exactness of articulation, upon the gravity, complexity, fervor, grace,
beauty, or other distinguishing and elevated quality of the thoughts and
sentiments contained in the words to be read. Common-place ideas are
couched, as a rule, in common-place language, and require no nice
discrimination of sounds, or other refinement of utterance, for their
full rendering; but in true poetry and impassioned prose implication is
no mean instrument of effectual interpretation.
The speaking voice, like the singing voice, is capable of utterance
through a considerable range of pitch--in highly cultivated voices, of
three octaves; in less highly cultivated voices, of one octave; but for
all voices, not perverted by bad habit, there are three or four notes,
of moderate height, upon which utterance is most easy and natural, and
most capable of great and sustained effort. These notes should be
selected as the =normal pitch= of discourse.
In speaking or reading, except in certain infrequent cases, the _whole_
of the breath expired from the lungs should be utilized in producing
=pure vocality=. Should any breath be spent in aspiration, or in
hissing, or in guttural enunciation, the vocality is said to be
=impure=. Impure vocality, it is true, has its own appropriate use, in
the representation of certain emotional states of the mind. Pure
vocality is heard naturally in the tones of children at play; but in
adults, through carelessness or injudicious education, it is often
wanting.
The mechanism of the voice is very complicated and not thoroughly
understood. It is a matter of common experience, however, that in the
utterance of tones of low pitch, whether speech tones or musical, the
voice seems to come from the chest rather than from the head; and, in
the utterance of tones of high pitch, on the other hand, it seems to
come from the head rather than from the chest; so that all tones are
said to belong either to the _lower_ or _chest register_, or to the
_higher_ or _head register_. As both chest tones and head tones may be
obscured by impurities, and their resonance diminished or destroyed by
defective enunciation, the pure, clear, ringing utterance of tones of
both registers should be constantly striven for. The normal pitch of
utterance, referred to above, should always be such that the tones
comprised in it can be produced either from the head or from the chest,
at will; but for sustained efforts, for the best effects both of reading
and of oratory, the chest tones are much to be preferred, since, as
compared with head tones, they are capable of being produced with
greater resonance and penetrating power, and, for any considerable
length of time, with greater ease to the speaker.
All tones of the human voice, whether speaking or musical, whether of
the head or of the chest, are spoken of as having =quality=, or
=timbre=, and the term is also used more generally in reference to the
whole compass of utterance. The quality of the voice is its most
distinguishing characteristic, and it is upon its cultivation and
improvement that the greatest efforts of the student should be spent.
Pure voice is usually spoken of as being manifested in two qualities,
the _natural_ and the _orotund_.
=Natural Quality= may be described as a head tone to which some degree
of resonance is given by the chest; but the brilliancy of its resonance
is produced by its reverberation against the bony arch of the mouth. It
may, of course, vary in pitch, but tones of low pitch that are intended
to be impressive are most suitably rendered in orotund quality. In its
perfect manifestations, the natural quality should be clear, ringing,
light, and sparkling,--if it be possible to describe its characteristics
by such metaphorical words.
=Orotund Quality= is the result only of cultivation, but no speaker or
reader can produce those finer effects which are the appropriate symbols
of strong and deep emotion, whose voice cannot assume this mode at will.
It differs from the natural mode in obtaining from the chest a greater
supply of air, and a deeper and fuller resonance, and the reverberations
seem to be against the walls of the pharynx, or posterior regions of the
mouth, rather than against the palate, or upper part of the mouth. In
fulness, strength, and ringing quality, it is superior to the natural
mode, but not distinct from it; in clearness and smoothness it should be
equal to it. As it befits a chest tone rather than a head tone, it is
natural to utterances in medium and low pitch; but it must not be
confounded with low pitch simply, nor must its characteristic fulness be
taken for loudness simply. With the orotund, as well as with the natural
quality, all the voice modes previously described may be conjoined.
EXERCISE.--1. With the syllable _haeh_, make an expiration in the
voice of whisper, forcing slowly all air out from the chest.
