The use of symbols for conveying and enforcing truth goes back to
earliest ages. God said to Noah, "I do set My bow in the cloud, and it
shall be for a token of a covenant between Me and the earth."
The ritual and appointments of the Tabernacle and its worship were an
elaborate system of symbolism.
So, also, we find the use of symbolism in Christianity. The need of
appealing to the eye as well as to the ear, by visible signs for sacred
truths, led the early Christians to employ a number of such symbols as
an effective means of imparting instruction. But their use was not
wholly a matter of choice. Anxious to seek and to support one another
{52} under persecution, they were compelled to find some common signs
of recognition which might be known only to themselves, and under which
their new Faith might be safely concealed.
_The Cross._--The Cross comes first in order. It is the especial
emblem of Christianity. "It glitters on the crown of the monarch. It
forms the ensign of nations. It crowns alike the loftiest spires of
Christendom and the lowliest parish churches. It marks the
resting-place of the departed who have died with faith in its efficacy,
as it was the sign in Baptism of their admission to the kingdom of the
Crucified." It is the symbol of Christ's atonement and of the
salvation of men, and represents the Christian Faith, its demands and
its triumphs. As might be expected, many fantastic stories were woven
about this symbol in the middle ages. Yet back of their extravagance
was often a true feeling. We see this even in the absurd legend of the
tree from which our Saviour's cross was made.
This legend was as follows: "for four hundred and thirty-two years
after his expulsion from Paradise, Adam had tilled the ground in the
valley of Hebron, when he felt his end approaching, and determined to
send his son Seth to the gates of Paradise to demand from their keeper,
'the angel called {53} Cherubim,' the oil of mercy which had been
promised to Adam when he was driven from the garden. Seth accordingly
set forth, finding his way by the footprints of Adam and Eve, upon
which no grass had grown since they passed from Paradise to Hebron.
"The angel, after hearing the message, ordered Seth to look beyond the
gate into the garden and to tell him what he saw. He beheld a place of
inexpressible delight and beauty, with the four great rivers proceeding
from a fountain in the center; and, rising from the edge of the
fountain, an enormous tree, with wide-spreading branches, but without
either bark or leaves. He was ordered to look a second time, when he
saw a serpent twisted round the tree; and a third time, when the tree
had raised itself to heaven, and bore on its summit a Child wrapped in
glittering vestments.
"It was this Child, said the angel, who would give to Adam the oil of
mercy when the due time should come. Meanwhile the angel gave Seth
three seeds from the fruit of the tree of which Adam had eaten. These
were to be placed in the mouth of Adam before his burial, and three
trees would spring from them--a cedar, a cypress, and a pine. The
trees were symbolical of the Holy Trinity."
{54}
"It happened as the angel foretold. The trees were hardly a foot above
the ground in the days of Abraham. Moses, to whom their true nature
was revealed, took them up carefully, carried them with him during the
years of wandering in the desert, and then replanted them in a
mysterious valley named Comprafort (Comfort?). From Comprafort David
was directed to bring them to Jerusalem. He planted them close to a
fountain, and within thirty years they had grown together so as to form
a single tree of wonderful beauty, under the shade of which David
composed his psalms and wept for his sins. In spite of its beauty,
Solomon cut it down in order to complete his temple, for which a single
beam was wanted, of a size such as no other tree could furnish. But in
fitting the beam to its place, it was found, after repeated trials,
either too long or too short, and this was accepted as a sign that it
was not to be so employed."
It was then, says one version of the story, reverently preserved in the
temple. According to another version, when it was found too short or
too long "it was flung aside into a certain marsh, where it served as a
bridge. But when the Queen of Sheba came to Jerusalem to hear the
wisdom of Solomon, and was about to cross the marsh, she {55} saw in a
vision how the Saviour of the world was to be suspended on that tree,
and so would not walk over it. It was buried in the earth on the spot
where the Pool of Bethesda was afterward made, so that it was not only
the descent of the angel, but the virtues of the buried wood, which
gave to the water its healing qualities. At the time of the passion
the wood rose and floated on the surface. The Jews took it to make the
cross of our Lord."
More attractive is the legend of how the cross was found, deeply buried
in the ground at Jerusalem, by St. Helena, the mother of Constantine,
the first Christian emperor. All three crosses were found, according
to the story, and that of our Lord was recognized by certain miracles
which it wrought on those who touched it.
In representations of the cross we trace two principal forms, the Latin
and the Greek cross, from which a great variety, with various
significations, have been produced.
[Illustration: Latin cross]
The _Latin_ or _Passion Cross_ has the lower limb considerably longer
than the other three. "It is doubtless most nearly the shape of the
very instrument on which Christ suffered, {56} and is therefore most
suitable to symbolize the Atonement and to express suffering." When it
is placed on steps it is called a "Calvary cross." The steps are
generally three in number, and are said to typify faith, hope, and
charity, the great Christian virtues.
[Illustration: Calvary cross]
When all four arms are of equal length it is a _Greek Cross_, the cross
in most frequent use among Eastern Christians. "The Latin cross
suggests the actual form, while the Greek cross is idealized, the
Greeks being essentially an artistic and poetic race." "The Greek
cross is a symbol of the spread of the Gospel and of its triumphs in
the four quarters of the world. It is the usual form wherever it is
intended to express victory or is used as an ornament."
[Illustration: Greek cross]
Another interesting form of the cross is the _Tau-cross_, so called
because shaped like the Greek letter tau (T). The figure found in the
tau-cross was the symbol of eternal life with the ancient Egyptians.
The early Christians of Egypt adopted it and at first used it instead
of other forms of the cross. It is yet seen in the early Christian
sepulchers of that country. "It has been urged, with {57} at least
great probability, that this symbol of life was the form made by the
children of Israel in blood upon their door-posts when the angel of
death passed through the land of Egypt to smite the first-born, and it
was perhaps the form of the cross on which the brazen serpent in the
wilderness was lifted up."
[Illustration: Tau-cross]
It is known, from these associations, as the cross of the Old Testament
and as the "anticipatory cross"; also as the "cross of St. Anthony,"
the great hermit of Egypt and the father of monasticism.
It is sometimes called the "cross potent" from its shape, "potent"
being an old English word for a crutch. It is then said to signify the
Cross as the sure support of all who trust in it.
Four tau-crosses joined foot to foot form a "Jerusalem cross." Such a
cross was part of the armorial bearing of the first Christian king of
Jerusalem. The four conjoined tau-crosses, forming a Greek cross, are
said to be symbolical of the displacement of the Old Testament by the
New, the Law by the Gospel.
[Illustration: Jerusalem cross]
{58}
Many forms of the cross originated in the wars of the Cross, the
crusaders in their eastward wanderings engrafting many variations upon
the original Greek cross. Many of these heraldic crosses tell some
story of religious feeling. In their varied and fanciful forms the
simple faith and holy purpose out of which they sprang may yet be
traced.
The "cross moline" is so named from resemblance to the moline, or
crossed iron, in the center of the upper millstone. Its ends are
divided and curved backward. As they are turned in all directions,
they are said to express the universal diffusion of the blessings of
the Cross; or, as they decline both to the right and the left, they
express willingness to do exact justice and give to all their due.
[Illustration: Cross Moline. Cross Recercelé.]
The "cross recercelé" resembles the cross moline, but with its
floriations more expanded.
{59}
The "cross bottoné" (budded) or "treflé" (like trefoil), the "cross
patonce" (like the paw of the ounce, or panther), and the "cross flory"
(like the fleur-de-lis), all with limbs ending in threefold figures,
have evident reference to the Holy Trinity.
