FOOTNOTES:

[1] Similarly Elijah enforces respect for the prophetic office in i.

9 sqq. Prof. Kennett points out to the present writer that the

epithet "bald-head" may refer to the sign of mourning for Elisha's

lost master (cf. Ez. vii. 18, Deut. xiv. 1); "Go up" is perhaps to be

taken literally (in reference to Elijah's translation).

[2] The method of obtaining water (_v._ 16 sq.) is that which still

gives its name to the Wadi el-Ahsa ("valley of water pits") at the

southern end of the Dead Sea (_Old Test. Jew. Church_, 2nd ed., 147).

On the other hand, see Burney, _Heb. Text of Kings_, p. 270.

[3] R. V. marg. is an alteration to remove from Elisha the suggestion

of an untruth.

[4] The Gilgal of Elisha is near the Jordan--comp. vi. 1 with iv. 38,

[Hebrew: shavim lefanaiv],--and cannot be other than the great

sanctuary 2 m. from Jericho, the local holiness of which is still

attested in the _Onomastica_. It is true that in 2 Kings ii. 1 Bethel

seems to lie between Gilgal and Jericho; but v. 25 shows that Gilgal

was not originally represented as Elisha's residence in this

narrative, which belongs to the Carmel-Dothan series. On the other

hand, for the identification with the Gilgal (Jiljilia) S.W. of

Shiloh, see G.A. Smith, _Ency. Bib._ (s.v. Gilgal); Burney, _op.

cit._, p. 264; Skinner, _Century Bible_: _Kings_, p. 278.

ELISHA BEN ABUYAH (c. A.D. 100), a unique figure among the Palestinian

Jews of the first Christian century. He was born before the destruction

of the Temple (which occurred in A.D. 70) and survived into the 2nd

century. It is not easy to decide as to his exact attitude towards

Judaism. That he refused to accept the current rabbinical views is

certain, though the Talmud cites his legal decisions. Most authorities

believe that he was a Gnostic; but while it is certain that he was not a

Christian, it is possible that he was simply a Sadducee, and thus an

opponent not of Judaism but of Pharisaism. His disciple, the famous

Pharisee Meir, remained his steadfast friend, and his efforts to reclaim

his former master are among the most pathetic incidents in the Talmud.

In later ages Elisha (_aher_ "the other," as he was named) was regarded

as the type of a heretic whose pride of intellect betrayed him into

infidelity to law and morals. Without much appropriateness Elisha has

been sometimes described as the "Faust of the Talmud." (I. A.)

ELIXIR (from the Arabic _al-iksir_, probably an adaptation of the Gr.

[Greek: xerion], a powder used for drying wounds, from [Greek: xeros],

dry), in alchemy, the medium which would effect the transmutation of base

metals into gold; it probably included all such substances--vapours,

liquids, &c.--and had a wider meaning than "philosopher's stone." The

same term, more fully _elixir_ _vitae_, elixir of life, was given to the

substance which would indefinitely prolong life; it was considered to be

closely related to, or even identical with, the substance for transmuting

metals. In pharmacy the word was formerly given to a strong extract or

tincture, but it is only used now for an aromatic sweet preparation,

containing one or more drugs, and in such expressions as "elixir of

vitriol," a mixture of sulphuric acid, cinnamon, ginger and alcohol.

ELIZABETH (1533-1603), queen of England and Ireland, born on Sunday the

7th of September 1533, and, like all the Tudors except Henry VII., at

Greenwich Palace, was the only surviving child of Henry VIII. by his

second queen, Anne Boleyn. With such a mother and with Cranmer as her

godfather she represented from her birth the principle of revolt from

Rome, but the opponents of that movement attached little importance to

her advent into the world. Charles V.'s ambassador, Chapuys, hardly

deigned to mention the fact that the king's _amie_ had given birth to a

daughter, and both her parents were bitterly disappointed with her sex.

She was, however, given precedence over Mary, her elder sister by

sixteen years, and Mary never forgave the infant's offence. Even this

dubious advantage only lasted three years until her mother was beheaded,

and by a much more serious freak on Henry's part "divorced." Elizabeth

has been censured for having made no effort in later years to clear her

mother's memory; but no vindication of Anne's character could have

rehabilitated Elizabeth's legitimacy. Her mother was not "divorced" for

her alleged adultery, because that crime was no ground for divorce by

Roman or English canon law. The marriage was declared invalid _ab

initio_ either on the ground of Anne's precontract with Lord Percy or

more probably on the ground of the affinity established between Henry

and Anne by Henry's previous relations with Mary Boleyn.

Elizabeth thus lost all hereditary title to the throne, and her early

years of childhood can hardly have been happier than Mary's. Nor was her

legitimacy ever legally established; but after Jane Seymour's death,

when Henry seemed likely to have no further issue, she was by act of

parliament placed next in order of the succession after Edward and Mary

and their issue; and this statutory arrangement was confirmed by the

will which Henry VIII. was empowered by statute to make. Queen Catherine

Parr introduced some humanity into Henry's household, and Edward and

Elizabeth were well and happily educated together, principally at old

Hatfield House, which is now the marquess of Salisbury's stables. They

were there when Henry's death called Edward VI. away to greater

dignities, and Elizabeth was left in the care of Catherine Parr, who

married in indecent haste Thomas, Lord Seymour, brother of the protector

Somerset. This unprincipled adventurer, even before Catherine's death in

September 1548, paid indelicate attentions to Elizabeth. Any attempt to

marry her without the council's leave would have been treason on his

part and would have deprived Elizabeth of her contingent right to the

succession. Accordingly, when Seymour's other misbehaviour led to his

arrest, his relations with Elizabeth were made the subject of a very

trying investigation, which gave Elizabeth her first lessons in the

feminine arts of self-defence. She proved equal to the occasion, partly

because she was in all probability innocent of anything worse than a

qualified acquiescence in Seymour's improprieties and a girlish

admiration for his handsome face. He or his tragic fate may have touched

a deeper chord, but it was carefully concealed; and although in later

years Elizabeth seems to have cherished his memory, and certainly showed

no love for his brother's children, at the time she only showed

resentment at the indignities inflicted on herself.

For the rest of Edward's reign Elizabeth's life was less tempestuous.

She hardly rivalled Lady Jane Grey as the ideal Puritan maiden, but she

swam with the stream, and was regarded as a foil to her stubborn

Catholic sister. She thus avoided the enmity and the still more

dangerous favour of Northumberland; and some unknown history lies behind

the duke's preference of the Lady Jane to Elizabeth as his son's wife

and his own puppet for the throne. She thus escaped shipwreck in his

crazy vessel, and rode by Mary's side in triumph into London on the

failure of the plot. For a time she was safe enough; she would not

renounce her Protestantism until Catholicism had been made the law of

the land, but she followed Gardiner's advice to her father when he said

it was better that he should make the law his will than try to make his

will the law. As a presumptive ruler of England she was, like Cecil, and

for that matter the future archbishop Parker also, too shrewd to commit

herself to passive or active resistance to the law; and they merely

anticipated Hobbes in holding that the individual committed no sin in

subordinating his conscience to the will of the state, for the

responsibility for the law was not his but the state's. Their position

was well enough understood in those days; it was known that they were

heretics at heart, and that when their turn came they would once more

overthrow Catholicism and expect a similar submission from the

Catholics.

It was not so much Elizabeth's religion as her nearness to the throne

and the circumstances of her birth that endangered her life in Mary's

reign. While Mary was popular Elizabeth was safe; but as soon as the

Spanish marriage project had turned away English hearts Elizabeth

inevitably became the centre of plots and the hope of the plotters. Had

not Lady Jane still been alive to take off the edge of Mary's

indignation and suspicion Elizabeth might have paid forfeit for Wyat's

rebellion with her life instead of imprisonment. She may have had

interviews with French agents who helped to foment the insurrection; but

she was strong and wary enough to avoid Henry II.'s, as she had avoided

Northumberland's, toils; for even in case of success she would have been

the French king's puppet, placed on the throne, if at all, merely to

keep it warm for Henry's prospective daughter-in-law, Mary Stuart. This

did not make Mary Tudor any more friendly, and, although the story that

Elizabeth favoured Courtenay and that Mary was jealous is a ridiculous

fiction, the Spaniards cried loud and long for Elizabeth's execution.

She was sent to the Tower in March 1554, but few Englishmen were fanatic

enough to want a Tudor beheaded. The great nobles, the Howards, and

Gardiner would not hear of such a proposal; and all the efforts of the

court throughout Mary's reign failed to induce parliament to listen to

the suggestion that Elizabeth should be deprived of her legal right to

the succession. After two months in the Tower she was transferred to Sir

Henry Bedingfield's charge at Woodstock, and at Christmas, when the

realm had been reconciled to Rome and Mary was expecting issue,

Elizabeth was once more received at court. In the autumn of 1555 she

went down to Hatfield, where she spent most of the rest of Mary's reign,

enjoying the lessons of Ascham and Baldassare Castiglione, and planting

trees which still survive.

She had only to bide her time while Mary made straight her successor's

path by uprooting whatever affection the English people had for the

Catholic faith, Roman jurisdiction and Spanish control. The Protestant

martyrs and Calais between them removed all the alternatives to an

insular national English policy in church and in state; and no sovereign

was better qualified to lead such a cause than the queen who ascended

the throne amid universal, and the Spaniards thought indecent,

rejoicings at Mary's death on the 17th of November 1558. "Mere English"

she boasted of being, and after Englishmen's recent experience there was

no surer title to popular favour. No sovereign since Harold had been so

purely English in blood; her nearest foreign ancestor was Catherine of

France, the widow of Henry V., and no English king or queen was more

superbly insular in character or in policy. She was the unmistakable

child of the age so far as Englishmen shared in its characteristics, for

with her English aims she combined some Italian methods and ideas. "An

Englishman Italianate," ran the current jingle, "is a devil incarnate,"

and Elizabeth was well versed in Italian scholarship and statecraft.

Italians, especially Bernardino Ochino, had given her religious

instruction, and the Italians who rejected Catholicism usually adopted

far more advanced forms of heresy than Lutheranism, Zwinglianism, or

even Calvinism. Elizabeth herself patronized Giacomo Acontio, who

thought dogma a "stratagema Satanae," and her last favourite, Essex was

accused of being the ringleader of "a damnable crew of atheists." A

Spanish ambassador early in the reign thought that Elizabeth's own

religion was equally negative, though she told him she agreed with

nearly everything in the Augsburg Confession. She was probably not at

liberty to say what she really thought, but she made up by saying a

great many things which she did not mean. It is clear enough that,

although, like her father, she was fond of ritual, she was absolutely

devoid of the religious temperament, and that her ecclesiastical

preferences were dictated by political considerations. She was sincere

enough in her dislike of Roman jurisdiction and of Calvinism; a daughter

of Anne Boleyn could have little affection for a system which made her a

bastard, and all monarchs agreed at heart with James I.'s aphorism about

"no bishop, no king." It was convenient, too, to profess Lutheran

sympathies, for Lutheranism was now an established, monarchical and

comparatively respectable religion, very different from the Calvinism

against which monarchs directed the Counter-reformation from political

motives. Lutheran dogma, however, had few adherents in England, though

its political theory coincided with that of Anglicanism in the 16th

century. The compromise that resulted from these conflicting forces

suited Elizabeth very well; she had little dislike of Catholics who

repudiated the papacy, but she was forced to rely mainly on Protestants,

and had little respect for any form of ecclesiastical self-government.

She valued uniformity in religion, not as a safeguard against heresy,

but as a guarantee of the unity of the state. She respected the bishops

only as supporters of her throne; and, although the well-known letter

beginning "Proud Prelate" is an 18th-century forgery, it is hardly a

travesty of Elizabeth's attitude.

The outlines of her foreign policy are sketched elsewhere (see ENGLISH

HISTORY), and her courtships were diplomatic. Contemporary gossip, which

was probably justified, said that she was debarred from matrimony by a

physical defect; and her cry when she heard that Mary queen of Scots had

given birth to a son is the most womanly thing recorded of Elizabeth.