Then give to this expiration vocality, producing the
reverberation far back in the mouth: the resulting utterance is
a _hoarse exemplification of the orotund_. With the mouth in the
position of a yawn, making the cavity of reverberation as large
as possible, repeat the exercise until the utterance can be
produced smoothly and without hoarseness. 2. Form similar
syllables containing other tonic elements, and make similar
exercises, taking care to produce a smooth, effusive utterance.
3. Select a sentence such as "_Roll on thou deep and dark blue
ocean, roll_," abounding in long open vowels and indefinite
syllables, and using suitable intonations read it in low pitch,
with full, resonant chest tones. Then gradually raise the pitch,
still obtaining the tones from the chest and uttering them with
full resonance. 4. With such syllables as _haeh_, _you_, _now_,
_man_, _war_, _hail_, _fool_, practise in orotund voice the
various exercises for pitch, concrete intervals, waves, stress,
etc., previously suggested. 5. Read with feeling and appropriate
intonations selected sentences from compositions of elevated or
impassioned diction, as "Solomons's Prayer" (p. 35), "The Hymn"
(p. 68), "France" (p. 205).
Of the various qualities (as they are called) of impure voice, the
=Aspirate=, the =Sibilant=, and the =Guttural= are defined with
sufficient clearness, by their names. Though these modes can be
appropriately used only occasionally, nevertheless they are of great
value to the reader, and the voice should be trained to assume them
whenever necessary. Great care must be exercised, however, that
impurities shall never be present as characteristics of _normal_
utterance; this, whether from the head or chest, should be distinct,
sonorous, and smooth, and should exhaust every particle of air expired.
Another impure quality is the =Pectoral=, which is an aspiration
produced, as it were, from the lowest cavities of the chest; and still
another is the =Falsetto=, an unnatural voice, that seems to be produced
entirely in the upper cavities of the head. The employment of the
Falsetto at any time, either in speaking or reading, is of doubtful
taste.
EXERCISE.--1. With the syllable _haeh_ exemplify severally the
aspirate, guttural, and pectoral qualities, first with
insufficient vocality, then with sufficient. Exemplify the
sibilant impurity with such syllables as _pish_, _false_,
_traitress_, _miscreant_. In those exercises employ intervals of
varying lengths, different degrees of initial pitch, and the
several varieties of stress; and let the utterances be made
effusively, expulsively, and explosively. 2. Select appropriate
passages in "The Raven" (p. 258) for exercise in natural,
orotund, aspirate, guttural, and pectoral qualities. Read the
passages severally with appropriate intonations,--it may be
somewhat exaggeratingly. Then read the whole poem feelingly,
with appropriate, but not exaggerated intonations.
So far, what has been said has had reference mainly to the cultivation
and improvement of the voice, by the analogies and description of the
various effective modes in which it can be manifested, and by the
suggestion of suitable exercises for increasing its endurance, strength,
flexibility, and resonance. It remains now to discuss shortly some of
the principles of _vocal interpretation_,--that is, to discuss what
modes of voice-action are appropriate to the representation of the
various emotions which the wide range of literature presents to the
reader.
It must be said in respect of principles that only broad and easily
verifiable ones are of use, and even these may be abused by a too
rigorous adherence to them. The best rule that can be given, as indeed
it is founded on a principle of widest application, is that laid down in
the _Fourth Reader_:--_To give a faithful sympathetic attention to the
full meaning and sentiment of what is read, and to manage the voice so
as effectively to express this meaning and sentiment;_ since this will
always ensure a certain measure of appropriateness, if not the full
perfection of it. And it cannot be too much emphasized that even the
fullest knowledge and most patient study can establish for the reading
of any selection, or passage, or sentence, _none but general
directions_, since the same words may very frequently be rendered in
several ways, with differences of pitch, time, stress, quality,
implication, and so on, but with equal effectiveness and equal
appropriateness. And, on the other hand, any whole selection, even the
simplest, is far too complex in its thought and sentiment to be disposed
of in one general analysis, which shall predetermine the pitch, tone,
and stress, and the prevailing width of the intervals, and the direction
of the inflections; all these will vary from paragraph to paragraph, and
from sentence to sentence, even from word to word. To sum up, it may be
said that good reading demands as indispensable, quick-witted
intelligence, ready sympathy, and a voice so trained as to be flexible
and resonant; if the reader have this much endowment his reading will
always be effective, and, moreover, appropriate and impressive.