[Illustration: Cross Bottoné, or treflé. Cross Patonce. Cross flory.]
The "cross pommée" has ends terminating in circles suggestive of
apples, as the name shows. It is said to express the fruitful reward
of devotion to the Cross.
[Illustration: Cross pommée. Cross crosslet. Cross fitché.]
{60}
The "cross crosslet" is formed of four Latin or Passion crosses placed
foot to foot.
It is said that the "cross fitché" (sharpened and so fixable in the
ground) was carried in pilgrimages so that it might be readily set up
while performing devotions.
The "cross patté" (broad-footed) is much like the "Maltese cross," the
cross of Knights Templars and Hospitalers, which differs from it simply
in having its extremities indented or notched. The eight points thus
formed are said to symbolize the eight Beatitudes of our Lord.
[Illustration: Cross patté]
The "floriated cross," which is developed in many ornamental forms, as
the cross bursting into bloom or adorned with garlands, alludes to the
triumph of Christ and to our future triumph and glory through Him. It
symbolizes also our holy religion growing with perpetual vitality.
[Illustration: Maltese cross]
One of the most singular, as well as most ancient, of the many forms
and modifications of the cross is the "fylfot." It is found, probably
as a disguised form of the cross, on the tombs in the catacombs. {61}
Its use illustrates the adoption by the early Christians, as in the
case of the tau-cross, of prechristian symbols. By its employment they
simply "diverted to their own purpose a symbol centuries older than the
Christian era, a symbol of early Aryan origin, found in Indian and
Chinese art, and spreading westward, long before the dawn of
Christianity, to Greece and Asia. It was on the terra-cotta objects
dug up by Dr. Schliemann at Troy, and conjectured to date from 1000 to
1500 B.C." It is thought to represent in heathen use a revolving
wheel, the symbol of the great sun-god, or to stand for the lightning
wielded by the omnipotent deity, Manu, Thor, or Zeus. The Christians
saw in it a cross concealed from the eyes of their heathen enemies.
The fylfot is frequently found in the Greek Church on the vestments of
the clergy. The Greek fret or key pattern, with which all are
familiar, is a decorative development of the fylfot.
[Illustration: Fylfot]
Another interesting form of the cross is that known as the "cross of
Iona" or "Irish cross." It is said to be the earliest form known in
{62} Great Britain and Ireland. The antique wayside crosses are of
this shape. "Because this style of cross partakes more of Greek
character than of Latin, it has been contended that it argues an
Eastern rather than Western origin for the introduction of Christianity
into Great Britain." The circle is the emblem of eternity, as having
neither beginning nor end, and when combined with the cross, as in this
form, it speaks of the perpetuity of the Christian faith and the
eternity of its hope.
[Illustration: Irish cross]
The "St. Andrew's cross," in form like the letter X, conveys the idea
of humility as well as that of suffering. When St. Andrew was
condemned to be crucified, he begged that his cross might be unlike
that on which his Lord had died, not deeming himself worthy to die on a
cross of the same form as that on which He had suffered.
[Illustration: St. Andrew's cross]
There is a cross peculiar in form, and known as the "Canterbury cross."
It is in the shape of the letter Y, and is usually seen only upon the
vestments of the clergy. The ornamentation of the chasuble is commonly
of this form. It is embroidered on the chasuble of St. Thomas of
Canterbury, which is still preserved in the Cathedral {63} of Sens, in
France. Its shape brings to mind the inclination of our Saviour's
arms--the lifting up of His hands--as He offered Himself in sacrifice
on Calvary.
_Symbols of the Holy Trinity._--The equilateral _Triangle_ is perhaps
the most familiar emblem of the Holy Trinity. The equality of the
three divine Persons in the Godhead is represented by the equal sides
or the equal angles of the triangle.
[Illustration: Triangle]
The _Trefoil_ is also an emblem of the Trinity. It is a representation
of the common clover, or shamrock, as the Irish call it. The legend of
the conversion of Ireland says that St. Patrick was preaching on the
hillside, and wishing to illustrate from nature the sublime doctrine of
the Trinity to his pagan hearers, he bent down and plucked a piece of
shamrock at his feet, and held it up to show how what was three, in one
sense, might be one in another.
[Illustration: Trefoil]
The unity of the Persons in the one Godhead is sometimes represented by
intersected triangles, or by the trefoil placed under a triangle.
The truth of the Trinity is also suggested by any {64} threefold
arrangement in the various forms of the ornamentation.
The figure known as the _triquetra_, made by the interlacing of three
portions of circles, is also symbolical of the Holy Trinity. This is a
very ancient emblem, and is found with frequency upon the stone crosses
erected in the early days of Christianity in Great Britain. It is
sometimes used in ornamentation of the dress of our Lord or of the
Evangelists.
[Illustration: Intersected triangles. Trefoil placed under a triangle.
Trequetra.]
From the thirteenth century we have the symbol of the equal and
interlacing _Circles_. "The three equal circles symbolize the equality
of the three Persons in the Trinity, the binding together in one figure
the essential unity, while the circular form signifies a
never-beginning, never-ending eternity." The word _trinitas_, used in
this symbol, may itself {65} be divided into three syllables. One of
these syllables is placed in each circle; but they have no perfect
meaning, and will not form any word, unless united. In the space left
vacant by the intersection of the circles the word _unitas_ is placed.
[Illustration: Interlacing circles]
From the sixteenth century we have another device setting forth the
doctrine of the Trinity. This is a triangle terminating at the corners
in three circles, and in the center another circle with lines
connecting it with the circles at the corners. A legend is combined
with the figure, which serves to explain it. The English equivalent of
the Latin words is as follows: _Deus_, God; _Pater_, the Father; {66}
_Filius_, the Son; _Sanctus Spiritus_, the Holy Ghost; _est_, is; _non
est_, is not.
[Illustration: Triangle and circles]
_Symbols of the father Almighty._--For the first four centuries the
only symbol employed to represent God the Father Almighty was a _hand_
issuing from clouds, or reaching down in benediction from heaven.
A symbol of much later origin is a triangle with the word "Jehovah," in
Hebrew letters, inscribed within it and placed in the center of a
radiating circle, or halo, symbolic of eternity.
_Symbols of our Lord._--While the cross was in {67} constant use by the
early Christians, no effort was made at direct representation of our
Saviour's sufferings. The crucifix was not introduced until five
centuries had passed. Resort was had instead to the use of symbols.
[Illustration: The hand of God]
[Illustration: The name and the triangle]
{68}
Several of these were derived from Holy Scripture. The most common was
the figure of the _Good Shepherd_, a picture drawn from our Lord's own
description of His loving care and self-sacrifice. Another was derived
from the words of St. John the Baptist, "Behold, the Lamb of God!" By
this symbol, known as the _Agnus Dei_, our Lord is represented by the
figure of a lamb--often with a nimbus, or glory, about the
head--bearing a cross, the symbol of His sacrifice, or a banner, the
sign of His triumph.
[Illustration: Agnus Dei, the Lamb of God]
{69}
The _Alpha and Omega_, the first and last letters of the Greek
alphabet, are used as the emblem of the eternity of our Lord: "I am
Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the first and the last."
[Illustration: Alpha and Omega]
The _Star_ is a symbol of Christ. It owes its origin to His own words,
"I am the root and the offspring of David, and the bright and morning
star." It was by the leading of a star that God manifested His only
begotten Son to the Gentiles. The five-pointed star commonly
represents the star of Bethlehem. It is a Christmas and Epiphany
emblem.