Her features were as handsome as Mary's, but she had little fascination,

and in spite of her many suitors no man lost his head over Elizabeth as

men did over Mary. She was far too masculine in mind and temperament,

and her extravagant addiction to the outward trappings of femininity was

probably due to the absence or atrophy of deeper feminine instincts. In

the same way the impossibility of marriage made her all the freer with

her flirtations, and she carried some of them to lengths that

scandalized a public unconscious of Elizabeth's security. She had every

reason to keep them in the dark, and to convince other courts that she

could and would marry if the provocation were sufficient. She could not

marry Philip II., but she held out hopes to more than one of his

Austrian cousins whenever France or Mary Stuart seemed to threaten; and

later she encouraged two French princes when Philip had lost patience

with Elizabeth and made Mary Stuart his protegee. Her other suitors were

less important, except Leicester, who appealed to the least intellectual

side of Elizabeth and was always a cause of distraction in her policy

and her ministers.

Elizabeth was terribly handicapped by having no heirs of her body and no

obvious English successor. She could not afford to recognize Mary's

claim, for that would have been to alienate the Protestants, double the

number of Catholics, and, in her own phrase, to spread a winding-sheet

before her eyes; for all would have turned to the rising sun. Mary was

dangerous enough as it was, and no one would willingly make his rival

his heir. Elizabeth could hardly be expected to go out of her way and

ask parliament to repeal its own acts for Mary's sake; probably it would

have refused. Nor was it personal enmity on Elizabeth's part that

brought Mary to the block. Parliament had long been ferociously

demanding Mary's execution, not because she was guilty but because she

was dangerous to the public peace. She alone could have given the

Spanish Armada any real chance of success; and as the prospect of

invasion loomed larger on the horizon, fiercer grew the popular

determination to remove the only possible centre of a domestic rising,

without which the external attack was bound to be a failure. Elizabeth

resisted the demand, not from compassion or qualms of conscience, but

because she dreaded the responsibility for Mary's death. She wished

Paulet would manage the business on his own account, and when at last

her signature was extorted she made a scapegoat of her secretary Davison

who had the warrant executed.

The other great difficulty, apart from the succession, with which

Elizabeth had to deal arose from the exuberant aggressiveness of

England, which she could not, and perhaps did not want to, repress.

Religion was not really the cause of her external dangers, for the time

had passed for crusades, and no foreign power seriously contemplated an

armed invasion of England for religion's sake. But no state could long

tolerate the affronts which English seamen offered Spain. The common

view that the British Empire has been won by purely defensive action is

not tenable, and from the beginning of her reign Englishmen had taken

the offensive, partly from religious but also from other motives. They

were determined to break up the Spanish monopoly in the new world, and

in the pursuit of this endeavour they were led to challenge Spain in the

old. For nearly thirty years Philip put up with the capture of his

treasure-ships, the raiding of his colonies and the open assistance

rendered to his rebels. Only when he had reached the conclusion that his

power would never be secure in the Netherlands or the New World until

England was conquered, did he despatch the Spanish Armada. Elizabeth

delayed the breach as long as she could, probably because she knew that

war meant taxation, and that taxation was the most prolific parent of

revolt.

With the defeat of the Spanish Armada Elizabeth's work was done, and

during the last fifteen years of her reign she got more out of touch

with her people. That period was one of gradual transition to the

conditions of Stuart times; during it practically every claim was put

forward that was made under the first two Stuarts either on behalf of

parliament or the prerogative, and Elizabeth's attitude towards the

Puritans was hardly distinguishable from James I.'s. But her past was in

her favour, and so were her sex and her Tudor tact, which checked the

growth of discontent and made Essex's rebellion a ridiculous fiasco. He

was the last and the most wilful but perhaps the best of her favourites,

and his tragic fate deepened the gloom of her closing years. The

loneliness of a queen who had no husband or children and no relatives to

mention must at all times have been oppressive; it grew desolating in

old age after the deaths of Leicester, Walsingham, Burghley and Essex,

and Elizabeth died, the last of her race, on the 24th of March 1603.

Bishop Creighton's _Queen Elizabeth_ (1896) is the best biography;

there are others by E.S. Beesly (_Twelve English Statesmen_, 1892);

Lucy Aikin, _Memoirs of the Court of Queen Elizabeth_ (1818); and T.

Wright, _Queen Elizabeth and her Times_ (1838). See also A. Jessopp's

article in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ (A. F. P.)

ELIZABETH [PETROVNA] (1709-1762), EMPRESS OF RUSSIA, the daughter of

Peter the Great and Martha Skovronskaya, born at Kolomenskoye, near

Moscow, on the 18th of December 1709. Even as a child her parts were

good, if not brilliant, but unfortunately her education was both

imperfect and desultory. Her father had no leisure to devote to her

training, and her mother was too illiterate to superintend her studies.

She had a French governess, however, and at a later day picked up some

Italian, German and Swedish, and could converse in these languages with

more fluency than accuracy. From her earliest years she delighted every

one by her extraordinary beauty and vivacity. It was Peter's intention

to marry his second daughter to the young French king Louis XV., but the

pride of the Bourbons revolted against any such alliance. Other

connubial speculations foundered on the personal dislike of the princess

for the various suitors proposed to her, so that on the death of her

mother (May 1727) and the departure to Holstein of her beloved sister

Anne, her only remaining near relation, the princess found herself at

the age of eighteen practically her own mistress. So long as Menshikov

remained in power, she was treated with liberality and distinction by

the government of Peter II., but the Dolgorukis, who supplanted

Menshikov and hated the memory of Peter the Great, practically banished

Peter's daughter from court. Elizabeth had inherited her father's

sensual temperament and, being free from all control, abandoned herself

to her appetites without reserve. While still in her teens, she made a

lover of Alexius Shubin, a sergeant in the Semenovsky Guards, and after

his banishment to Siberia, minus his tongue, by order of the empress

Anne, consoled herself with a handsome young Cossack, Alexius

Razumovski, who, there is good reason to believe, subsequently became

her husband. During the reign of her cousin Anne (1730-1740), Elizabeth

effaced herself as much as possible; but under the regency of Anne

Leopoldovna the course of events compelled the indolent but by no means

incapable beauty to overthrow the existing government. The idea seems to

have been first suggested to her by the French ambassador, La Chetardie,

who was plotting to destroy the Austrian influence then dominant at the

Russian court. It is a mistake to suppose, however, that La Chetardie

took a leading part in the revolution which placed the daughter of Peter

the Great on the Russian throne. As a matter of fact, beyond lending the

tsesarevna 2000 ducats, instead of the 15,000 she demanded of him, he

took no part whatever in the actual _coup d'etat_ which was as great a

surprise to him as to every one else. The merit and glory of that

singular affair belong to Elizabeth alone. The fear of being imprisoned

in a convent for the rest of her life was the determining cause of her

irresistible outburst of energy. At midnight on the 6th of December

1741, with a few personal friends, including her physician, Armand

Lestocq, her chamberlain, Michael Ilarionvich Vorontsov, her future

husband, Alexius Razumovski, and Alexander and Peter Shuvalov, two of

the gentlemen of her household, she drove to the barracks of the

Preobrazhensky Guards, enlisted their sympathies by a stirring speech,

and led them to the Winter Palace, where the regent was reposing in

absolute security. Having on the way thither had all the ministers

arrested, she seized the regent and her children in their beds, and

summoned all the notables, civil and ecclesiastical, to her presence. So

swiftly and noiselessly indeed had the whole revolution proceeded that

as late as eight o'clock the next morning very few people in the city

were aware of it. Thus, at the age of three-and-thirty, this naturally

indolent and self-indulgent woman, with little knowledge and no

experience of affairs, suddenly found herself at the head of a great

empire at one of the most critical periods of its existence. Fortunately

for herself, and for Russia, Elizabeth Petrovna, with all her

shortcomings, had inherited some of her father's genius for government.

Her usually keen judgment and her diplomatic tact again and again recall

Peter the Great. What in her sometimes seemed irresolution and

procrastination, was, most often, a wise suspense of judgment under

exceptionally difficult circumstances; and to this may be added that she

was ever ready to sacrifice the prejudices of the woman to the duty of

the sovereign.

After abolishing the cabinet council system in favour during the rule of

the two Annes, and reconstituting the senate as it had been under Peter

the Great,--with the chiefs of the departments of state, all of them now

Russians again, as _ex-officio_ members under the presidency of the

sovereign,--the first care of the new empress was to compose her quarrel

with Sweden. On the 23rd of January 1743, direct negotiations between

the two powers were opened at Abo, and on the 7th of August 1743 Sweden

ceded to Russia all the southern part of Finland east of the river

Kymmene, which thus became the boundary between the two states,

including the fortresses of Villmanstrand and Fredrikshamn. This

triumphant issue was mainly due to the diplomatic ability of the new

vice chancellor, Alexius Bestuzhev-Ryumin (q.v.), whom Elizabeth, much

as she disliked him personally, had wisely placed at the head of foreign

affairs immediately after her accession. He represented the

anti-Franco-Prussian portion of her council, and his object was to bring

about an Anglo-Austro-Russian alliance which, at that time, was

undoubtedly Russia's proper system. Hence the reiterated attempts of

Frederick the Great and Louis XV. to get rid of Bestuzhev, which made

the Russian court during the earlier years of Elizabeth's reign the

centre of a tangle of intrigue impossible to unravel by those who do

not possess the clue to it (see BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, ALEXIUS). Ultimately,

however, the minister, strong in the support of Elizabeth, prevailed,

and his faultless diplomacy, backed by the despatch of an auxiliary

Russian corps of 30,000 men to the Rhine, greatly accelerated the peace

negotiations which led to the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (October 18,

1748). By sheer tenacity of purpose, Bestuzhev had extricated his

country from the Swedish imbroglio; reconciled his imperial mistress

with the courts of Vienna and London, her natural allies; enabled Russia

to assert herself effectually in Poland, Turkey and Sweden, and isolated

the restless king of Prussia by environing him with hostile alliances.

But all this would have been impossible but for the steady support of

Elizabeth, who trusted him implicitly, despite the insinuations of the

chancellor's innumerable enemies, most of whom were her personal

friends.

The great event of Elizabeth's later years was the Seven Years' War.

Elizabeth rightly regarded the treaty of Westminster (January 16, 1756,

whereby Great Britain and Prussia agreed to unite their forces to oppose

the entry into, or the passage through, Germany of the troops of every

foreign power) as utterly subversive of the previous conventions between

Great Britain and Russia. A by no means unwarrantable fear of the king

of Prussia, who was "to be reduced within proper limits," so that "he

might be no longer a danger to the empire," induced Elizabeth to accede

to the treaty of Versailles, in other words the Franco-Austrian league

against Prussia, and on the 17th of May 1757 the Russian army, 85,000

strong, advanced against Konigsberg. Neither the serious illness of the

empress, which began with a fainting-fit at Tsarskoe Selo (September 19,

1757), nor the fall of Bestuzhev (February 21, 1758), nor the cabals and

intrigues of the various foreign powers at St Petersburg, interfered

with the progress of the war, and the crushing defeat of Kunersdorf

(August 12, 1759) at last brought Frederick to the verge of ruin. From

that day forth he despaired of success, though he was saved for the

moment by the jealousies of the Russian and Austrian commanders, which

ruined the military plans of the allies. On the other hand, it is not

too much to say that, from the end of 1759 to the end of 1761, the

unshakable firmness of the Russian empress was the one constraining

political force which held together the heterogeneous, incessantly

jarring elements of the anti-Prussian combination. From the Russian

point of view, Elizabeth's greatness as a statesman consists in her

steady appreciation of Russian interests, and her determination to

promote them at all hazards. She insisted throughout that the king of

Prussia must be rendered harmless to his neighbours for the future, and

that the only way to bring this about was to reduce him to the rank of

an elector. Frederick himself was quite alive to his danger. "I am at

the end of my resources," he wrote at the beginning of 1760, "the

continuance of this war means for me utter ruin. Things may drag on

perhaps till July, but then a catastrophe _must_ come." On the 21st of

May 1760 a fresh convention was signed between Russia and Austria, a

secret clause of which, never communicated to the court of Versailles,

guaranteed East Prussia to Russia, as an indemnity for war expenses. The

failure of the campaign of 1760, so far as Russia and France were

concerned, induced the court of Versailles, on the evening of the 22nd

of January 1761, to present to the court of St Petersburg a despatch to

the effect that the king of France by reason of the condition of his

dominions absolutely desired peace. On the following day the Austrian

ambassador, Esterhazy, presented a despatch of a similar tenor from his

court. The Russian empress's reply was delivered to the two ambassadors

on the 12th of February. It was inspired by the most uncompromising

hostility towards the king of Prussia. Elizabeth would not consent to

any pacific overtures until the original object of the league had been

accomplished. Simultaneously, Elizabeth caused to be conveyed to Louis

XV. a confidential letter in which she proposed the signature of a new

treaty of alliance of a more comprehensive and explicit nature than the

preceding treaties between the two powers, without the knowledge of

Austria. Elizabeth's object in this mysterious negotiation seems to

have been to reconcile France and Great Britain, in return for which

signal service France was to throw all her forces into the German war.