_All diction may be roughly described as exhibiting one of three states
of feeling:_ (1) that in which feeling, as it is generally understood,
is almost wanting; (2) that in which it is present in some considerable
degree; (3) that in which the feeling is present in an extreme degree,
dominating the ideas which the several sentences logically express. To
the first division, which may be called the =diction of discourse=,
belongs all language indicative of a quiet state of mind--formal
statement, narrative, description, simple argument or reasoning: it is
the language of all ordinary writing. To the second division, which may
be called the =diction of sentiment or feeling=, belongs all language
which indicates that the mind of the speaker, real or supposed, is in a
state of moderate excitement; that he is interested in the relation of
himself to others, and, consequently, in the effect of his utterances
upon them; or that, subjectively, he is interested in himself: it is the
language of admiration, reverence, awe, sincerity, dignity, of pathos,
supplication, penitence. To the third division, which may be called the
=diction of passion=, belongs all language expressive of deeper
excitement and more vehement interest than that described as animating
the diction of feeling: it is the language of earnest or anxious
interrogation, of passionate ejaculation, of powerful appeal, strong
accusation, and fierce denunciation; also, of contempt, derision, scorn,
loathing, anger, hate, and so on.
Voice, as we have seen, possesses five generic properties, pitch, force,
quality, time, and abruptness; and, in every spoken word, it must assume
some mode of _each_ of these properties, manifesting them in
co-existence. This conjoint mode, or _vocal sign_, as it is called,
should be the appropriate expression of the thought and feeling of which
the word, in its place in the sentence, is the _graphical sign_. Hence,
as each word in a sentence may be said to have its appropriate vocal
sign, so each variety of diction may be said to have its appropriate
vocal expression,--a latitude of choice in the constituent modes, and a
consequent indeterminateness in the resulting expression, being, of
course, always conceded.
The appropriate vocal expression for the diction of discourse may be
said to consist of the following modes:--normal pitch, simple
intonations, and waves of a second, moderate force, the equable
concrete varied by slight radical stress, in quality the natural mode,
in abruptness sufficient sharpness of opening to effect clear
articulation, and in time a moderate rate with effusive utterance.
As the diction rises above this plain unimpassioned character, and
becomes more and more informed with feeling and sentiment, the
constituent vocal signs, and hence the whole vocal expression, become
more and more expressive. In pitch there is frequent variation: in
expressions of joy, astonishment, or for command, the voice assumes
naturally a somewhat higher elevation; and with equal naturalness it
descends below its normal level to utter the language of grave, solemn,
and reverential feeling. Again, inasmuch as the interval of the second
is the plainest and simplest within the command of the voice, in such
diction as we are now considering, intervals of a third, a fifth, or
even an octave, may be heard, both in simple intonations and in waves.
Force, too, will not be unvaryingly applied, but will be greater or less
according as energy or passion may demand. In stress the equable
concrete will give place to the radical or to the final, to express
energetic resolve; or, in the language of pathos, exaltation, reverence,
supplication, and so on, to the median--the most effective of all modes
for the expression of such deep feeling as is compatible with slow
utterance. In time the rate of utterance will vary with the syllabic
quantities, these being short and crisp in the language of vivacious
conversation, but extended, and with distinct, attenuated vanishes, in
grave and important monologue. In quality, whenever the diction,
departing from its simple character, becomes pervaded by some deep
emotion, the natural mode will give place to the orotund. And while
effusive utterance is always the prevalent mode, it will give place to
the expulsive mode or to the explosive, when energy of thought or force
of passion requires it so.