[Illustration: Star of Bethlehem]
This star is sometimes called the "pentalpha," as the crossing of its
lines suggests five A's. It was used in ancient times as a magic
talisman against the powers of witchcraft. The Greek Christians at one
time placed it, instead of the cross, at the beginning of inscriptions.
The six-pointed star is said to symbolize the Creator, as, according to
the old alchemists, the double triangle of which it is composed
represents the elements of fire and water.
{70}
The seven-pointed star has reference, it is said, to St. John's words
in the Revelation: "I beheld, and, lo, in the midst of the throne and
of the four beasts, and in the midst of the elders, stood a Lamb as it
had been slain, having seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven
Spirits of God sent forth into all the earth."
A star of nine points has allusion to St. Paul's enumeration of the
fruits of the Holy Spirit: "The fruit of the Spirit is love, joy,
peace, long-suffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness,
temperance."
An interesting symbol of our Saviour is that of the _Pelican_, which,
the old naturalists said, was accustomed to tear open its breast in
order to feed its young with its own blood. So the blood shed on
Calvary gives life to the Church.
[Illustration: The pelican]
The _fish_ was also a very early symbol of our Lord. It was observed
that the five letters of the Greek word for a fish were, taken
separately, the initials in Greek of the words "Jesus Christ, Son of
God, Saviour." In this way the fish became a symbol of our Saviour.
The pointed oval, or vesica, is the conventionalized form of the fish.
Ecclesiastical seals are commonly made in this form. It represents
{71} in rude outline a fish before the fins and tail are added.
[Illustration: Vesica]
It is thought by some that the Gothic or pointed arch is derived from
this symbol, being simply the upper half of a vesica.
Other symbols of our Lord are formed from monograms of the sacred name,
Jesus, and of His official title, Christ. These are used separately
and also together. The earliest form of monogram of the sacred name,
that often found on tombs of early Christians, is the symbol which is
said to have appeared in a vision to the Emperor Constantine.
The story is related by Eusebius, the Bishop of Caesarea, who asserts
that it was communicated to him by Constantine himself, who confirmed
it with an oath. The story is this: Constantine, whose mind was
wavering between Christianity and paganism, was on the eve of a great
battle. Knowing that Maxentius, his enemy, was seeking the aid of
magic and supernatural rites, and remembering also that his father, who
had been well disposed to the Christians, had always prospered, while
their persecutors failed, he determined to pray to Christ. While
engaged with such thoughts he saw at mid-day a luminous figure in the
heavens, with the words, "By this conquer." Both he and the whole army
were struck with awe at the sight. At night {72} Christ appeared to
him in a dream, holding in His hand the same symbol, which He
admonished him to place upon his standard, and assuring him of victory.
This symbol Constantine substituted the next day for the old Roman
eagle upon the standards and shields of his legions.
What the emperor saw, or fancied he saw, for it cannot be doubted that
Constantine believed what he stated, was a symbol already in use among
the Christians, and whose meaning he doubtless already knew. It is
formed of the first two letters of the Greek word for Christ,
_CHRISTOS_ (_Christos_); the X (Chi) being equivalent to our Ch, and
the P (Rho) the same as our R.
[Illustration: Christos monogram]
Sometimes the monogram is contracted and its lines economized, the X
becoming a true cross, and its vertical shaft--the curved part of the
letter being added--becoming P.
[Illustration: Contracted Christos monogram]
This monogram, with the Latin N, standing for the word _noster_ (our),
added to it, means _Christos noster_ (our Christ).
[Illustration: Christos noster monogram]
Another monogram for our Lord's title, Christ, is composed of the first
two and the last capital {73} letters of the Greek word _CHRISTOS_.
The horizontal mark over the top is the sign that some letters have
been omitted.
[Illustration: Lord's title monogram]
The more familiar monogram IHS (_IHS_) is the abbreviated form of the
Greek word for our Saviour's human name, Jesus, _IESOUS_. The first
two and the last letters are those used. Sometimes this is written
"IHC." The two forms are synonymous, the C being simply another form
of the Greek S. Sometimes the letters are intertwined, the I being
lengthened and formed into a cross by a bar at the top.
[Illustration: IHS monogram]
These three letters are often read as signifying the Latin words,
_Jesus hominum Salvator_, that is, "Jesus the Saviour of men"; but
appropriate and beautiful as this reading is, it is not the original
meaning, but an afterthought, and is said to have been first suggested
about the year 1380.
Another monogram contains the initial letters, IX, of our Lord's full
name, Jesus Christ, in Greek. The X (Chi) is combined with the I
(Iota). Sometimes a horizontal bar is placed through the middle {74}
of the figure, thus giving the initials of our Lord's full name, united
with the cross.
[Illustration: Full name monograms]
Another form of monogram for our Lord's full name, Jesus Christ, is
made by taking the first and the last letters of each of the Greek
words. The lines above are the signs of contraction.
[Illustration: Contracted monogram]
_I. N. R. I._ These letters stand for the Latin form of the title
placed on our Saviour's cross, _Jesus Nazarenus Rex Judaeorum_, JESUS
OF NAZARETH, THE KING OF THE JEWS.
_Symbols of the Holy Ghost._--The seven-branched _Candlestick_ of the
tabernacle, and the _Seven Burning Lamps_ which St. John saw before
{75} the throne of God, and which he declares to be the seven Spirits
of God, that is, the Holy Spirit in His sevenfold manifestations of
grace, are often used as symbols of the Holy Spirit, the source of all
true illumination for men.
[Illustration: Seven-branched candlestick]
The most familiar emblem, however, is the _Dove_, which from the early
centuries to the present day has constantly symbolized the third Person
of the Holy Trinity. Its warrant and justification are based on the
account in the Gospel of our Lord's baptism and the descent upon Him of
the Spirit "in bodily shape like a dove."
[Illustration: Dove]
The picture of the holy dove in the decorations of the church tells of
the coming of the same Spirit as the fruit of the intercession of our
ascended Lord and according to His most true promise, "I will pray the
Father, and He shall give you another Comforter, that He may {76} abide
with you forever; even the Spirit of truth." It reminds of that
abiding presence of the Holy Ghost in the Church, making it the
"habitation of God through the Spirit," and giving living power to its
sacraments as channels of saving and sanctifying grace.
Other symbols in frequent use are the following:
The _Crown of Thorns_ and the _Nails_ of crucifixion are symbols of our
Saviour's passion.
[Illustration: Crown of thorns and nails]
The three _Interlaced fishes_ and the _Escallop Shell_, the badge of a
pilgrim, are both emblems of Holy Baptism: the one, as Baptism is in
the Name {77} of the Holy Trinity; the other, as we therein confess
that we are pilgrims and strangers on earth, who seek "a better
country, that is, an heavenly."
[Illustration: Interlaced fishes. Escallop.]
The phoenix is the symbol of immortality and the resurrection. The
phoenix was a fabulous bird of the ancients. It was believed that,
"after living a thousand years or so, it committed itself to the flames
that burst, at the fanning of its wings, from the funeral pyre of
costly spices which it had itself constructed, and that from its ashes
a new phoenix arose to life."
[Illustration: Phoenix]
The _Anchor_ is the symbol of steadfastness and hope. "A strong
consolation,... which hope we have as an anchor of the soul, both sure
and steadfast."