This project, which lacked neither ability nor audacity, foundered upon

Louis XV.'s invincible jealousy of the growth of Russian influence in

eastern Europe and his fear of offending the Porte. It was finally

arranged by the allies that their envoys at Paris should fix the date

for the assembling of a peace congress, and that, in the meantime, the

war against Prussia should be vigorously prosecuted. The campaign of

1761 was almost as abortive as the campaign of 1760. Frederick acted on

the defensive with consummate skill, and the capture of the Prussian

fortress of Kolberg on Christmas day O.S. 1761, by Rumyantsev, was the

sole Russian success. Frederick, however, was now at the last gasp. On

the 6th of January 1762, he wrote to Finkenstein, "We ought now to think

of preserving for my nephew, by way of negotiation, whatever fragments

of my territory we can save from the avidity of my enemies," which

means, if words mean anything, that he was resolved to seek a soldier's

death on the first opportunity. A fortnight later he wrote to Prince

Ferdinand of Brunswick, "The sky begins to clear. Courage, my dear

fellow. I have received the news of a great event." The great event

which snatched him from destruction was the death of the Russian empress

(January 5, 1762).

See Robert Nisbet Bain, _The Daughter of Peter the Great_ (London,

1899); Sergyei Solovev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.), vols. xx.-xxii.

(St Petersburg, 1857-1877); _Politische Correspondenz Friedrichs des

Grossen_, vols. i.-xxi. (Berlin, 1879, &c.); Colonel Masslowski, _Der

siebenjahrige Krieg nach russischer Darstellung_ (Berlin, 1888-1893);

Kazinsierz Waliszewski, _La Derniere des Romanov_ (Paris, 1902).

(R. N. B.)

ELIZABETH [AMELIE EUGENIE] (1837-1898), consort of Francis Joseph,

emperor of Austria and king of Hungary, was the daughter of Duke

Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria and Louisa Wilhelmina, daughter of

Maximilian I. of Bavaria, and was born on the 24th of December 1837 at

the castle of Possenhofen on Lake Starnberg. She inherited the quick

intelligence and artistic taste displayed in general by members of the

Wittelsbach royal house, and her education was the reverse of

conventional. She accompanied her eccentric father on his hunting

expeditions, becoming an expert rider and climber, visiting the peasants

in their huts and sharing in rustic pleasures. The emperor of Austria,

Francis Joseph, met the Bavarian ducal family at Ischl in August 1853,

and immediately fell in love with Elizabeth, then a girl of sixteen, and

reported to be the most beautiful princess in Europe. The marriage took

place in Vienna on the 24th of April 1854. In the early days of her

married life she frequently came into collision with Viennese prejudice.

Her attempts to modify court etiquette, and her extreme fondness for

horsemanship and frequent visits to the imperial riding school,

scandalized Austrian society, while her predilection for Hungary and for

everything Hungarian offended German sentiment. There is no doubt that

her influence helped the establishment of the _Ausgleich_ with Hungary,

but outside Hungarian affairs the empress took small part in politics.

She first visited Hungary in 1857, and ten years later was crowned

queen. Her popularity with the Hungarians remained unchanged throughout

her life; and the castle of Godollo, presented as a coronation gift, was

one of her favourite residences. Elizabeth was one of the most

charitable of royal ladies, and her popularity with her Austrian

subjects was more than restored by her assiduous care for the wounded in

the campaign of 1866. Besides her public benefactions she constantly

exercised personal and private charity. Her eldest daughter died in

infancy; Gisela (b. 1856) married the Prince Leopold of Bavaria; and her

youngest daughter Marie Valerie (b. 1868) married the Archduke Franz

Salvator. The tragic death of her only son, the crown prince Rudolph, in

1889, was a shock from which she never really recovered. She was also

deeply affected by the suicide of her cousin Louis II. of Bavaria, and

again by the fate of her sister Sophia, duchess of Alencon, who perished

in the fire of the Paris charity bazaar in 1897. The empress had shown

signs of lung disease in 1861, when she spent some months in Madeira;

but she was able to resume her outdoor sports, and for some years

before 1882, when she had to give up riding, was a frequent visitor on

English and Irish hunting fields. In her later years her dislike of

publicity increased. Much of her time was spent in travel or at the

Achilleion, the palace she had built in the Greek style in Corfu. She

was walking from her hotel at Geneva to the steamer when she was stabbed

by the anarchist Luigi Luccheni, on the 10th of September 1898, and died

of the wound within a few hours. This aimless and dastardly crime

completed the list of misfortunes of the Austrian house, and aroused

intense indignation throughout Europe.

See A. de Burgh, _Elizabeth, Empress of Austria, a Memoir_ (London,

1898); E. Friedmann and J. Paves, _Kaiserin Elisabeth_ (Berlin, 1898);

and the anonymous _Martyrdom of an Empress_ (1899), containing a

quantity of court gossip.

ELIZABETH (1596-1662), consort of Frederick V., elector palatine and

titular king of Bohemia, was the eldest daughter of James I. of Great

Britain and of Anne of Denmark, and was born at Falkland Castle in

Fifeshire in August 1596. She was entrusted to the care of the earl of

Linlithgow, and after the departure of the royal family to England, to

the countess of Kildare, subsequently residing with Lord and Lady

Harington at Combe Abbey in Warwickshire. In November 1605 the Gunpowder

Plot conspirators formed a plan to seize her person and proclaim her

queen after the explosion, in consequence of which she was removed by

Lord Harington to Coventry. In 1608 she appeared at court, where her

beauty soon attracted admiration and became the theme of the poets, her

suitors including the dauphin, Maurice, prince of Orange, Gustavus

Adolphus, Philip III. of Spain, and Frederick V., the elector palatine.

A union with the last-named was finally arranged, in spite of the

queen's opposition, in order to strengthen the alliance with the

Protestant powers in Germany, and the marriage took place on the 14th of

February 1613 midst great rejoicing and festivities. The prince and

princess entered Heidelberg on the 17th of June, and Elizabeth, by means

of her English annuity, enjoyed five years of pleasure and of

extravagant gaiety to which the small German court was totally

unaccustomed. On the 26th of August 1618, Frederick, as a leading

Protestant prince, was chosen king by the Bohemians, who deposed the

emperor Ferdinand, then archduke of Styria. There is no evidence to show

that his acceptance was instigated by the princess or that she had any

influence in her husband's political career. She accompanied Frederick

to Prague in October 1619, and was crowned on the 7th of November. Here

her unrestrainable high spirits and levity gave great offence to the

citizens. On the approach of misfortune, however, she showed great

courage and fortitude. She left Prague on the 8th of November 1620,

after the fatal battle of the White Hill, for Kustrin, travelling thence

to Berlin and Wolfenbuttel, finally with Frederick taking refuge at the

Hague with Prince Maurice of Orange. The help sought from James came

only in the shape of useless embassies and negotiations; the two

Palatinates were soon occupied by the Spaniards and the duke of Bavaria;

and the romantic attachment and services of Duke Christian of Brunswick,

of the 1st earl of Craven, and of other chivalrous young champions who

were inspired by the beauty and grace of the "Queen of Hearts," as

Elizabeth was now called, availed nothing. Her residence was at Rhenen

near Arnheim, where she received many English visitors and endeavoured

to maintain her spirits and fortitude, with straitened means and in

spite of frequent disappointments. The victories of Gustavus Adolphus

secured no permanent advantage, and his death at Lutzen was followed by

that of the elector at Mainz on the 29th of November 1632. Subsequent

attempts of the princess to reinstate her son in his dominions were

unsuccessful, and it was not till the peace of Westphalia in 1648 that

he regained a portion of them, the Rhenish Palatinate. Meanwhile,

Elizabeth's position in Holland grew more and more unsatisfactory. The

payment of her English annuity of L12,000 ceased after the outbreak of

the troubles with the parliament; the death of Charles I. in 1649 put an

end to all hopes from that quarter; and the pension allowed her by the

house of Orange ceased in 1650. Her children, in consequence of

disputes, abandoned her, and her eldest son Charles Louis refused her a

home in his restored electorate. Nor did Charles II. at his restoration

show any desire to receive her in England. Parliament voted her L20,000

in 1660 for the payment of her debts, but Elizabeth did not receive the

money, and on the 19th of May 1661 she left the Hague for England, in

spite of the king's attempts to hinder her journey, receiving no

official welcome on her arrival in London and being lodged at Lord

Craven's house in Drury Lane. Charles, however, subsequently granted her

a pension and treated her with kindness. On the 8th of February 1662 she

removed to Leicester House in Leicester Fields, and died shortly

afterwards on the 13th of the same month, being buried in Westminster

Abbey. Her beauty, grace and vivacity exercised a great charm over her

contemporaries, the enthusiasm for her, however, being probably not

merely personal but one inspired also by her misfortunes and by the fact

that these misfortunes were incurred in defence of the Protestant cause;

later, as the ancestress of the Protestant Hanoverian dynasty, she

obtained a conspicuous place in English history. She had thirteen

children--Frederick Henry, drowned at sea in 1629; Charles Louis,

elector palatine, whose daughter married Philip, duke of Orleans, and

became the ancestress of the elder and Roman Catholic branch of the

royal family of England; Elizabeth, abbess and friend of Descartes;

Prince Rupert and Prince Maurice, who died unmarried; Louisa, abbess;

Edward, who married Anne de Gonzaga, "princesse palatine," and had

children; Henrietta Maria, who married Count Sigismund Ragotzki but died

childless; Philip and Charlotte, who died childless; Sophia, who married

Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover, and was mother of George I. of

England; and two others who died young.

Bibliography.--See the article in _Dict. of Nat. Biography_ and

authorities there collected; _Five Stuart Princesses_, ed. by R.S.

Rait (1902); _Briefe der Elizabeth Stuart ... an ... den Kurfursten

Carl Ludwig von der Pfalz_, by A. Wendland (Bibliothek des

literarischen Vereins, 228, Stuttgart, 1902); "Elizabeth Stuart," by

J.O. Opel, in Sybel's _Historische Zeitschrift_, xxiii. 289; _Thomason

Tracts_ (Brit. Mus.), E., 138 (14), 122 (12), 118 (40), 119 (18).

Important material regarding the princess exists in the MSS. of the

earl of Craven, at Combe Abbey.

ELIZABETH [PAULINE ELIZABETH OTTILIE LOUISE] (1843- ), consort of King

Charles I. (q.v.) of Rumania, widely known by her literary name of

"Carmen Sylva," was born on the 29th of December 1843. She was the

daughter of Prince Hermann of Neuwied. She first met the future king of

Rumania at Berlin in 1861, and was married to him on the 15th of

November 1869. Her only child, a daughter, died in 1874. In the

Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 she devoted herself to the care of the

wounded, and founded the Order of Elizabeth (a gold cross on a blue

ribbon) to reward distinguished service in such work. She fostered the

higher education of women in Rumania, and established societies for

various charitable objects. Early distinguished by her excellence as a

pianist, organist and singer, she also showed considerable ability in

painting and illuminating; but a lively poetic imagination led her to

the path of literature, and more especially to poetry, folk-lore and

ballads. In addition to numerous original works she put into literary

form many of the legends current among the Rumanian peasantry.