Thus, _as the diction rises_ from plain discourse to the language of
feeling, _the appropriate vocal expression gathers intensity and becomes
more varied_, assumes, as may be said, brighter colors and displays
greater contrasts; and so, in the third class of diction, the diction of
passion, it displays its intensest and most vivid modes--its brightest
colors, its deepest contrasts.
As it is in a general sense only, that diction can be understood to be
referrible to three classes, so also, in a general sense only, can it be
understood that any particular sentence or passage has its appropriate
vocal expression. All that is intended is simply this: an analysis of
the sentence, or passage, or selection, gives to the careful student a
certain conception of the quality and intensity of the feeling or
passion that pervades it; this is to be interpreted, as well as may be,
by the most appropriate vocal signs possible--the whole constituting the
vocal expression suitable to the piece. In respect to its pervading
emotion, the selection will have what is called a =drift=, or general
tendency, towards one of those states described as characteristic of the
diction of discourse, the diction of feeling, and the diction of
passion, respectively; and it is the business of the reader to watch for
this drift, which of course may vary from passage to passage, from
sentence to sentence, and sometimes from word to word, and to interpret
it as best he may.
To indicate what modes of voice utterance are naturally most appropriate
to the expression of these various emotional states and drifts, it will
be best to take up, one by one, the different properties of the voice,
and the several modes in which they are manifested, and to state
briefly, and in general terms, the emotional state or drift of which it
is an appropriate expression. (With respect to quality and abruptness
this will be sufficiently done indirectly.) The student then must for
himself, if he wishes to apply these results to the reading of any
selected passage, first by analysis ascertain what are the emotional
states which it involves, what are its prevailing drifts, then in
respect to each property of the voice choose the suitable mode for the
interpretation of these several states or drifts, conjoin the selected
modes into appropriate vocal signs, and with these form the vocal
expression that suitably interprets the whole passage. _The teacher, or
the teacher and student together, should select from the_ READER, _or
elsewhere, sentences or passages that fitly exemplify the different
modes; these should be written upon a black-board, or in some other way
preserved, and be referred to frequently for practice both in voice
culture and in vocal interpretation._
I. PITCH. Pitch must be considered under three heads: first, as
referring to the prevailing elevation of tone assumed by the voice in
the reading of a whole sentence, passage, or selection, called _general_
or _sentential pitch_; second, as referring to the degree of elevation
assumed by the voice in the utterance of the opening, or radical, of any
syllable, called _initial_ or _radical pitch_; third, as referring to
the tone-width of the intervals in the utterance of the syllable
concrete.
=Sentential Pitch= in its various modes is descriptive of the general
position in the scale taken by the tones of the voice in uttering a
sentence or passage. It may be spoken of as _medium_, _high_, and _low_.
=Medium Pitch= should correspond with the _normal pitch of discourse_
previously described. It is natural to the expression of all
unimpassioned thought, and also of all emotions, except the livelier,
and the deeper and more intense. =High Pitch= and =Low Pitch= are only
relative terms. They do not represent fixed and definite modes of
utterance; and all that can be said is, that for the interpretation of
what may be called the lighter feelings and emotions, such as
cheerfulness, joy, exultation, interest, and so on, also for the
expression of raillery, facetiousness, humorous conversation, laughter,
and the like, sentential pitch of a degree somewhat higher than normal
pitch is appropriate; and, on the other hand, for the interpretation of
what may be called the graver and deeper feelings, such as awe,
reverence, humility, grief, and melancholy, and the more impassioned
emotions, as disgust, loathing, horror, rage, despair, as well as for
the expression of all very serious and impressive thought, sentential
pitch of a degree somewhat lower than normal pitch is appropriate. The
degree of elevation and depression must be determined by the judgment
and good taste of the reader; but it must be borne in mind that this
degree may vary from passage to passage, and from sentence to sentence,
and even from phrase to phrase.
