=========+=============+==============+==============+

Month | Honolulu, | Marshall | Apia, |

| Hawaii | Group | Samoa |

| | | |

+-----+-------+------+-------+------+-------+

| Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Ins. | ~Mm.~ | Ins. | ~Mm.~ |

---------+-----+-------+------+-------+------+-------+

January | 4·03| ~102~| 11·46| ~291~| 16·42| ~417~|

February | 4·58| ~116~| 11·90| ~300~| 20·23| ~514~|

March | 3·77| ~96~| 17·92| ~455~| 12·68| ~321~|

April | 3·14| ~79~| 14·15| ~359~| 8·66| ~220~|

May | 3·15| ~80~| 20·20| ~513~| 6·97| ~177~|

June | 1·82| ~46~| 15·58| ~396~| 5·39| ~137~|

July | 2·53| ~64~| 15·44| ~392~| 3·32| ~84~|

August | 2·28| ~58~| 13·58| ~345~| 6·18| ~157~|

September| 1·85| ~47~| 13·45| ~342~| 8·54| ~217~|

October | 2·28| ~58~| 15·47| ~293~| 6·97| ~177~|

November | 5·16| ~131~| 11·30| ~387~| 12·20| ~310~|

December | 4·93| ~125~| 17·48| ~444~| 17·63| ~447~|

---------+-----+-------+------+-------+------+-------+

Year |39·45|~1,002~|177·87|~4,517~|125·15|~3,178~|

=========+=====+=======+======+=======+======+=======+

=========+==============+=============+=============

Month | Fiji, | New | New

| Qara Valu | Hebrides, | Caledonia,

| | Tongatabu | Noumea

+------+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------

| Ins. | ~Mm.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~ | Ins.| ~Mm.~

---------+------+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------

January | 22·48| ~571~| 9·18| ~233~| 3·98| ~101~

February | 17·48| ~450~| 6·83| ~173~| 4·38| ~110~

March | 36·97| ~932~| 6·37| ~162~| 4·58| ~116~

April | 31·26| ~794~|10·35| ~263~| 5·20| ~132~

May | 10·95| ~276~| 8·19| ~208~| 5·18| ~130~

June | 24·10| ~612~| 8·12| ~206~| 4·18| ~106~

July | 12·76| ~324~| 1·66| ~42~| 3·32| ~84~

August | 32·95| ~835~| 3·68| ~93~| 2·38| ~60~

September| 14·65| ~372~| 7·08| ~180~| 2·83| ~72~

October | 19·28| ~490~| 7·18| ~182~| 2·56| ~65~

November | 7·14| ~181~| 3·58| ~91~| 3·03| ~77~

December | 17·48| ~444~| 4·45| ~113~| 3·23| ~82~

---------+------+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------

Year |247·85|~6,281~|76·62|~1,946~|44·68|~1,135~

=========+======+=======+=====+=======+=====+=======

Qara Valu has been selected as having the heaviest rainfall recorded in

this part of the world, and it must not be imagined that such a chronic

downpour is in any way typical of the Fiji Islands, most of which have a

comparatively moderate rainfall; Bua with 98·35 ins. (2,497 mm.), and

Lesuha with 97·15 ins. (2,465 mm.), being fairer examples; but there is

the same tendency to a comparatively even distribution throughout the

year.

These islands are, it is almost needless to remark, occasionally visited

by terrible tornadoes, but are normally continuously under the influence

of the trade winds, which here do not suffer from interruption, during

the summer solstice, from disturbance due to the area of low pressure

that originates from the superheating of land and water over Australia

and the islands and confined seas that intervene between it and the

Asiatic continent.

_THE AMERICAN CONTINENT._--Like the islands of the Pacific, climatic

data in America are characterised by lower levels than are met with in

the great land masses of Europe, Asia, and Africa. As a result of this

we find that, although we know that New York can produce a most

discreditable array of cases of sunstroke in the height of summer, it is

only the extreme southern portion of the United States that really

merits the title to belong to the category of hot climates. There are

doubtless to be met with fiercely hot places in Mexico, and malarious

foci in the isthmus of Darien, which may rival anything to be met with

in the old world, but speaking generally, climates are generally milder

than those of corresponding places on this side of the “herring pond.”

Commencing with the Southern United States, all that need be described

in the present work is the belt extending from California in the west to

Florida in the east.

The climate of California is undoubtedly one of the finest in the world.

Like the rest of the western seaboard of America, the rainfall is small,

but there is always sufficient water for cultivation by the agency of

irrigation; and the clearness of the atmosphere and genial temperature

renders this State the ideal of the physician in search for health

resorts. Apart, indeed, from the excitements of “euchre” and the germs

introduced by the Chinese settler, it seems difficult to understand why

anyone should suffer illness in such a climate as that of Los Angeles,

whose principal characteristics are epitomised in the above table. Let

us hope, however, that “Ah Sin” has not driven the angels too far away

for recall by the rapidly advancing sanitation of American civilisation.

Climate and Health in Hot Countries and the Outlines of Tropical Climatology A Popular Treatise on Personal Hygiene in the Hotter Parts of the World, and on the Climates That Will Be Met Within Them. · 第 10 / 11 章

Once issued from the Red Sea and arrived in the Gulf of Aden, things