"Carmen Sylva" wrote with facility in German, Rumanian, French and

English. A few of her voluminous writings, which include poems, plays,

novels, short stories, essays, collections of aphorisms, &c., may be

singled out for special mention. Her earliest publications were _Sappho_

and _Hammerstein_, two poems which appeared at Leipzig in 1880. In 1888

she received the Prix Botta, a prize awarded triennially by the French

Academy, for her volume of prose aphorisms _Les Pensees d'une reine_

(Paris, 1882), a German version of which is entitled _Vom Amboss_ (Bonn,

1890). _Cuvinte Sufletesci_, religious meditations in Rumanian

(Bucharest, 1888), was also translated into German (Bonn, 1890), under

the name of _Seelen-Gesprache_. Several of the works of "Carmen Sylva"

were written in collaboration with Mite Kremnitz, one of her maids of

honour, who was born at Greifswald in 1857, and married Dr Kremnitz of

Bucharest; these were published between 1881 and 1888, in some cases

under the pseudonyms _Dito et Idem_, and includes the novel _Aus zwei

Welten_ (Leipzig, 1884), _Anna Boleyn_ (Bonn, 1886), a tragedy, _In der

Irre_ (Bonn, 1888), a collection of short stories, &c. _Edleen Vaughan,

or Paths of Peril_, a novel (London, 1894), and _Sweet Hours_, poems

(London, 1904), were written in English. Among the translations made by

"Carmen Sylva" are German versions of Pierre Loti's romance _Pecheur

d'Islande_, and of Paul de St Victor's dramatic criticisms _Les Deux

Masques_ (Paris, 1881-1884); and in particular _The Bard of the

Dimbovitza_, a fine English version by "Carmen Sylva" and Alma Strettell

of Helene Vacarescu's collection of Rumanian folk-songs, &c., entitled

_Lieder aus dem Dimbovitzathal_ (Bonn, 1889). _The Bard of the

Dimbovitza_ was first published in 1891, and was soon reissued and

expanded. Translations from the original works of "Carmen Sylva" have

appeared in all the principal languages of Europe and in Armenian.

See RUMANIA: _History_; also M. Kremnitz, _Carmen Sylva--eine

Biographie_ (Leipzig, 1903); and, for a full bibliography, G.

Bengescu, _Carmen Sylva--bibliographie et extraits de ses oeuvres_

(Paris, 1904).

ELIZABETH (1635-1650), English princess, second daughter of Charles I.,

was born on the 28th of December 1635 at St James's Palace. On the

outbreak of the Civil War and the departure of the king from London,

while the two elder princes accompanied their father, the princess and

the infant duke of Gloucester were left under the care of the

parliament. In October 1642 Elizabeth sent a letter to the House of

Lords begging that her old attendants might not be removed. In July 1644

the royal children were sent to Sir John Danvers at Chelsea, and in 1645

to the earl and countess of Northumberland. After the final defeat of

the king they were joined in 1646 by James, and during 1647 paid several

visits to the king at Caversham, near Reading, and Hampton Court, but

were again separated by Charles's imprisonment at Carisbrooke Castle. On

the 21st of April 1648 James was persuaded to escape by Elizabeth, who

declared that were she a boy she would not long remain in confinement.

The last sad meeting between Charles and his two children, at which the

princess was overcome with grief, and of which she wrote a short and

touching account, took place on the 29th of January 1649, the day before

his execution. In June she was entrusted to the care of the earl and

countess of Leicester at Penshurst, but in 1650, upon the landing of

Charles II. in Scotland, the parliament ordered the royal children to be

taken for security to Carisbrooke Castle. The princess fell ill from a

wetting almost immediately upon her arrival, and died of fever on the

8th of September. She was buried in St Thomas's church at Newport, Isle

of Wight, where the initials "E.S." alone marked her grave till 1856,

when a monument was erected to her memory by Queen Victoria. The

princess's sorrowful career and early death have attracted general

interest and sympathy. She was said to have acquired considerable

proficiency in Greek, Hebrew and Latin, as well as in Italian and

French, and several books were dedicated to her, including the

translation of the _Electra_ of Sophocles by Christopher Wase in 1649.

Her mild nature and gentleness towards her father's enemies gained her

the name of "Temperance."

See _Lives of the Princesses of England_, by M.A.E. Green (1855), vol.

vi.; _Notes and Queries_, 7th ser., ix. 444, x. 15.

ELIZABETH [Elisabeth Philippine Marie Helene of France] (1764-1794),

commonly called MADAME ELIZABETH, daughter of Louis the Dauphin and

Marie Josephine of Saxony, and sister of Louis XVI., was born at

Versailles on the 3rd of May 1764. Left an orphan at the age of three,

she was brought up by Madame de Mackau, and had a residence at

Montreuil, where she gave many proofs of her benevolent character. She

refused all offers of marriage so that she might remain by the side of

her brother, whom she loved passionately. At the outset of the

Revolution she foresaw the gravity of events, and refused to leave the

king, whom she accompanied in his flight on the 20th of June 1792, and

with whom she was arrested at Varennes. She was present at the

Legislative Assembly when Louis was suspended, and was imprisoned in the

Temple with the royal family. By the execution of the king and the

removal of Marie Antoinette to the Conciergerie, Madame Elizabeth was

deprived of her companions in the Temple prison, and on the 9th of May

1794 she was herself transferred to the Conciergerie, and haled before

the revolutionary tribunal. Accused of assisting the king's flight, of

supplying _emigres_ with funds, and of encouraging the resistance of the

royal troops on the 10th of August 1792, she was condemned to death, and

executed on the 10th of May 1794. Like her brother, she had all the

domestic virtues, and, as was to be expected of a sister of Louis XVI.,

she was in favour of absolutist principles. Hers was one of the most

touching tragedies of the Revolution; she perished because she was the

sister of the king.

The _Memoires de Madame Elisabeth_ (Paris, 1858), by F. de Barghon and

Fort-Rion, are of doubtful authenticity; and the collection of letters

and documents published in 1865 by F. Feuillet de Conches must be used

with caution (see the bibliographical note to the article MARIE

ANTOINETTE). See le Comte A.F.C. Ferrand, _Eloge historique de Madame

Elisabeth_ (1814, containing 94 letters; 2nd ed., 1861, containing

additional letters, but correspondence mutilated); Du Fresne de

Beaucourt, _Etude sur Madame Elisabeth_ (Paris, 1864); A. de

Beauchesne, _Vie de Madame Elisabeth_ (1869); La comtesse d'Armaille,

_Madame Elisabeth_ (Paris, 1886); Madame d'Arvor, _Madame Elisabeth_

(Paris, 1898); and Hon. Mrs Maxwell-Scott, _Madame Elizabeth of

France_ (1908).

ELIZABETH, SAINT (1207-1231), daughter of Andrew II., king of Hungary

(d. 1235), by his first wife, Gertrude of Andechs-Meran (d. 1213), was

born in Pressburg in 1207. At four years of age she was betrothed to

Louis IV., landgrave of Thuringia, and conducted to the Wartburg, near

Eisenach, to be educated under the direction of his parents. In spite of

her decidedly worldly surroundings at the Thuringian court, she evinced

from the first an aversion from even the most innocent pleasures, and

stimulated by the example of her mother's sister, St Hedwig, wife of

Henry VI., duke of Silesia-Breslau, devoted her whole time to religion

and to works of charity. She was married at the age of fourteen, and

acquired such influence over her husband that he adopted her point of

view and zealously assisted her in all her charitable endeavours.

According to the legend, much celebrated in German art, Louis at first

desired to curtail her excessive charities, and forbade her unbounded

gifts to the poor. One day, returning from hunting, he met his wife

descending from the Wartburg with a heavy bundle filled with bread. He

sternly bade her open it; she did so, and he saw nothing but a mass of

red roses. The miracle completed his conversion. On the death of Louis

"the Saint" in 1227, Elizabeth was deprived of the regency by his

brother, Henry Raspe IV. (d. 1247), on the pretext that she was wasting

the estates by her alms; and with her three infant children she was

driven from her home without being allowed to carry with her even the

barest necessaries of life. She lived for some time in great hardship,

but ultimately her maternal uncle, Egbert, bishop of Bamberg, offered

her an asylum in a house adjoining his palace. Through the intercession

of some of the principal barons, the regency was again offered her, and

her son Hermann was declared heir to the landgraviate; but renouncing

all power, and making use of her wealth only for charitable purposes,

she preferred to live in seclusion at Marburg under the direction of her

confessor, the bigoted persecutor Conrad of Marburg. There she spent the

remainder of her days in penances of unusual severity, and in

ministrations to the sick, especially those afflicted with the most

loathsome diseases. She died at Marburg on the 19th of November 1231,

and four years afterwards was canonized by Gregory IX. on account of the

frequent miracles reported to have been performed at her tomb.

The exhibition in the Royal Academy of P.H. Calderon's picture, "St

Elizabeth of Hungary's Great Act of Renunciation," now in the Tate

Gallery in London, roused considerable protest among Catholics. The

saint is represented as kneeling nude before the altar, in the presence

of her confessor and a couple of nuns. The passage this is intended to

illustrate is in Lib. iv. S 1 of Dietrich of Apolda's _Vita_, which

relates how, on a certain Good Friday, she went into a chapel and, in

the presence of some Franciscan brothers, laid her hands on the bare

altar, renounced her own will, her parents, children, relations, and all

pomps of this kind (_hujus modi_) in imitation of Christ; and stripped

herself utterly naked (_omnino se exuit et nudavit_) in order to follow

Him naked, in the steps of poverty. A literal interpretation of this

passage is not impossible; for ecstatic mystics of all ages have

indulged in a like [Greek: kenosis], and Conrad, who revelled in

inflicting religious tortures, was quite capable of imposing this

crowning humiliation upon his gentle victim. It is far more probable,

however, that the passage is not to be taken literally.

Lives of St Elizabeth were written by Theodoricus (Dietrich) of Apolda

(b. 1228), Caesarius of Heisterbach (d. c. 1240), Conrad of Marburg

and others (see Potthast, _Bibl. Hist. Med. Aev._ p. 1284). A metrical

life in German exists by Johann Rothe (d. c. 1440), chaplain to the

Landgravine Anne of Thuringia (Potthast, p. 985). _L'Histoire de

Sainte Elisabeth de Hongrie_, by Montalembert, was published at Paris

in 1836. Her life has also supplied the materials for a dramatic poem

by Charles Kingsley, entitled the "Saint's Tragedy." The edition of

this in vol. xvi. of the _Life and Works of Charles Kingsley_ (London,

1902) has valuable notes, with many extracts from the original

sources.

ELIZABETH, a city and the county-seat of Union county, New Jersey,

U.S.A., on Elizabeth river, Newark Bay, and Arthur Kill, 10 m. S.W. of

Jersey City. Pop. (1890) 37,764; (1900) 52,130, of whom 14,770 were

foreign-born and 1139 were negroes; (1910 census) 73,409. It is served

by the Pennsylvania, the Lehigh Valley and the Central of New Jersey

railways. The site is level and the streets are broad and shaded. There

are many residences of New York business men, and several historic

buildings, including Liberty Hall, the mansion of William Livingston,

first governor of the state; Boxwood Hall (now used as a home for aged

women), the former home of Elias Boudinot; the old brick mansion of

Jonathan Belcher (1681-1757), governor of the province from 1747 to

1757; the First Presbyterian Church; and the house occupied at different

times by General Winfield Scott. The city has several parks, the Union

county court house (1905), a public library and several charitable

institutions. Elizabethport, that part of the city on Staten Island

Sound, about 2 m. S.E. of the centre of Elizabeth, has a port open to

vessels of 300 tons; it is an outlet of the Pennsylvania coal fields and

is thus one of the most important coal shipping depots in the United

States. Here, too, are a plant (covering more than 800 acres) of the

Standard Oil Company and a large establishment for the manufacture of

the "Singer" sewing machine--according to the U.S. census the largest

manufactory of sewing machines in the world--employing more than 6000

workmen in 1905; among the other manufactures of Elizabeth are foundry

and machine shop products (value in 1905, $3,887,139), wire, oil (value

in 1905, $2,387,656), refined and smelted copper, the output of railway

repair shops, edge tools and lager beer. The value of the manufactured

products was $10,489,364 in 1890; $22,861,375 (factory product) in 1900;

and $29,300,801 (factory product) in 1905.