[Illustration: Anchor]
The _Crown_ is the symbol of victory and sovereignty.
The _Wreath_, commonly of laurel, is another symbol of victory. As an
expression of triumph won, it is one of the commonest of symbols in the
catacombs--the underground and secret burying-places of the early
Christians in times of persecution.
{78}
In this connection we may note the symbolism attached to certain plants
and flowers. In the ornamentation of God's house we reproduce, as far
as the art of man can, the forms and colors with which the love of God
has arrayed the earth with so much beauty. We also use the natural
plant and flower to beautify the church on the great Christian days of
gladness and rejoicing. They mark such days as festival days. In a
special way they tell at Easter, by their fresh, pure life out of the
death of winter, the story of the resurrection.
[Illustration: Crown]
But, besides this, an emblematic meaning is also attached to particular
flowers and plants. The use by the early Christians of plants and
flowers in an emblematic way was simply a matter of reverent memory and
the carrying over of past associations. Their remembrance of the words
of the Lord Jesus would make the _Vine_, His own similitude of Himself
in relation to them,--"I am the vine, ye are the branches,"--a symbol
of frequent use to represent the Saviour.
The _Wheat_ and the _Grapes_ would not only be {79} the emblems of
abundance and rejoicing, but would be enriched with suggestions of the
Holy Eucharist.
The _Olive-branch_, borne by the dove, recalling the story of the
flood, would stand for the thought of security and peace.
[Illustration: Olive-branch]
The _Almond_, with name derived from a word meaning haste, in allusion
to its hasty growth and early maturity, was the symbol of hopefulness
even in the days of Jeremiah. "The word of the Lord came unto me,
saying, Jeremiah, what seest thou? And I said, I see a rod of an
almond-tree. Then said the Lord unto me, Thou hast well seen: for I
will hasten My word to perform it."
The _Palm_ is the emblem of victory. This symbolism attached to it not
only from the familiar associations of its pagan use as such, but from
a very early period, as seen on ancient mosaics, a reference to the
palm was recognized in St. John's description of the Tree of Life,
"which bare twelve manner of fruits, and yielded her fruit every
month." "Thus the palm-branch of Christian martyrs was not only the
emblem of victory adopted from the well-known heathen use of it, but
typified still more {80} strikingly their connection with the tree of
divine life, 'whose leaves were for the healing of the nations.'"
The palm, however, was not the only instance of such adoption into
Christian symbolism from pagan use. The influence of Christianity was
felt in many like cases. Trees and plants held sacred to heathen gods
became associated with holier names and ideas.
Thus the _Laurel_, "the meed of mighty conquerors and poets sage,"
became for the humble Christian who had "fought a good fight, and
finished his course," the emblem of triumph and glory.
The _Pomegranate_, with mystic association from remote antiquity with
the idea of life, became the symbol of a hopeful future, the emblem of
immortality.
The _Oak_ is the representative of supernatural strength and power. In
pagan antiquity it was especially dedicated in the West to Thor, the
thunder-god. The familiar story of St. Boniface, the apostle of
Germany, relates how he found in the country of the Hessians an
enormous tree, called the Oak of Thor, greatly revered by the people
and held inviolably sacred. St. Boniface cut it down in token of the
triumph of Christ. When it fell with a mighty crash, and Thor gave no
sign, the {81} heathen folk, who stood about in awe, accepted the token
and were converted. The stroke of St. Boniface's ax overthrew Thor,
but could not altogether destroy the associations of the ancient
belief. The reverence for the oak long survived; and the veneration
for it, Christianized in meaning, led to its reproduction, with
symbolic reference to the power of the God of gods, in many beautiful
forms of leaf and spray and clustered acorn, in church decoration.
In like manner, we find flowers held sacred to heathen goddesses lifted
out of that association and invested with higher and purer emblematic
meaning.
The _Lily_, the flower of Juno, became the flower of the holy Virgin,
and its snowy whiteness the symbol of Christian purity. It is often
seen in the conventional form of the fleur-de-lis.
The _Rose_ before the coming of Christianity was a mystic flower among
Northern races. Among the Greeks and Romans it was the flower of Venus
and the symbol of earthly love. Its symbolism felt also the redeeming
touch of Christian sentiment. The love of which it is the emblem
became not an earthly, but a heavenly love. As the lily tells of her
purity, so the rose tells of the love that was in the heart of the
Blessed Virgin. But this was but the reflection {82} of a higher and a
divine love, of which the rose was also the symbol.
How that thought of the love of heaven coming down to earth was
expressed emblematically by the rose, we may see in the story of its
origin which the Christian fancy of the middle ages invented. It was
said that a holy maiden of Bethlehem, "blamed with wrong and slandered,
was doomed to the death; and as the fire began to burn about her she
made her prayers to our Lord that, as she was not guilty of that sin,
He would help her and make it to be known to all men, of His merciful
grace. And when she had thus said, anon was the fire quenched and out,
and the brands that were burning became red roseries, and the brands
that were not kindled became white roseries, full of roses. And these
were the first roseries and roses, both white and red, that ever any
man saw."
So the rose became the flower of martyrs, the presage of the beauty and
joy of Paradise. With the same thought, the early Christians decorated
with roses the graves of martyrs and confessors on the anniversary of
their death. It has been conjectured that it is from this connection
of the rose with Paradise, and with the thought of the love which
accomplished our salvation, that the rite of {83} the "golden rose" has
been derived--the rite in which the Pope, on the Fourth Sunday in Lent,
blesses a golden rose adorned with jewels, which he afterward bestows
upon some person he desires especially to honor. In the prayers which
are used in this rite, our Lord is alluded to as the "eternal Rose that
has gladdened the heart of the world."
The interesting plant known as the _Passion-flower_, although of
comparatively modern origin, is now freely used to symbolize the
passion of our Lord. The ten faithful apostles,--omitting St. Peter
who denied and Judas who betrayed our Lord,--the hammer and the nails,
the cross, the five sacred wounds, the crown of thorns, the cords which
bound Him, are all, by an exaggerated symbolism and straining after
analogy, supposed to be represented by its various parts. It was
discovered by early Spanish settlers in America, and was welcomed by
them as useful in teaching Christianity to the Indians. It is the one
contribution of the new continent to the ecclesiastical symbolism of
flowers.
_Symbols of the Evangelists and Apostles._--The Evangelists are often
represented by four scrolls, four open books, or four streams of water
issuing from Christ the Rock; but most commonly the Evangelistic
symbols are the _Man_, the _Lion_, the {84} _Ox_, and the _Eagle_.
These figures refer to the mysterious creatures described by the
prophet Ezekiel, and afterward by St. John, as adoring ceaselessly
before the throne of God. "They rest not day and night, saying, Holy,
holy, holy, Lord God Almighty, which was, and is, and is to come." The
man is assigned to St. Matthew and his Gospel, because of the manner in
which the manhood of our Lord is set forth, the lion to St. Mark,
because he shows {85} His royal dignity and power; the ox to St. Luke,
because his is the sacrificial Gospel and dwells on the Atonement; and
the eagle to St. John, because his Gospel rises to the contemplation of
the sublimest mysteries of the Christian faith.
[Illustration: Man, Lion, Ox, Eagle symbols]
All these symbols are winged, as showing that the message of the
Gospels is to go to all the earth as the concern of all men everywhere.
All four symbols are sometimes combined into one, called a Tetramorph.
Each Apostle has also his own appropriate symbol.
St. James the Greater has the escallop shell and staff of the pilgrim.