In every style of diction, no matter how unimpassioned it may be, there
will be frequent changes in the train of thought, and frequent changes
in the intensity of feeling; to represent these changes there should be
corresponding variations, or =transitions in sentential pitch=. These
transitions also serve another purpose, namely, to indicate an
interpolated or parenthetical idea. In making transitions the voice
follows the general law of all vocal interpretation; strong contrasts in
thought and feeling are marked by transitions of wide intervals, and
lesser contrasts by lesser intervals.
_Transitions in pitch are naturally accompanied by corresponding changes
in force, rate of utterance, and phrasing_; and, like all other modes of
expression, these receive their color from the intensity of thought and
feeling of which they are the symbols. For example, in the rendering of
a parenthetical clause (since, as a rule, the thought expressed in the
parenthesis is of less gravity than the thought in the main sentence),
the voice will manifest itself in lighter force and generally in quicker
movement, that is, in lighter, less contrasting colors; but whether the
pitch be raised or lowered depends upon the sentential pitch appropriate
to the main sentence,--it should be in contrast with that. And it may be
remarked in passing, that the reading of the parenthesis should end with
a phrase melody similar to that appropriate to the words immediately
before the parenthesis, so that the ear may naturally be carried back to
the proper place in the main clause for the continuation of the
expression of the principal thought.
=Radical Pitch=, that is the pitch with which the opening of a syllable
is uttered, is, in respect of appropriate employment, the most important
element of reading or speaking; but all that can be done here, is to
call attention to this, and leave the student to exercise his taste and
judgment in regard to its use. The importance of appropriately varying
radical pitch so as to impart melody to continued utterance will be seen
at once if a simple sentence (for example, "_Tom and Jim sat on a log_")
be read, first in that monotonous voice (that is, with unvarying radical
pitch) so often heard in the labored reading of improperly taught young
children, and then with those appropriate intonations heard in animated
colloquy. When properly rendered, even if read with but little
animation, each syllable, or concrete, passes through an interval of a
second, and the several syllables are discretely uttered; but the
_radical pitch varies from syllable to syllable_, forming a diatonic
melody. _For the rendering of any given sentence in appropriate diatonic
melody, positive direction as to the order of succession in respect of
radical pitch cannot be given_; the same words may be uttered with equal
appropriateness in many varieties of melody. The ignoring of this fact
has led to the most absurd pretensions.
A group of two or three syllabic concretes is called a =phrase of
melody=; and as phrases vary with respect to pitch, in the order of
succession of the radicals of their constituent syllables, they receive
different names: such as the _monotone_, in which the radicals are all
on the same pitch; and the _ditone_ and the _tritone_, groups of two
tones and three tones respectively, with radicals of different pitch;
and, again, the concretes in these phrases may have upward or downward
intonations: but fixed rules cannot be laid down for their use. The
reader must bear in mind, however, that it is upon the tasteful use of
phrases and cadences, that is, upon the tasteful employment of
variation in radical pitch, that the melody of uttered language depends;
and that if it be devoid of this melody, it is both wearisome and
unimpressive to the hearer.
The intonations of the voice must necessarily be through either rising
intervals or falling intervals, and there is a generic difference in the
meaning of these. =The rising interval= is heard naturally at the end of
a direct question; that is, one to which "_yes_" or "_no_" is an
expected answer, as "_Are you going home?_" The suspensive tone which
the voice assumes at the end of the interrogation is indicative of
incompleteness of thought; and _indication of incompleteness is the
characteristic function of all rising intervals_.
=The falling interval= is heard naturally at the close of a complete
statement, as "_I am here_"; and hence, _words indicating completeness,
positiveness, resolution, are appropriately uttered with downward
intervals_. In effecting a downward intonation the voice operates in one
of two ways: either the _weaker mode_, in which it descends from a
radical pitch at or near the current tone to a lower pitch; or the
_stronger mode_, in which it assumes discretely a radical pitch as much
_above_ the current tone as the emphasis requires, and descends
concretely either to the current tone or below it.