Elizabeth was settled in 1665 by a company from Long Island for whom the

land had been purchased from the Indians and a grant had been obtained

from Richard Nicolls as agent for the duke of York. But about the same

time the duke conveyed the entire province to John, Lord Berkeley, and

Sir George Carteret, and these two conflicting grants gave rise to a

long-continued controversy (see NEW JERSEY). The town was named in

honour of Elizabeth, wife of Sir George Carteret, and was first known as

Elizabethtown. From 1665 to 1686 it was the seat of government of the

province, and the legislature sat here occasionally until 1790. In the

home of the Rev. Jonathan Dickinson (1688-1747), its first president,

the first sessions of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton

University) were held in 1747, but immediately afterwards the college

removed to Newark. In December 1776 and twice in June 1780 the British

entered Elizabeth and made it a base of operations, but on each occasion

they were soon driven out. Elizabeth became a "free town and borough" in

1739; the borough charter was confirmed by the legislature in 1789 and

repealed in 1790, and Elizabeth was chartered as a city in 1855.

See E.F. Hatfield, _History of Elizabeth, New Jersey_ (New York,

1868).

ELIZABETHAN STYLE, in architecture, the term given to the early

Renaissance style in England, which flourished chiefly during the reign

of Queen Elizabeth; it followed the Tudor style, and was succeeded in

the beginning of the 16th century by the purer Italian style introduced

by Inigo Jones. It responds to the Cinque-Cento period in Italy, the

Francois I. style in France, and the Plateresque or Silversmith's style

in Spain. During the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. many Italian

artists came over, who carried out various decorative features at

Hampton Court; Layer Marney, Suffolk (1522-1525); Sutton Place, Surrey

(1529); Nonsuch Palace and elsewhere. Later in the century Flemish

craftsmen succeeded the Italians, and the Royal Exchange in London

(1566-1570) is one of the first important buildings designed by Henri de

Paschen, an architect from Antwerp. Longford Castle, Wollaton, Hatfield,

Blickling, Audley End, and Charterhouse (London) all show the style

introduced by Flemish workmen.

ELIZABETH CITY, a town, port of entry and the county-seat of Pasquotank

county, North Carolina, U.S.A., on the Pasquotank river, at the head of

navigation, 46 m. S. by E. of Norfolk, Virginia. Pop. (1890) 3251;

(1900) 6348 (3164 negroes); (1910) 8412. It is served by the Norfolk &

Southern, and the Suffolk & Carolina railways, and is on the Dismal

Swamp and Albemarle & Chesapeake canals. Elizabeth City is a winter

meeting-place for hunters. It is the seat of a state normal school for

negroes and of the Atlantic Collegiate Institute, is a trucking centre,

has shipyards, and has a large wholesale trade in clothing, groceries

and general merchandise; from it are shipped considerable quantities of

fish, cotton and lumber. The town is the port of entry of the Albemarle

customs district, but its foreign trade is unimportant. Among its

manufactures are cotton goods, iron, lumber, nets and twine, bricks, and

carriages and wagons. The oyster fisheries in the vicinity are of

considerable importance. Elizabeth City was settled in 1793, and was

first incorporated in the same year.

ELK, or MOOSE, the largest of all the deer tribe, distinguished from

other members of the _Cervidae_ by the form of the antlers of the males.

These arise as cylindrical beams projecting on each side at right angles

to the middle line of the skull, which after a short distance divide in

a fork-like manner. The lower prong of this fork may be either simple,

or divided into two or three tines, with some flattening. In the East

Siberian elk (_Alces machlis bedfordiae_) the posterior division of the

main fork divides into three tines, with no distinct flattening. In the

common elk (_A. machlis_ or _A. alces_), on the other hand, this branch

usually expands into a broad palmation, with one large tine at the base,

and a number of smaller snags on the free border; there is, however, a

phase of the Scandinavian elk in which the antlers are simpler, and

recall those of the East Siberian race. The palmation appears to be more

marked in the North American race (_A. m. americanus_) than in the

typical Scandinavian elk. The largest of all is the Alaskan race (_A. m.

gigas_), which is said to stand 8 ft. in height, with a span of 6 ft.

across the antlers. The great length of the legs gives a decidedly

ungainly appearance to the elk. The muzzle is long and fleshy, with only

a very small triangular naked patch below the nostrils; and the males

have a peculiar sac, known as the bell, hanging from the neck. From the

shortness of their necks, elks are unable to graze, and their chief food

consists of young shoots and leaves of willow and birch. In North

America during the winter one male and several females form a

"moose-yard" in the forest, which they keep open by trampling the snow.

Although generally timid, the males become very bold during the breeding

season, when the females utter a loud call; and at such times they fight

both with their antlers and their hoofs. The usual pace is a shambling

trot, but when pressed elks break into a gallop. The female gives birth

to one or two young at a time, which are not spotted. In America the elk

is known as the moose, and the former name is transferred to the wapiti

deer. (R. L.*)

ELKHART, a city of Elkhart county, Indiana, U.S.A., at the confluence of

the Elkhart and St Joseph rivers, about 100 m. E. of Chicago. Pop.

(1890) 11,360; (1900) 15,184, of whom 1353 were foreign-born; (1910

census) 19,282. Elkhart is at the junction of the western division with

the main line of the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railway, and is

served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the

Northern Indiana railways (the latter electric). It is attractively

situated and has fine business and public buildings, including a

Carnegie library and the Clark hospital, with which a nurses' training

school is connected. It has also several parks, including the beautiful

Island Park and McNaughton Park, the latter the annual meeting-place of

the St Joseph Valley Chautauqua. A valuable water-power is utilized for

manufacturing purposes. There are extensive railway-car shops and iron

and brass foundries, and the manufactures include band instruments,

furniture, telephone supplies, electric transformers, bridges, paper,

flour, starch, rubber goods, acetylene gas machines, printing presses,

drugs and carriages. The total value of the factory product was

$4,345,466 in 1905, an increase of 10.5% since 1900. At Elkhart is the

main publishing house of the Mennonite Church in America, two weekly

periodicals being issued, one in English, _The Herald of Truth_, and one

in German, the _Mennonitische Rundschau_. The first settlement was made

here about 1834; and Elkhart was chartered as a city in 1875.

ELKINGTON, GEORGE RICHARDS (1801-1865), founder of the electroplating

industry in England, was born in Birmingham on the 17th of October 1801,

the son of a spectacle manufacturer. Apprenticed to his uncles, silver

platers in Birmingham, he became, on their death, sole proprietor of the

business, but subsequently took his cousin, Henry Elkington, into

partnership. The science of electrometallurgy was then in its infancy,

but the Elkingtons were quick to recognize its possibilities. They had

already taken out certain patents for the application of electricity to

metals when, in 1840, John Wright, a Birmingham surgeon, discovered the

valuable properties of a solution of cyanide of silver in cyanide of

potassium for electroplating purposes. The Elkingtons purchased and

patented Wright's process, subsequently acquiring the rights of other

processes and improvements. Large new works for electroplating and

electrogilding were opened in Birmingham in 1841, and in the following

year Josiah Mason became a partner in the firm. George Richards

Elkington died on the 22nd of September 1865, and Henry Elkington on the

26th of October 1852.

ELLA, or AELLA, the name of three Anglo-Saxon kings.

ELLA (d. c. 514), king of the South Saxons and founder of the kingdom

of Sussex, was a Saxon ealdorman, who landed near Arundel in Sussex with

his three sons in 477. Defeating the Britons, who were driven into the

forest of Andredsweald, Ella and his followers established themselves

along the south coast, although their progress was slow and difficult.

However, in 491, strengthened by the arrival of fresh bands of

immigrants, they captured the Roman city of Anderida and "slew all that

were therein." Ella, who is reckoned as the first Bretwalda, then became

king of the South Saxons, and, when he died about 514, he was succeeded

by his son Cissa.

ELLA (d. 588), king of the Deirans, was the son of an ealdorman named

Iffa, and became the first king of Deira when, in 559, the Deirans

separated themselves from the neighbouring kingdom of Bernicia. The

English slaves, who aroused the interest of Pope Gregory I. at Rome,

were subjects of Ella, and on this occasion the pope, punning the name

of their king, suggested that "Alleluia" should be sung in his land.

When Ella died in 588 Deira was conquered by Bernicia. One of his sons

was Edwin, afterwards king of the Northumbrians.

ELLA (d. 867), king of the Northumbrians, became king about 862 on the

deposition of Osbert, although he was not of royal birth. Afterwards he

became reconciled with Osbert, and together they attacked the Danes, who

had invaded Northumbria, and drove them into York. Rallying, however,

the Danes defeated the Northumbrians, and in the encounter both Ella and

Osbert were slain. In certain legends Ella is represented as having

brought about the Danish invasion of Northumbria by cruel and unjust

actions.

See _The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford,

1892-1899); Bede, _Historiae ecclesiasticae_, edited by C. Plummer

(Oxford, 1896); Henry of Huntingdon, _Historia Anglorum_, edited by T.

Arnold, Rolls Series (London, 1879); Asser, _De rebus gestis

Aelfredi_, edited by W.H. Stevenson (Oxford, 1904); J.R. Green, _The

Making of England_ (London, 1897), and the _Dictionary of National

Biography_, vol. i. (London, 1895).

ELLAND, an urban district in the Elland parliamentary division of

Yorkshire, England, on the Calder, 2-1/2 m. S. of Halifax by the

Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 10,412. The church of St

Mary is Decorated and Perpendicular. Cotton-mills, woollen-factories,

ironworks, flagstone quarries at Elland Edge, and fire-clay works employ

the industrial population. Elland Hall, though almost rebuilt, retains

the recollection of a remarkable family feud between the Ellands and the

Beaumonts of Crosland Hall, the site of which may be traced in the

vicinity. A nephew of Sir John Elland, in 1342, met death at the hands

of a relative of the Beaumonts upon whom Sir John took vengeance, as

also upon the heads of the allied houses of Lockwood and Quarmby. The

children of these families were educated in the hope of avenging their

parents, and after many years succeeded in doing so, cutting off Sir

John Elland and his heir.

ELLENBOROUGH, EDWARD LAW, 1ST BARON (1750-1818), English judge, was born

on the 16th of November 1750, at Great Salkeld, in Cumberland, of which

place his father, Edmund Law (1703-1787), afterwards bishop of Carlisle,

was at the time rector. Educated at the Charterhouse and at Peterhouse,

Cambridge, he passed as third wrangler, and was soon afterwards elected

to a fellowship at Trinity. In spite of his father's strong wish that he

should take orders, he chose the legal profession, and on quitting the

university was entered at Lincoln's Inn. After spending five years as a

special pleader under the bar, he was called to the bar in 1780. He

chose the northern circuit, and in a very short time obtained a

lucrative practice and a high reputation. In 1787 he was appointed

principal counsel for Warren Hastings in the celebrated impeachment

trial before the House of Lords, and the ability with which he conducted

the defence was universally recognized. He had begun his political

career as a Whig, but, like many others, he saw in the French Revolution

a reason for changing sides, and became a supporter of Pitt. On the

formation of the Addington ministry in 1801, he was appointed

attorney-general and shortly afterwards was returned to the House of

Commons as member for Newtown in the Isle of Wight. In 1802 he succeeded

Lord Kenyon as chief justice of the king's bench. On being raised to the

bench he was created a peer, taking his title from the village of

Ellenborough in Cumberland, where his maternal ancestors had long held a

small patrimony. In 1806, on the formation of Lord Grenville's ministry

"of all the talents," Lord Ellenborough declined the offer of the great

seal, but accepted a seat in the cabinet. His doing so while he retained

the chief justiceship was much criticized at the time, and, though not

without precedent, was open to such obvious objections on constitutional

grounds that the experiment has not since been repeated. As a judge he

had grave faults, though his decisions displayed profound legal

knowledge, and in mercantile law especially were reckoned of high

authority. He was harsh and overbearing to counsel, and in the political

trials which were so frequent in his time showed an unmistakable bias

against the accused. In the trial of William Hone (q.v.) for blasphemy

in 1817, Ellenborough directed the jury to find a verdict of guilty, and

their acquittal of the prisoner is generally said to have hastened his

death. He resigned his judicial office in November 1818, and died on the

13th of December following.

Ellenborough was succeeded as 2nd baron by his eldest son, Edward,

afterwards earl of Ellenborough; another son was Charles Ewan Law

(1792-1850), recorder of London and member of parliament for Cambridge

University from 1835 until his death in August 1850.