His shrine in Spain was one of the great centers to which pilgrims came
from all lands.
[Illustration: Apostle symbols--S. Peter, S. Andrew, S. James ye more,
S. Johan, S. Thomas, S. James ye less.]
St. John, as an Apostle, has a cup with a winged serpent rising from
it, in reference to the tradition {86} that St. John once drank with
impunity from a poisoned chalice after having made the sign of the
Cross over it.
St. Thomas bears the spear with which he was slain, or the carpenter's
rule, from a legend that he was sent to the king of the Indies to build
him a palace. St. Thomas gave to the poor the money intrusted to him
by the king. He was cast into prison, but the king had a vision of a
marvelous palace in Paradise built for him by the money given in
charity. St. Thomas was released, and the king became a Christian.
St. Peter has the keys, in reference to our Lord's words to him, and to
his opening of the door of the Church to Jews and to Gentiles.
St. Matthew, as an Apostle, has sometimes a purse, in allusion to his
having been a publican, or tax-gatherer, and sometimes the hatchet with
which he was killed.
The other Apostles have, for symbols, the traditional instruments of
their martyrdom: St. Andrew bears the cross peculiar to him; St.
Bartholomew the knife with which he was flayed alive; St. James the
Less has the fuller's club with which he was beaten to death; St.
Philip has the cross on which he was crucified, St. Matthias bears a
battle-ax: {87} St. Jade a halberd, or a knotted club, sometimes
fashioned like a cross, with which he was slain; St. Simon the saw with
which he was cut asunder.
[Illustration: Apostle symbols--S. Phylyppa, S. Barthylimew, S.
Matthew, S. Jude, S. Symon, S. Mathyas.]
The symbol of St. Paul is the sword with which he was beheaded, and a
closed book, in reference to his Epistles. St. Stephen, the first
martyr, bears the stones with which he was killed while he prayed for
those who hurled them.
_Of Angelic figures._--It is not surprising, in view of the references
of Holy Scripture, that representations of angels should have place in
the decoration of Christian churches. "The religion of heaven is
Christianity." "I beheld, and I heard the voice of many angels round
about the throne, and the beasts, and the elders: and the number of
them was ten thousand times ten thousand, and {88} thousands of
thousands; saying with a loud voice, Worthy is the Lamb that was slain
to receive power, and riches, and wisdom, and strength, and honor, and
glory, and blessing."
Angels are included in the Communion of Saints. "Ye are come ... unto
the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem, and to an
innumerable company of angels, to the general assembly and church of
the first-born, which are written in heaven."
It is the constant tradition of the Church that the holy angels attend
at Christian worship. It is one of the highest privileges of that
worship that we have such communion with them as to be able to say,
"Therefore with Angels and Archangels, and with all the company of
heaven, we laud and magnify Thy glorious Name; evermore praising Thee,
and saying, Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God of hosts, Heaven and earth are
full of Thy glory: Glory be to Thee, O Lord Most High. Amen."
_The Symbolism of Colors._--In the ornamentation of vestments and of
the hangings of the Altar, as also in the general decoration of
churches, all colors are employed as good taste may dictate. They are
thus properly used "for the glory of God, who created the many hues of
nature and gave to man the power of deriving pleasure from them." {89}
Certain colors, however, are known as "liturgical" or "ecclesiastical"
colors, and are, in accordance with ancient practice, employed for
symbolical purposes about the Altar and chancel of our churches, or the
dress of Ministers, during the different seasons of the Church Year.
They serve to impress upon our minds, through the outward senses,
certain great truths of the Gospel, and give honor and dignity to the
celebration of its sacred mysteries.
The colors most commonly used are white, red, violet, black, and green.
White, signifying purity and joy, is used on the Feasts of the great
mysteries of our Faith and at all seasons relating to our Lord, on days
relating to the Blessed Virgin and to those saints who were not also
martyrs, and on festival occasions, such as Confirmations, Ordinations,
Dedications, Weddings, etc.
Red, the emblem of blood and fire, is used on the Feasts of martyrs,
typifying the blood which was shed for Christ, and at Whitsuntide, when
it tells of the tongues of fire which came upon the Apostles.
Violet, the emblem of penitence, is used in Advent, in the season from
Septuagesima to Lent, in Lent, and also on Ember and Rogation days.
{90}
Black signifies mourning, and is used on Good Friday and at Burials.
Green, the ordinary color of nature, is used on all days which are not
Feasts or Fasts and when no special truth or doctrine is to be
emphasized.
_The Symbolism of Lights._--The symbolic use of lights in divine
worship seems to have been handed on from the Jewish Temple to the
Christian Church. The candles upon the Altar, as in use in many
churches, whether the two Eucharistic lights or the vesper lights, not
only give beauty and festival character to the service, but are an
expressive sign of spiritual gladness and joy, and a symbol, suggested
by His own words, of Christ as the true "light of the world." They
remind us of the gladness and spiritual illumination which the Gospel
brings.
_The Symbolism of Incense._--Where incense is employed as an adjunct of
worship, its symbolism is the same as that which it had in the worship
of the Temple. It is the symbol of prayer, of the intercession of our
great High Priest, and of the prayers of the saints. So the Psalmist
prays, "Let my prayer be set forth in Thy sight as the incense"; and so
again, St. John, describing the ceremonial of the worship of heaven as
seen in his vision, says, {91} "Another angel came and stood at the
altar, having a golden censer, and there was given unto him much
incense, that he should offer it with the prayers of all saints upon
the golden altar which was before the throne. And the smoke of the
incense, which came with the prayers of the saints, ascended up before
God out of the angel's hand."
{92}
_How to Use the Prayer-Book_[1]
_Before the Service._--If possible be in your place a few moments
before the appointed hour, that you may collect your thoughts and
prepare for the service. On entering, go at once quietly to your seat,
kneel down, and say a short prayer for yourself and your
fellow-worshipers. The Collect for the Nineteenth or the Twenty-third
Sunday after Trinity, or the Collect, "Almighty God, unto whom all
hearts are open," at the beginning of the Communion Office, you may
find appropriate. When you have said your prayer, find the places for
the service for the day, and after this occupy the {93} time till the
service begins with reading some portion from the Prayer-Book.
_At Morning Prayer._--The following points should have attention:
(1) The several ways in which, after the opening Sentence, the Minister
may proceed with the service. See the rubrics at the beginning of
MORNING PRAYER.
(2) In the LORD'S PRAYER (as is also the case with other prayers
printed in like manner) the capital letters beginning the several short
clauses are intended to indicate the portions into which the prayer is
to be broken for common recitation. There should be a slight pause
after each clause, that all may join in saying the prayer.
(3) On the nineteenth day of the month the _Venite_ is not used before
the PSALTER, as it occurs in the portion for that day. It is omitted
on Easter Day and Thanksgiving Day, as other anthems are appointed for
these days (pages 6, 125, 319).
(4) After the _Venite_ follows (page 6) the PSALTER (page 329) for the
day of the month, or one of the SELECTIONS, or the PROPER PSALMS for
the day. See HOW THE PSALTER IS APPOINTED TO BE READ (page vii). Note
what is to be done, in using the PSALTER, when a month has thirty-one
days. {94} Observe also the tables of SELECTIONS and PROPER PSALMS
(pages vii, viii, 328).
(5) Study the use of the COLLECT FOR THE DAY--where found (pages
52-188, 188-220), how used: "Except when the Communion Service is read"
(page 13). "The Collect shall serve all the Week after, where not
otherwise ordered." "The Collect for any Sunday or other Feast may be
used at the Evening Service of the day before" (page 52). Note the use
throughout the season of the COLLECT FOR THE FIRST SUNDAY IN ADVENT.