Three of Ellenborough's brothers attained some degree of fame. These

were John Law (1745-1810), bishop of Elphin; Thomas Law (1759-1834), who

settled in the United States in 1793, and married, as his second wife,

Anne, a granddaughter of Martha Washington; and George Henry Law

(1761-1845), bishop of Chester and of Bath and Wells. The connexion of

the Law family with the English Church was kept up by George Henry's

sons, three of whom took orders. Two of these were Henry Law

(1797-1884), dean of Gloucester, and James Thomas Law (1790-1876),

chancellor of the diocese of Lichfield.

ELLENBOROUGH, EDWARD LAW, _Earl of_ (1790-1871), the eldest son of the

1st Lord Ellenborough, was born on the 8th of September 1790. He was

educated at Eton and St John's College, Cambridge. He represented the

subsequently disfranchised borough of St Michael's, Cornwall, in the

House of Commons, until the death of his father in 1818 gave him a seat

in the House of Lords. He was twice married; his only child died young;

his second wife was divorced by act of parliament in 1830.

In the Wellington administration of 1828 Ellenborough was made lord

privy seal; he took a considerable share in the business of the foreign

office, as an unofficial assistant to Wellington, who was a great

admirer of his talents. He aimed at succeeding Lord Dudley at the

foreign office, but was forced to content himself with the presidency of

the board of control, which he retained until the fall of the ministry

in 1830. Ellenborough was an active administrator, and took a lively

interest in questions of Indian policy. The revision of the company's

charter was approaching, and he held that the government of India should

be transferred directly to the crown. He was impressed with the growing

importance of a knowledge of central Asia, in the event of a Russian

advance towards the Indian frontier, and despatched Burnes on an

exploring mission to that district. Ellenborough subsequently returned

to the board of control in Peel's first and second administrations. He

had only held office for a month on the third occasion when he was

appointed by the court of directors to succeed Lord Auckland as

governor-general of India. His Indian administration of two and a half

years, or half the usual term of service, was from first to last a

subject of hostile criticism. His own letters sent monthly to the queen,

and his correspondence with the duke of Wellington, published in 1874,

afford material for an intelligent and impartial judgment of his

meteoric career. The events chiefly in dispute are his policy towards

Afghanistan and the army and captives there, his conquest of Sind, and

his campaign in Gwalior.

Ellenborough went to India in order "to restore peace to Asia," but the

whole term of his office was occupied in war. On his arrival there the

news that greeted him was that of the massacre of Kabul, and the sieges

of Ghazni and Jalalabad, while the sepoys of Madras were on the verge of

open mutiny. In his proclamation of the 15th of March 1842, as in his

memorandum for the queen dated the 18th, he stated with characteristic

clearness and eloquence the duty of first inflicting some signal and

decisive blow on the Afghans, and then leaving them to govern themselves

under the sovereign of their own choice. Unhappily, when he left his

council for upper India, and learned the trifling failure of General

England, he instructed Pollock and Nott, who were advancing triumphantly

with their avenging columns to rescue the British captives, to fall

back. The army proved true to the governor-general's earlier

proclamation rather than to his later fears; the hostages were rescued,

the scene of Sir Alexander Burnes's murder in the heart of Kabul was

burned down. Dost Mahommed was quietly dismissed from a prison in

Calcutta to the throne in the Bala Hissar, and Ellenborough presided

over the painting of the elephants for an unprecedented military

spectacle at Ferozepur, on the south bank of the Sutlej. But this was

not the only piece of theatrical display which capped with ridicule the

horrors and the follies of these four years in Afghanistan. When Sultan

Mahmud, in 1024, sacked the Hindu temple of Somnath on the north-west

coast of India, he carried off, with the treasures, the richly studded

sandal-wood gates of the fane, and set them up in his capital of

Ghazni. The Mahommedan puppet of the English, Shah Shuja, had been

asked, when ruler of Afghanistan, to restore them to India; and what he

had failed to do the Christian ruler of opposing Mahommedans and Hindus

resolved to effect in the most solemn and public manner. In vain had

Major (afterwards Sir Henry) Rawlinson proved that they were only

reproductions of the original gates, to which the Ghazni moulvies clung

merely as a source of offerings from the faithful who visited the old

conqueror's tomb. In vain did the Hindu sepoys show the most chilling

indifference to the belauded restoration. Ellenborough could not resist

the temptation to copy Napoleon's magniloquent proclamation under the

pyramids. The fraudulent folding doors were conveyed on a triumphal car

to the fort of Agra, where they were found to be made not of sandalwood

but of deal. That Somnath proclamation (immortalized in a speech by

Macaulay) was the first step towards its author's recall.

Hardly had Ellenborough issued his medal with the legend "Pax Asiae

Restituta" when he was at war with the amirs of Sind. The tributary

amirs had on the whole been faithful, for Major (afterwards Sir James)

Outram controlled them. But he had reported the opposition of a few, and

Ellenborough ordered an inquiry. His instructions were admirable, in

equity as well as energy, and if Outram had been left to carry them out

all would have been well. But the duty was entrusted to Sir Charles

Napier, with full political as well as military powers. And to add to

the evil, Mir Ali Morad intrigued with both sides so effectually that he

betrayed the amirs on the one hand, while he deluded Sir Charles Napier

to their destruction on the other. Ellenborough was led on till events

were beyond his control, and his own just and merciful instructions were

forgotten. Sir Charles Napier made more than one confession like this:

"We have no right to seize Sind, yet we shall do so, and a very

advantageous, useful and humane piece of rascality it will be." The

battles of Meeanee and Hyderabad followed; and the Indus became a

British river from Karachi to Multan.

Sind had hardly been disposed of when troubles arose on both sides of

the governor-general, who was then at Agra. On the north the disordered

kingdom of the Sikhs was threatening the frontier. In Gwalior to the

south, the feudatory Mahratta state, there were a large mutinous army, a

Ranee only twelve years of age, an adopted chief of eight, and factions

in the council of ministers. These conditions brought Gwalior to the

verge of civil war. Ellenborough reviewed the danger in the minute of

the 1st of November 1845, and told Sir Hugh Gough to advance. Further

treachery and military licence rendered the battles of Maharajpur and

Punniar, fought on the same day, inevitable though they were, a surprise

to the combatants. The treaty that followed was as merciful as it was

wise. The pacification of Gwalior also had its effect beyond the Sutlej,

where anarchy was restrained for yet another year, and the work of

civilization was left to Ellenborough's two successors. But by this time

the patience of the directors was exhausted. They had no control over

Ellenborough's policy; his despatches to them were haughty and

disrespectful; and in June 1844 they exercised their power of recalling

him.

On his return to England Ellenborough was created an earl and received

the thanks of parliament; but his administration speedily became the

theme of hostile debates, though it was successfully vindicated by Peel

and Wellington. When Peel's cabinet was reconstituted in 1846

Ellenborough became first lord of the admiralty. In 1858 he took office

under Lord Derby as president of the board of control, for the fourth

time. It was then his congenial task to draft the new scheme for the

government of India which the mutiny had rendered necessary. But his old

fault of impetuosity again proved his stumbling-block. He wrote a

caustic despatch censuring Lord Canning for the Oudh proclamation, and

allowed it to be published in _The Times_ without consulting his

colleagues, who disavowed his action in this respect. General

disapprobation was excited; votes of censure were announced in both

Houses; and, to save the cabinet, Ellenborough resigned.

But for this act of rashness he might have enjoyed the task of carrying

into effect the home constitution for the government of India which he

sketched in his evidence before the select committee of the House of

Commons on Indian territories on the 8th of June 1852. Paying off his

old score against the East India Company, he then advocated the

abolition of the court of directors as a governing body, the opening of

the civil service to the army, the transference of the government to the

crown, and the appointment of a council to advise the minister who

should take the place of the president of the board of control. These

suggestions of 1852 were carried out by his successor Lord Stanley,

afterwards earl of Derby, in 1858, so closely even in details, that Lord

Ellenborough must be pronounced the author, for good or evil, of the

present home constitution of the government of India. Though

acknowledged to be one of the foremost orators in the House of Lords,

and taking a frequent part in debate, Ellenborough never held office

again. He died at his seat, Southam House, near Cheltenham, on the 22nd

of December 1871, when the barony reverted to his nephew Charles Edmund

Law (1820-1890), the earldom becoming extinct.

See _History of the Indian Administration_ (Bentley, 1874), edited by

Lord Colchester; _Minutes of Evidence taken before the Select

Committee on Indian Territories_ (June 1852); volume i. of the

_Calcutta Review_; the _Friend of India_, during the years 1842-1845;

and John Hope, _The House of Scindea: A Sketch_ (Longmans, 1863). The

numerous books by and against Sir Charles Napier, on the conquest of

Sind, should be consulted.

ELLERY, WILLIAM (1727-1820), American politician, a signer of the

Declaration of Independence, was born in Newport, Rhode Island, on the

22nd of December 1727. He graduated from Harvard in 1747, engaged in

trade, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1770. He was a member

of the Rhode Island committee of safety in 1775-1776, and was a delegate

in Congress in 1776-1781 and again in 1783-1785. Just after his first

election to Congress, he was placed on the important marine committee,

and he was made a member of the board of admiralty when it was

established in 1779. In April 1786 he was elected commissioner of the

continental loan office for the state of Rhode Island and from 1790

until his death at Newport, on the 15th of February 1820, he was

collector of the customs for the district of Newport.

See Edward T. Channing, "Life of William Ellery," in vol. 6 of Jared

Sparks's _American Biography_ (Boston and London, 1836).

ELLESMERE, FRANCIS EGERTON, 1ST EARL OF (1800-1857), born in London on

the 1st of January 1800, was the second son of the 1st duke of

Sutherland. He was known by his patronymic as Lord Francis Leveson Gower

until 1833, when he assumed the surname of Egerton alone, having

succeeded on the death of his father to the estates which the latter

inherited from the duke of Bridgewater. Educated at Eton and at Christ

Church, Oxford, he entered parliament soon after attaining his majority

as member for the pocket borough of Bletchingly in Surrey. He afterwards

sat for Sutherlandshire and for South Lancashire, which he represented

when he was elevated to the peerage as earl of Ellesmere and Viscount

Brackley in 1846. In politics he was a moderate Conservative of

independent views, as was shown by his supporting the proposal for

establishing the university of London, by his making and carrying a

motion for the endowment of the Roman Catholic clergy in Ireland, and by

his advocating free trade long before Sir Robert Peel yielded on the

question. Appointed a lord of the treasury in 1827, he held the post of

chief secretary for Ireland from 1828 till July 1830, when he became

secretary-at-war for a short time. His claims to remembrance are founded

chiefly on his services to literature and the fine arts. Before he was

twenty he printed for private circulation a volume of poems, which he

followed up after a short interval by the publication of a translation

of Goethe's Faust, one of the earliest that appeared in England, with

some translations of German lyrics and a few original poems. In 1839 he

visited the Mediterranean and the Holy Land. His impressions of travel

were recorded in his very agreeably written _Mediterranean Sketches_

(1843), and in the notes to a poem entitled _The Pilgrimage_. He

published several other works in prose and verse, all displaying a fine

literary taste. His literary reputation secured for him the position of

rector of Aberdeen University in 1841. Lord Ellesmere was a munificent

and yet discriminating patron of artists. To the splendid collection of

pictures which he inherited from his great-uncle, the 3rd duke of

Bridgewater, he made numerous additions, and he built a noble gallery to

which the public were allowed free access. Lord Ellesmere served as

president of the Royal Geographical Society and as president of the

Royal Asiatic Society, and he was a trustee of the National Gallery. He

died on the 18th of February 1857. He was succeeded by his son

(1823-1862) as 2nd earl, and his grandson (b. 1847) as 3rd earl.

ELLESMERE, a market town in the Oswestry parliamentary division of

Shropshire, England, on the main line of the Cambrian railway, 182 m.

N.W. from London. Pop. of urban district (1901) 1945. It is prettily

situated on the west shore of the mere or small lake from which it takes

its name, while in the neighbourhood are other sheets of water, as Blake

Mere, Cole Mere, White Mere, Newton Mere and Crose Mere. The church of

St Mary is of various styles from Norman onward, but was partly rebuilt

in 1848. The site of the castle is occupied by pleasure gardens,

commanding an extensive view from high ground. The town hall contains a

library and a natural history collection. The college is a large boys'

school. The town is an important agricultural centre. Ellesmere canal, a

famous work of Thomas Telford, connects the Severn with the Mersey,

crossing the Vale of Llangollen by an immense aqueduct, 336 yds. long

and 127 ft. high.

The manor of Ellesmere (_Ellesmeles_) belonged before the Conquest to

Earl Edwin of Mercia, and was granted by William the Conqueror to Roger,

earl of Shrewsbury, whose son, Robert de Belesme, forfeited it in 1112

for treason against Henry I. In 1177 Henry II. gave it with his sister

in marriage to David, son of Owen, prince of North Wales, after whose

death it was retained by King John, who in 1206 granted it to his

daughter Joan on her marriage with Llewellyn, prince of North Wales; it

was finally surrendered to Henry III. by David, son of Llewellyn, about

1240. Ellesmere owed its early importance to its position on the Welsh

borders and to its castle, which was in ruins, however, in 1349. While

Ellesmere was in the hands of Joan, lady of Wales, she granted to the

borough all the free customs of Breteuil. The town was governed by a

bailiff appointed by a jury at one of the court leets of the lord of the

manor, until a local board was formed in 1859. In 1221 Henry III.

granted Llewellyn, prince of Wales, a market on Thursdays in Ellesmere.

The inquisition taken in 1383 after the death of Roger le Straunge (Lord

Strange), lord of Ellesmere, shows that he also held two fairs there on

the feasts of St Martin and the Nativity of the Virgin Mary. By 1597 the

market had been discontinued on account of the plague by which many of

the inhabitants had died, and the queen granted that Sir Edward

Kynaston, Kt., and thirteen others might hold a market every Thursday

and a fair on the 3rd of November. Since 1792 both have been

discontinued. The commerce of Ellesmere has always been chiefly

agricultural.

ELLICE (LAGOON) ISLANDS, an archipelago of the Pacific Ocean, lying

between 5 deg. and 11 deg. S. and about 178 deg. E., nearly midway

between Fiji and Gilbert. It is under British protection, being annexed

in 1892. It comprises a large number of low coralline islands and

atolls, which are disposed in nine clusters extending over a distance of

about 400 m. in the direction from N.W. to S.E. Their total area is 14

sq. m. and the population is about 2400. The chief groups, all yielding

coco-nuts, pandanus fruit and yams, are Funafuti or Ellice, Nukulailai

or Mitchell, Nurakita or Sophia, Nukufetau or De Peyster, Nui or Egg,

Nanomana or Hudson, and Niutao or Lynx. Nearly all the natives are

Christians, Protestant missions having been long established in several

of the islands. Those of Nui speak the language of the Gilbert

islanders, and have a tradition that they came some generations ago from

that group. All the others are of Samoan speech, and their tradition

that they came thirty generations back from Samoa is supported by recent

research. They have an ancient spear which they believe was brought from

Samoa, and they actually name the valley from which their ancestors

started. A missionary visiting the Samoan valley found there a

tradition of a party who put to sea never to return, and he also found

the wood of which the staff was made growing plentifully in the

district. Borings and soundings taken at Funafuti in 1897 indicate

almost beyond doubt that the whole of this Polynesian region is an area

of comparatively recent subsidence.

See _Geographical Journal_, passim; and _Atoll of Funafuti: Borings

into a Coral Reef_ (Report of Coral Reef Committee of Royal Society,

London, 1904).

ELLICHPUR, or ILLICHPUR, a town of India in the Amraoti district of

Berar. Pop. (1901) 26,082. It is first mentioned authentically in the

13th century as "one of the famous cities of the Deccan." Though

tributary to the Mahommedans after 1294, it remained under Hindu

administration till 1318, when it came directly under the Mahommedans.

It was afterwards capital of the province of Berar at intervals until

the Mogul occupation, when the seat of the provincial governor was moved

to Balapur. The town retains many relics of the nawabs of Berar. It has

ginning factories and a considerable trade in cotton and forest produce.

It is connected by good roads with Amraoti and Chikalda. It was formerly

the headquarters of the district of Ellichpur, which had an area of 2605

sq. m. and a population in 1901 of 297,403. This district, however, was

merged in that of Amraoti in 1905. The civil station of Paratwada, 2 m.

from the town of Ellichpur, contains the principal public buildings.

ELLIOTSON, JOHN (1791-1868), English physician, was born at Southwark,

London, on the 29th of October 1791. He studied medicine first at

Edinburgh and then at Cambridge, in both which places he took the degree

of M.D., and subsequently in London at St Thomas's and Guy's hospitals.

In 1831 he was elected professor of the principles and practice of

physic in London University, and in 1834 he became physician to

University College hospital. He was a student of phrenology and

mesmerism, and his interest in the latter eventually brought him into

collision with the medical committee of the hospital, a circumstance

which led him, in December 1838, to resign the offices held by him there

and at the university. But he continued the practice of mesmerism,

holding seances in his home and editing a magazine, _The Zoist_, devoted

to the subject, and in 1849 he founded a mesmeric hospital. He died in

London on the 29th of July 1868. Elliotson was one of the first teachers

in London to appreciate the value of clinical lecturing, and one of the

earliest among British physicians to advocate the employment of the

stethoscope. He wrote a translation of Blumenbach's _Institutiones

Physiologicae_ (1817); _Cases of the Hydrocyanic or Prussic Acid_

(1820); _Lectures on Diseases of the Heart_ (1830); _Principles and

Practice of Medicine_ (1839); _Human Physiology_ (1840); and _Surgical

Operations in the Mesmeric State without Pain_ (1843). He was the author

of numerous papers in the _Transactions_ of the Medico-Chirurgical

Society, of which he was at one time president; and he was also a fellow

both of the Royal College of Physicians and Royal Society, and founder

and president of the Phrenological Society. W.M. Thackeray's _Pendennis_

was dedicated to him.

ELLIOTT, EBENEZER (1781-1849), English poet, the "corn-law rhymer," was

born at Masborough, near Rotherham, Yorkshire, on the 17th of March

1781. His father, who was an extreme Calvinist and a strong radical, was

engaged in the iron trade. Young Ebenezer, although one of a large

family, had a solitary and rather morbid childhood. He was sent to

various schools, but was generally regarded as a dunce, and when he was

sixteen years of age he entered his father's foundry, working for seven

years with no wages beyond a little pocket money. In a fragment of

autobiography printed in the _Athenaeum_ (12th of January 1850) he says

that he was entirely self-taught, and attributes his poetic development

to long country walks undertaken in search of wild flowers, and to a

collection of books, including the works of Young, Barrow, Shenstone and

Milton, bequeathed to his father by a poor clergyman. At seventeen he

wrote his _Vernal Walk_ in imitation of Thomson. His earlier volumes of

poems, dealing with romantic themes, received little but unfriendly

comment. The faults of _Night_, the earliest of these, are pointed out

in a long and friendly letter (30th of January 1819) from Robert Southey

to the author.

Elliott's wife brought him some money, which was invested in his

father's share of the iron foundry. But the affairs of the firm were

then in a desperate condition, and money difficulties hastened his

father's death. Elliott lost all his money, and when he was forty years

old began business again in Sheffield on a small borrowed capital. He

attributed his father's pecuniary losses and his own to the operation of

the corn laws. He took an active part in the Chartist agitation, but

withdrew his support when the agitation for the repeal of the corn laws

was removed from the Chartist programme. The fervour of his political

convictions effected a change in the style and tenor of his verse. The

_Corn-Law Rhymes_ (3rd ed., 1831), inspired by a fierce hatred of

injustice, are vigorous, simple and full of vivid description. In

1833-1835 he published _The Splendid Village_; _Corn-Law Rhymes, and

other Poems_ (3 vols.), which included "The Village Patriarch" (1829),

"The Ranter," an unsuccessful drama, "Keronah," and other pieces. He

contributed verses from time to time to _Tait's Magazine_ and to the

_Sheffield and Rotherham Independent_. In the meantime he had been

successful in business, but he remained the sturdy champion of the poor.

In 1837 he again lost a great deal of money. This misfortune was also

ascribed to the corn laws. He retired in 1841 with a small fortune and

settled at Great Houghton, near Barnsley, where he died on the 1st of

December 1849. In 1850 appeared two volumes of _More Prose and Verse by

the Corn-Law Rhymer_. Elliott lives by his determined opposition to the

"bread-tax," as he called it, and his poems on the subject are saved

from the common fate of political poetry by their transparent sincerity

and passionate earnestness.

An article by Thomas Carlyle in the _Edinburgh Review_ (July 1832) is

the best criticism on Elliott. Carlyle was attracted by Elliott's

homely sincerity and genuine power, though he had small opinion of his

political philosophy, and lamented his lack of humour and of the sense

of proportion. He thought his poetry too imitative, detecting not only

the truthful severity of Crabbe, but a "slight bravura dash of the

fair tuneful Hemans." His descriptions of his native county reveal

close observation and a vivid perception of natural beauty.

See an obituary notice in the _Gentleman's Magazine_ (Feb. 1850). Two

biographies were published in 1850, one by his son-in-law, John

Watkins, and another by "January Searle" (G.S. Phillips). A new

edition of his works by his son, Edwin Elliott, appeared in 1876.

ELLIPSE (adapted from Gr. [Greek: elleipsis], a deficiency, [Greek:

elleipein], to fall behind), in mathematics, a conic section, having the

form of a closed oval. It admits of several definitions framed according

to the aspect from which the curve is considered. _In solido_, i.e. as a

section of a cone or cylinder, it may be defined, after Menaechmus, as

the perpendicular section of an "acute-angled" cone; or, after

Apollonius of Perga, as the section of any cone by a plane at a less

inclination to the base than a generator; or as an oblique section of a

right cylinder. Definitions _in plano_ are generally more useful; of

these the most important are: (1) the ellipse is the conic section which

has its eccentricity less than unity: this involves the notion of one

directrix and one focus; (2) the ellipse is the locus of a point the sum

of whose distances from two fixed points is constant: this involves the

notion of two foci. Other geometrical definitions are: it is the oblique

projection of a circle; the polar reciprocal of a circle for a point

within it; and the conic which intersects the line at infinity in two

imaginary points. Analytically it is defined by an equation of the

second degree of which the highest terms represent two imaginary lines.

The curve has important mechanical relations, in particular it is the

orbit of a particle moving under the influence of a central force which

varies inversely as the square of the distance of the particle; this is

the gravitational law of force, and the curve consequently represents

the orbits of the planets if only an individual planet and the sun be

considered; the other planets, however, disturb this orbit (see

MECHANICS).

The relation of the ellipse to the other conic sections is treated in

the articles CONIC SECTION and GEOMETRY; in this article a summary of

the properties of the curve will be given.

To investigate the form of the curve use may be made of the

definition: the ellipse is the locus of a point which moves so that

the ratio of its distance from a fixed point (the _focus_) to its

distance from a straight line (the _directrix_) is constant and is

less than unity. This ratio is termed the _eccentricity_, and will be

denoted by e. Let KX (fig. 1) be the directrix, S the focus, and X the

foot of the perpendicular from S to KX. If SX be divided at A so that

SA/AX = e, then A is a point on the curve. SX may be also divided

externally at A', so that SA'/A'X = e, since e is less than unity; the

points A and A' are the _vertices_, and the line AA' the _major axis_

of the curve. It is obvious that the curve is symmetrical about AA'.

If AA' be bisected at C, and the line BCB' be drawn perpendicular to

AA', then it is readily seen that the curve is symmetrical about this

line also; since if we take S' on AA' so that S'A' = SA, and a line

K'X' parallel to KX such that AX = A'X', then the same curve will be

described if we regard K'X' and S' as the given directrix and focus,

the eccentricity remaining the same. If B and B' be points on the

curve, BB' is the _minor axis_ and C the _centre_ of the curve.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

Metrical relations between the axes, eccentricity, distance between

the foci, and between these quantities and the co-ordinates of points

on the curve (referred to the axes and the centre), and focal

distances are readily obtained by the methods of geometrical conics or

analytically. The semi-major axis is generally denoted by a, and the

semi-minor axis by b, and we have the relation b^2 = a^2(1 - e^2). Also

a^2 = CS.CX, i.e. the square on the semi-major axis equals the

rectangle contained by the distances of the focus and directrix from

the centre; and 2a = SP + S'P, where P is any point on the curve, i.e.

the sum of the focal distances of any point on the curve equals the

major axis. The most important relation between the co-ordinates of a

point on an ellipse is: if N be the foot of the perpendicular from a

point P, then the square on PN bears a constant ratio to the product

of the segments AN, NA' of the major axis, this ratio being the square

of the ratio of the minor to the major axis; symbolically PN^2 =

AN.NA'(CB/CA)^2. From this or otherwise it is readily deduced that the

ordinates of an ellipse and of the circle described on the major axis

are in the ratio of the minor to the major axis. This circle is termed

the _auxiliary circle_.