Throughout Lent is used, in like manner, the COLLECT FOR ASH-WEDNESDAY
(page 86). Observe the use of the COLLECT FOR CHRISTMAS DAY (page 62),
and that the Collect, Epistle, and Gospel for St. Stephen's Day, St.
John the Evangelist's Day, the Innocents' Day, and for the
Circumcision, are not among those for the Saints'-days, but placed in
connection with those for Christmas Day and the Sunday after. Note
rubrics (pages 66, 69, 71, 87, 141).
(6) When two Feasts or Holy-days fall upon the same day, the usual
custom is to make a "commemoration" of the day omitted by using the
COLLECT of that day immediately after the COLLECT of the Feast or
Holy-day that is observed.
"If there be more than twenty-five Sundays after {95} Trinity, the
service of some of those Sundays that were omitted after the Epiphany
shall be taken in to supply so many as are wanting. And if there be
fewer than twenty-five Sundays, the overplus shall be omitted" (page
188).
(7) Observe the use of the OCCASIONAL PRAYERS, and the place in the
service where they are to be said, if used. Note that some must be
used at specified times (page 37).
(8) Observe the use of the THANKSGIVINGS--where to be said in the
service, if used (page 44).
(9) There are several ways in which the Minister may end the MORNING
PRAYER: "On any day not a Sunday, he may end the MORNING PRAYER with
the COLLECT FOR GRACE and 2 COR. XIII. 14." The prayers following that
"for the President of the United States" "shall be omitted when the
LITANY is said, and may be omitted when the HOLY COMMUNION is
immediately to follow" (pages 1, 14).
_At Morning Prayer on Certain Days._--(1) For Ash-Wednesday a
PENITENTIAL OFFICE is provided (page 48), and must be read immediately
after the prayer, "We humbly beseech Thee, O Father," in the LITANY.
(2) For Thanksgiving Day a special FORM OF {96} PRAYER AND THANKSGIVING
TO ALMIGHTY GOD is appointed (page 319).
_After the Service._--When the service is ended, after the procession
has gone out, kneel down and say a prayer. Do not omit this if for any
cause you are obliged to leave before the conclusion of the service.
You will find many of the Collects--such as that for the First Sunday
after Epiphany, or the Second Sunday after Easter, or the Thirteenth
Sunday after Trinity, or those at the end of the Communion Office--in
every way appropriate.
_At evening Prayer._--(1) Note the several ways in which the Minister
may proceed after the opening Sentence. On Sundays, he may say, "Let
us humbly confess our sins unto Almighty God," and pass to the GENERAL
CONFESSION. Or else he may say, "Dearly beloved brethren, the
Scripture," etc. "On days other than the Lord's Day, he may, at his
discretion, pass at once to the LORD'S PRAYER" (pages 16, 19).
(2) Note that the COLLECT FOR THE DAY _must_ be said (page 27).
(3) EVENING PRAYER is said in full or may be ended after the COLLECT
FOR AID (page 27).
(4) What has been said of the use of the OCCASIONAL PRAYERS and of the
THANKSGIVINGS in {97} MORNING PRAYER is equally applicable to EVENING
PRAYER.
_At the Litany._--(1) The LITANY is said ordinarily after MORNING
PRAYER on Sundays, Wednesdays, and Fridays (page 30). A part may be
omitted (page 33).
(2) It may also be said after the COLLECT FOR AID in EVENING PRAYER, or
it may be used separately. See first and second paragraphs in
CONCERNING THE SERVICE OF THE CHURCH (page vii).
_At the Holy Communion._--(1) The Communion Office follows immediately
after the Collects, Epistles, and Gospels (page 221).
It is the common custom that the LORD'S PRAYER at the beginning of the
service is said by the Priest alone, and not, as in other services, by
all the people with him. This is due to the fact that this prayer and
the following COLLECT FOR PURITY anciently formed part of the office
for the Priest's private preparation before entering the sanctuary.
The LORD'S PRAYER may be omitted if MORNING PRAYER has been said
immediately before (page 221).
(2) Observe that the DECALOGUE may be omitted if said once on each
Sunday, and what is to be done in that case (pages 222, 224).
(3) The COLLECT OF THE DAY, while used in other {98} Services, belongs
properly to the Communion Office. It must be said. It is called in
the Communion Service the Collect "of" the Day, elsewhere the Collect
"for" the Day. The EPISTLE and the GOSPEL for the day are found in the
same place as the COLLECT OF THE DAY (page 52).
(4) Observe that preference is given to the NICENE CREED, and that it
must be said at certain times, on Christmas Day, Easter Day, Ascension
Day, Whitsunday, and Trinity Sunday (page 224).
(5) When the Minister gives notice of the Holy Communion the
EXHORTATION read, in whole or part, is that beginning, "Dearly beloved,
on ---- day next I purpose," or that beginning, "Dearly beloved
brethren, on ---- I intend, by God's grace" (pages 240, 242).
(6) Note that the EXHORTATION, "Dearly beloved in the Lord," may be
omitted, provided it is said once, on a Sunday, in that same month
(page 229).
(7) Note the use of the PROPER PREFACES which emphasize the special
teaching of the great festivals (page 233).
(8) Note the direction (page 237) that in the administration to the
communicants the Sacrament is to be delivered "into their hands." That
can be best done, with reverence and care, if, when the Bread is {99}
delivered, the person receiving will place the open right hand upon the
left, the palm being slightly hollowed to receive the consecrated
Bread, and, when the Cup is delivered, will take firm hold of the
chalice with both hands--of the bowl, or stem immediately under it,
with the right hand, and of the pedestal with the left. Of course
gloves should be removed.
(9) Observe what is done when a second CONSECRATION is necessary (page
237).
(10) Note that a hymn may be substituted for the _Gloria in excelsis_.
This is commonly done in penitential seasons (page 238).
(11) Direction is given (page 240) that the consecrated Bread and Wine
remaining after the Communion shall be reverently consumed. Small
crumbs which cannot be taken otherwise are poured into the chalice, and
the chalice rinsed two or three times with a little wine and water, the
Priest drinking the same. This is called "The ablutions."
_At the Baptism of Infants._--(1) Note that the general congregation
and the company at the Font are all to stand until the LORD'S PRAYER.
(2) Note the permission given to shorten the service. The Minister
shall say, "Hear the words of the Gospel," etc., or else pass
immediately to the {100} questions addressed to the sponsors, provided
that "in every church the intermediate parts of the Service shall be
used, once at least in every month, (if there be a baptism,) for the
better instructing of the People in the grounds of Infant Baptism."
(3) Observe that the THANKSGIVING following the EXHORTATION upon the
words of the GOSPEL is to be said by all, the people joining with the
Minister.
_At Private Baptism of Children._--(1) Observe what the service is.
See the third rubric at the beginning of the Office, and what follows
(page 251).
(2) Note what is directed, after the FORM OF BAPTISM, as to the public
reception of the child privately baptized (page 252).
(3) Note the conditional FORM provided for use in cases of doubt (page
256).
(4) Observe that the MINISTRATION OF BAPTISM and the receiving into the
Church may be combined (page 257).