Of the properties of a tangent it may be noticed that the tangent at

any point is equally inclined to the focal distances of that point;

that the feet of the perpendiculars from the foci on any tangent

always lie on the auxiliary circle, and the product of these

perpendiculars is constant, and equal to the product of the distances

of a focus from the two vertices. From any point without the curve

two, and only two, tangents can be drawn; if OP, OP' be two tangents

from O, and S, S' the foci, then the angles OSP, OSP' are equal and

also SOP, S'OP'. If the tangents be at right angles, then the locus of

the point is a circle having the same centre as the ellipse; this is

named the _director circle_.

The middle points of a system of parallel chords is a straight line,

and the tangent at the point where this line meets the curve is

parallel to the chords. The straight line and the line through the

centre parallel to the chords are named _conjugate diameters_; each

bisects the chords parallel to the other. An important metrical

property of conjugate diameters is the sum of their squares equals the

sum of the squares of the major and minor axis.

In analytical geometry, the equation ax^2 + 2hxy + by^2 + 2gx + 2fy +

c = 0 represents an ellipse when ab > h^2; if the centre of the curve

be the origin, the equation is a^1x^2 + 2h^1xy + b^1y^2 = C^1, and if

in addition a pair of conjugate diameters are the axes, the equation

is further simplified to Ax^2 + By^2 = C. The simplest form is x^2/a^2

+ y^2/b^2 = 1, in which the centre is the origin and the major and

minor axes the axes of co-ordinates. It is obvious that the

co-ordinates of any point on an ellipse may be expressed in terms of a

single parameter, the abscissa being a cos [phi], and the ordinate b

sin [phi], since on eliminating [phi] between x = a cos [phi] and y =

b sin [phi] we obtain the equation to the ellipse. The angle [phi] is

termed the _eccentric angle_, and is geometrically represented as the

angle between the axis of x (the major axis of the ellipse) and the

radius of a point on the auxiliary circle which has the same abscissa

as the point on the ellipse.

The equation to the tangent at [theta] is x cos [theta]/a + y sin

[theta]/b = 1, and to the normal ax/cos [theta] - by/sin [theta] =

a^2 - b^2.

The area of the ellipse is [pi]ab, where a, b are the semi-axes; this

result may be deduced by regarding the ellipse as the orthogonal

projection of a circle, or by means of the calculus. The perimeter can

only be expressed as a series, the analytical evaluation leading to an

integral termed _elliptic_ (see FUNCTION, ii. _Complex_). There are

several approximation formulae:--S = [pi](a + b) makes the perimeter

about 1/200th too small; s =[pi][root](a^2+b^2) about 1/200th too

great; 2s = [pi](a + b) + [pi][root](a^2 + b^2) is within 1/30,000 of

the truth.

An ellipse can generally be described to satisfy any five conditions.

If five points be given, Pascal's theorem affords a solution; if five

tangents, Brianchon's theorem is employed. The principle of

involution solves such constructions as: given four tangents and one

point, three tangents and two points, &c. If a tangent and its point

of contact be given, it is only necessary to remember that a double

point on the curve is given. A focus or directrix is equal to two

conditions; hence such problems as: given a focus and three points; a

focus, two points and one tangent; and a focus, one point and two

tangents are soluble (very conveniently by employing the principle of

reciprocation). Of practical importance are the following

constructions:--(1) Given the axes; (2) given the major axis and the

foci; (3) given the focus, eccentricity and directrix; (4) to

construct an ellipse (approximately) by means of circular arcs.

(1) If the axes be given, we may avail ourselves of several

constructions, (a) Let AA', BB' be the axes intersecting at right

angles in a point C. Take a strip of paper or rule and mark off from a

point P, distances Pa and Pb equal respectively to CA and CB. If now

the strip be moved so that the point a is always on the minor axis,

and the point b on the major axis, the point P describes the ellipse.

This is known as the _trammel_ construction.

(b) Let AA', BB' be the axes as before; describe on each as diameter a

circle. Draw any number of radii of the two circles, and from the

points of intersection with the major circle draw lines parallel to

the minor axis, and from the points of intersection with the minor

circle draw lines parallel to the major axis. The intersections of the

lines drawn from corresponding points are points on the ellipse.

(2) If the major axis and foci be given, there is a convenient

mechanical construction based on the property that the sum of the

focal distances of any point is constant and equal to the major axis.

Let AA' be the axis and S, S' the foci. Take a piece of thread of

length AA', and fix it at its extremities by means of pins at the

foci. The thread is now stretched taut by a pencil, and the pencil

moved; the curve traced out is the desired ellipse.

(3) If the directrix, focus and eccentricity be given, we may employ

the general method for constructing a conic. Let S (fig. 2) be the

focus, KX the directrix, X being the foot of the perpendicular from S

to the directrix. Divide SX internally at A and externally at A', so

that the ratios SA/AX and SA'/A'X are each equal to the eccentricity.

Then A, A' are the vertices of the curve. Take any point R on the

directrix, and draw the lines RAM, RSN; draw SL so that the angle LSN

= angle NSA'. Let P be the intersection of the line SL with the line

RAM, then it can be readily shown that P is a point on the ellipse.

For, draw through P a line parallel to AA', intersecting the directrix

in Q and the line RSN in T. Then since XS and QT are parallel and are

intersected by the lines RK, RM, RN, we have SA/AX = TP/PQ = SP/PQ,

since the angle PST = angle PTS. By varying the position of R other

points can be found, and, since the curve is symmetrical about both

the major and minor axes, it is obvious that any point may be

reflected in both the axes, thus giving 3 additional points.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

(4) If the axes be given, the curve can be approximately constructed

by circular arcs in the following manner:--Let AA', BB' be the axes;

determine D the intersection of lines through B and A parallel to the

major and minor axes respectively. Bisect AD at E and join EB. Then

the intersection of EB and DB' determines a point P on the (true)

curve. Bisect the chord PB at G, and draw through G a line

perpendicular to PB, intersecting BB' in O. An arc with centre O and

radius OB forms part of a curve. Let this arc on the reverse side to P

intersect a line through O parallel to the major axis in a point H.

Then HA^1 will cut the circular arc in J. Let JO intersect the major

axis in O1. Then with centre O1 and radius OJ = OA^1, describe an arc.

By reflecting the two arcs thus described over the centre the ellipse

is approximately described.

ELLIPSOID, a quadric surface whose sections are ellipses. Analytically,

it has for its equation x^2/a^2 + y^2/b^2 + z^2/c^2 = 1, a, b, c being

its axes; the name is also given to the solid contained by this surface

(see GEOMETRY: _Analytical_). The solids and surfaces of revolution of

the ellipse are sometimes termed ellipsoids, but it is advisable to use

the name spheroid (q.v.).

The ellipsoid appears in the mathematical investigation of physical

properties of media in which the particular property varies in three

directions within the media; such properties are the elasticity, giving

rise to the strain ellipsoid, thermal expansion, ellipsoid of expansion,

thermal conduction, refractive index (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY), &c. In

mechanics, the ellipsoid of gyration or inertia is such that the

perpendicular from the centre to a tangent plane is equal to the radius

of gyration of the given body about the perpendicular as axis; the

"momental ellipsoid," also termed the "inverse ellipsoid of inertia" or

Poinsot's ellipsoid, has the perpendicular inversely proportional to

the radius of gyration; the "equimomental ellipsoid" is such that its

moments of inertia about all axes are the same as those of a given body.

(See MECHANICS.)

ELLIPTICITY, in astronomy, deviation from a circular or spherical form;

applied to the elliptic orbits of heavenly bodies, or the spheroidal

form of such bodies. (See also COMPRESSION.)

ELLIS (originally SHARPE), ALEXANDER JOHN (1814-1890), English

philologist, mathematician, musician and writer on phonetics, was born

at Hoxton on the 14th of June 1814. He was educated at Shrewsbury, Eton,

and Trinity College, Cambridge, and took his degree in high mathematical

honours. He was connected with many learned societies as member or

president, and was governor of University College, London. He was the

first in England to reduce the study of phonetics to a science. His most

important work, to which the greater part of his life was devoted, is

_On Early English Pronunciation, with special reference to Shakespeare

and Chaucer_ (1869-1889), in five parts, which he intended to supplement

by a sixth, containing an abstract of the whole, an account of the views

and criticisms of other inquirers in the same field, and a complete

index, but ill-health prevented him from carrying out his intention. He

had long been associated with Isaac Pitman in his attempts to reform

English spelling, and published _A Plea for Phonotypy and Phonography_

(1845) and _A Plea for Phonetic Spelling_ (1848); and contributed the

articles on "Phonetics" and "Speech-sounds" to the 9th edition of the

_Ency. Brit._ He translated (with considerable additions) Helmholtz's

_Sensations of Tone as a physiological Basis for the Theory of Music_

(2nd ed., 1885); and was the author of several smaller works on music,

chiefly in connexion with his favourite subject phonetics. He died in

London on the 28th of October 1890.

ELLIS, GEORGE (1753-1815), English author, was born in London in 1753.

Educated at Westminster school and at Trinity College, Cambridge, he

began his literary career by some satirical verses on Bath society

published in 1777, and _Poetical Tales_, by "Sir Gregory Gander," in

1778. He contributed to the _Rolliad_ and the _Probationary Odes_

political satires directed against Pitt's administration. He was

employed in diplomatic business at the Hague in 1784; and in 1797 he

accompanied Lord Malmesbury to Lille as secretary to the embassy. On his

return he was introduced to Pitt, and the episode of the _Rolliad_,

which had not been forgotten, was explained. He found continued scope

for his powers as a political caricaturist in the columns of the

_Anti-Jacobin_, a weekly paper which he founded in connexion with George

Canning and William Gifford. For some years before the _Anti-Jacobin_

was started Ellis had been working in the congenial field of Early

English literature, in which he was one of the first to arouse interest.

The first edition of his _Specimens of the Early English Poets_ appeared

in 1790; and this was followed by _Specimens of Early English Metrical

Romances_ (1805). He also edited Gregory Lewis Way's translation of

select _Fabliaux_ in 1796. Ellis was an intimate friend of Sir Walter

Scott, who styled him "the first converser I ever saw," and dedicated to

him the fifth canto of _Marmion_. Some of the correspondence between

them is to be found in Lockhart's _Life_. He died on the 10th of April

1815. The monument erected to his memory in the parish church of Gunning

Hill, Berks, bears a fine inscription by Canning.

ELLIS, SIR HENRY (1777-1869), English antiquary, was born in London on

the 29th of November 1777. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' school,

and at St John's College, Oxford, of which he was elected a fellow.

After having held for a few months a sub-librarianship in the Bodleian,

he was in 1800 appointed to a similar post in the British Museum. In

1827 he became chief librarian, and held that post until 1856, when he

resigned on account of advancing age. In 1832 William IV. made him a

knight of Hanover, and in the following year he received an English

knighthood. He died on the 15th of January 1869. Sir Henry Ellis's life

was one of very considerable literary activity. His first work of

importance was the preparation of a new edition of Brand's _Popular

Antiquities_, which appeared in 1813. In 1816 he was selected by the

commissioners of public records to write the introduction to Domesday

Book, a task which he discharged with much learning, though several of

his views have not stood the test of later criticism. His _Original

Letters Illustrative of English History_ (first series, 1824; second

series, 1827; third series, 1846) are compiled chiefly from manuscripts

in the British Museum and the State Paper Office, and have been of

considerable service to historical writers. To the Library of

Entertaining Knowledge he contributed four volumes on the Elgin and

Townley Marbles. Sir Henry was for many years a director and

joint-secretary of the Society of Antiquaries.