_At the Baptism of Adults._--(1) What has been pointed out, in
connection with the BAPTISM OF INFANTS, in reference to the people
standing until the LORD'S PRAYER, the saying of the THANKSGIVING after
the EXHORTATION, and the use of a conditional FORM (page 265) in cases
of reasonable doubt, applies also to the BAPTISM OF ADULTS.
{101}
(2) Observe what may be done when necessity may require the baptizing
of adults in private houses. See the second rubric at the end of the
Office (page 265).
(3) Observe that the Office of Infant Baptism and that of Adults may be
conjoined. The service, however, involves so much difficulty and
repetition that it is not often used. Third rubric (page 265).
_At Confirmation._--Observe that the congregation are to stand until
the LORD'S PRAYER.
_At Marriages._--(1) Note that the Prayer-Book calls the service the
"Solemnization" of Matrimony. The company present are there as
witnesses and to ask God's blessing upon the marriage. While,
therefore, they may bring into the church gladsome hearts on such an
occasion, they should guard against levity. They should behave with
reverence, attend to the service, say the Amens to the prayers, and
conduct themselves with the same regard for the place, and for the
sacredness of the act, as they would at any other service.
(2) The congregation should stand throughout the service, the bride and
bridegroom only kneeling for the prayers and the BLESSING.
_At the Communion of the Sick._--(1) Note the order of the service.
See the latter part of the {102} rubric at the beginning of the
service, and the first and third rubrics following the GOSPEL (page
293).
(2) Note permission given in the last rubric following the GOSPEL.
_At Burials._--(1) Note that one or both of the SELECTIONS OF PSALMS
may be used (page 294).
(2) Note the permission given for additions to the service (page 298).
(3) Observe that the response, "Christ, have mercy upon us," is to be
said by the people in the _Kyrie_ preceding the LORD'S PRAYER (page
300).
(4) Note the permission given in the rubric following the ADDITIONAL
PRAYERS at the close of the Office.
[1] The page references are to the Prayer-Book, to editions larger than
the small duodecimo; which larger editions are all paged alike.
{103}
_Devout Customs and Usages_
Some of the customs here referred to are matters of rubrical direction
in the Prayer-Book; others stand merely upon the ground of usage and
the devout practice of the Church from ancient times. The object here
in view is not to discuss their obligation, but simply to tell what
they are and why they are observed, whether that observance is in
obedience to an express direction of the Church or is a voluntary act
of reverence. Since, as a matter of fact, such customs are used by
some Churchmen, every well-instructed person should know their meaning
and the reason for their use. His personal observance of them, where
they have been left by the Church as voluntary acts, must depend upon
his own feeling and their {104} helpfulness or otherwise to his own
worship and right living.
_Kneeling._--The changes of posture in the course of a service have
value in relieving weariness and in sustaining attention, but their
chief significance is, of course, in the expression of different states
of devotion. Thus kneeling is the fit posture in prayer for humble
penitents--the only state in which we may presume to come before God.
It is a mark of reverence, and testifies outwardly of our inward
humility; and "a devout manner helps to create devout feelings."
_Standing._--To show readiness to engage in worship and to receive
instruction, the people stand when addressed at the opening of Morning
and Evening Prayer, or at the Exhortations in the Communion Office. As
expressive of earnestness and determination to defend the Faith, they
stand for the recitation of the Creeds. They stand at the reading of
the Gospel in the Communion Service to "show reverent regard for the
Son of God above all other messengers, although speaking as from God
also." They rise at the presentation of the alms and oblations,
because the offering is their gift to God and to show their
participation in the act. They stand as the clergy enter or leave
{105} the church in token of respect for their sacred office.
_Bowing._--The head is bowed at the name of Jesus in the Creeds to
"testify by this outward ceremony and gesture a due acknowledgment that
the Lord Jesus Christ, the true and eternal Son of God, is the only
Saviour of the world." This act of reverence is not restricted to the
Creeds, but the same honor is shown to the Holy Name at its mention
also in the _Gloria in excelsis_, and in hymns, in lessons, and in
sermons.
At the words, "And was incarnate," in the Nicene Creed, the head and
body are inclined (or the knee is bent) "to show humble and grateful
recognition of the stupendous mystery of the Incarnation," and at the
words "Worshiped and glorified," to signify belief in the divinity of
the Holy Ghost. The head is bowed also at the name of the Blessed
Trinity. This sign of reverence and honor is made at the _Gloria
Patri_, at "Holy, Holy, Holy" in the _Sanctus_ of the Communion Office,
at the same words in the _Te Deum_, and at the various forms of the
doxology, thus "recognizing the divine glory of each of the three
Persons, and in imitation of the angels, who veil their faces with
their wings when singing the glory of the Holy Trinity." Bowing {106}
at the _Gloria_ came into use about the year 325, as a protest against
the heresy which denied the divinity of our Lord.
The head is reverently bowed toward the Altar on coming in and going
out of the church or chancel, in accordance with what one of the canons
of the English Church says was "the most ancient custom of the
primitive Church in the purest times." It is an act of honor and
reverence for the house of God, and for the Altar as the place of such
holy associations as attach to it from the celebration there of the
Holy Eucharist.
_Turning to the East._--The practice of turning to the east, or to the
Altar, at the Creed and at every _Gloria_ (as a brief form of Creed)
"probably originated in an old custom at Baptism. The catechumen
turned his face toward the west in renouncing the devil and all his
works, and to the east in making profession of his Faith. The early
Christians were accustomed to turn to the east in their devotions, just
as the Jews turned their faces toward Jerusalem when they prayed."
Many churches, whenever it is possible, are built for this reason "east
and west," as was the ancient custom. When not so placed, the chancel
is considered to be constructively, if not in fact, "the east," and the
clergy and choir {107} turn toward the Altar. It is an act expressive
of faith in Christ "as the light of the world," "the Sun of
righteousness," and recalls how ancient tradition, following a seeming
intimation of Holy Scripture, says that our Lord will come from the
east at His second advent: "As the lightning cometh out of the east,
and shineth even unto the west; so shall also the coming of the Son of
man be."
_Vestments._--Much may be said for the use of a distinctive dress in
the holy offices of the Church. It is in accordance with ancient
usage; it marks the action of the Minister as not personal, but
official; it secures dignity and uniformity, and it is also, like the
dress of the priests in the old Jewish Church, "for glory and for
beauty."
The American Church has no law upon the subject of vestments. Their
use is simply a matter of traditional custom. Those here described
have come down to us from our mother Church of England. Not all here
mentioned are in use in all places, nor need it be assumed that all are
equally desirable.
"The _Cassock_ is a long coat, close-fitting, reaching to the feet, and
buttoned down the front. It is generally of black, except in cathedral
churches and for Bishops and cathedral dignitaries, when the {108}
episcopal purple may appropriately be used. A cincture, or broad sash,
sometimes confines the cassock at the waist.
"The _Surplice_ is of linen, generally with no opening in front, but
with sufficient aperture in the neck to allow it to be easily passed
over the head. It should fall somewhat below the knees. The sleeves
are flowing and of considerable width at the wrist."
[Illustration: The surplice]
"The _Stole_ is a strip of silk about three inches wide and eight and a
half feet long, with ends ornamented by embroidery and fringed. The
Priest wears it around his neck, the ends hanging down over the front
of the surplice. Deacons wear the stole suspended over the left
shoulder, except at the Holy Communion, when it may be brought across
the back and breast and be fastened at the right side."
The vestments for the celebrant at the Holy Communion are as follows:
The _Alb_, which may be described as a long linen garment somewhat like
a surplice, with close-fitting sleeves, reaching nearly to the ground.
It is frequently embroidered at the foot before and behind {109} and at
the end of the sleeves. These pieces of embroidery are called
"apparels." The alb is confined at the waist by a white cord called
the girdle.
[Illustration: The Alb]
Around the neck is worn the _Amice_--an oblong piece of linen, a part
of which is folded over and forms a large collar. This is often
embroidered.
The _Chasuble_, sometimes called "the vestment" by way of distinction,
is worn only at the celebration of the Holy Communion. It is oval in
shape, without sleeves, with an opening in the middle through which the
head may be passed. In front and behind it extends nearly to the
ground, and on the sides to the hands. It is usually ornamented with a
Y-shaped cross, which is often embroidered. The chasuble is sometimes
ornamented with very rich needlework. The stole is worn under the
chasuble, crossed on the breast, and passed under the girdle.
[Illustration: The Chasuble]
Sometimes the _Maniple_ is also worn. It is shaped like a stole, but
smaller, and is fastened with a loop over the left arm near the wrist.
This dress, with local differences, is worn in all {110} the ancient
Churches of Christendom. It has come down to us with the Church
itself. It is, in fact, simply the dignified dress of primitive days,
enriched and ornamented. Times and customs have changed, but the dress
of the Priest, made sacred by association with his holy work, has
remained unaltered.
In churches where the Holy Eucharist is celebrated with very full
ceremonial, the two clergy-men who assist the celebrant, called the
"deacon" and "subdeacon," sometimes on festival occasions wear
respectively a _Dalmatic_ and a _Tunicle_. These garments are very
similar, being a kind of loose coat or frock reaching below the knees,
open partially at the lower part of the sides, and having full, though
not large, sleeves. The dalmatic is usually somewhat more ornamented.
These are festival garments. On other occasions the girded alb and the
amice are often worn by the deacon and subdeacon.
[Illustration: Dalmatic]
The chasuble, and also the dalmatic and tunicle, are often of silk, of
the color of the season; but the custom of wearing only white linen
vestments prevails in many churches.
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"The following somewhat fanciful meanings, among various others, have
been applied to the vestments: the alb is said to signify the white
robe which Herod placed upon our Saviour; the amice, the cloth with
which He was blindfolded by the Jews; the stole, maniple, and girdle,
the cords which bound Him, and the chasuble, the purple robe of scorn.
"They are also said to represent certain Christian graces. The amice,
passed over the head, signifies hope, the helmet of salvation; the alb,
purity; the maniple, patience in the bonds of suffering; the stole,
submission to the yoke of Christ, the chasuble, charity."
"The _Cope_ is a large semicircular cloak of silk or other stuff,
fastened in front by a clasp called a 'morse.' It is generally richly
embroidered. The length extends in the back to the feet, but it is
open in front, leaving the arms free. The cope is worn by priests in
solemn processions. It is not a Eucharistic vestment and does not
displace the chasuble at Celebrations. It is a symbol of rule, and is
appropriate to Bishops and others in authority. It is worn over the
alb or surplice."
The _Episcopal habit_ generally worn seems to have come into use in the
time of Queen Elizabeth. {112} Its use rests only upon custom. It
consists of "Rochet" and "Chimere." The rochet resembles an alb, but
is shorter and without sleeves. It is of lawn or fine linen. The
chimere is a dress of black satin, with white lawn sleeves.
The _Bishop's Staff_ is in shape like a shepherd's crook. It is often
highly ornamented, and may be adorned on the crook or top with jewels.
The _Mitre_ is a head-covering generally worn by Bishops with the cope.
The _Biretta_ is a square cap of black silk, or other stuff, worn by
the clergy in out-of-door functions.
_Hoods_ are symbols of university degrees attained by the wearer. They
are not strictly ecclesiastical. Each college or university has its
own hood for each degree conferred.
_The Sign of the Cross._--At the Ministration of Baptism the Church
directs that the sign of the Cross shall be made upon the forehead of
the baptized person, and declares that it knows "no worthy cause of
scruple concerning the same." In this it follows the mind of the
primitive Church, in which there was, "even in apostolic times, a
reverend estimation of the sign of the Cross, which the Christians
shortly after used in all their actions," as a sign that "they were not
ashamed to acknowledge {113} Him for their Lord and Saviour who died
for them upon the Cross." With the same "reverend estimation," "in
token that they are not ashamed to confess the faith of Christ
crucified," and in remembrance that all blessings have been purchased
by the "death of the Cross," it is also used by many persons at various
parts of the public service, as, for instance, at the beginning and
close of the service, at the end of the Creed, at a Blessing, or at an
Absolution.
_Sponsors in Baptism._--The Church requires that "there shall be for
every Male-child to be baptized, when they can be had, two Godfathers
and one Godmother; and for every Female, one Godfather and two
Godmothers." The origin of this office is obscure. It may have been
adopted from a Jewish custom connected with the admission of heathen
children, or it may have arisen spontaneously out of the social
conditions of the Church.
The object in view is "to insure the subsequent education and training
in Christian truth and duty which is necessary to the full benefit of
the grace conferred in this holy Sacrament."
Sponsors are so called "because they respond or answer for the child to
be baptized. They are {114} called 'sureties' because they give
security to the Church that the child shall be virtuously brought up;
'godfathers,' and 'godmothers,' because of the spiritual relationship
into which they are brought with one another, with the parents, and
with the child."
"Formerly parents were not admitted as sponsors, since they are
sponsors in fact and by nature, and therefore no vow can increase their
obligation of duty toward the child. But while the Church prefers that
there should be three sponsors for every child, in addition to the
parents, in order to insure by a fivefold promise the future
guardianship of the infant soul, she yet permits parents to stand as
sponsors in order to accommodate every variety of circumstance and
need, and to save the office of sponsor from ever being merely a formal
or perfunctory thing."
_The Ring in Marriage._--"The use of the wedding-ring was probably
adopted by the early Church from the marriage customs which were
familiar to Christians in their previous life as Jews or heathen." A
ring, or something equivalent, seems to have been given at marriage by
the man to the woman from patriarchal days. The ancient custom of the
Church was for the bridegroom to place the {115} ring upon the thumb of
the bride, saying, "In the Name of the Father"; then upon the second
finger, saying, "and of the Son"; then upon the third finger, saying,
"and of the Holy Ghost"; and then upon the fourth finger, saying,
"Amen." "It was an old belief that a particular vein proceeded from
the fourth finger to the heart." The ring, being of gold, and having
neither beginning nor end, is not only a "token and pledge" of the vow
and covenant made in marriage, but is also a symbol of the purity and
unbroken constancy with which they should be "surely performed and
kept."
_Observance of the Church Year._--The Church Year was a very natural
development for the early Christians, familiar with the great annual
festivals of the ancient Jewish Church. By a series of anniversaries
and holy-days, with suitable services, the different seasons of the
year were in like manner made to serve a Christian purpose. Time as it
passes thus becomes a perpetual memorial of the events of our Saviour's
life, and of the work and virtue of the Apostles and other saints.
The year is divided into eight great seasons: Advent, Christmas-tide,
Epiphany-tide, Lent, Easter-tide, Ascension-tide, Whitsuntide, and the
Trinity season. Of these Whitsuntide is the shortest, {116} lasting
but one week. The Trinity season, including from twenty-three to
twenty-eight weeks, is the longest. The four greater Festivals are
Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and Whitsunday. The penitential seasons
are Advent, preceding Christmas, and Lent, preceding Easter. The two
great Fasts are Ash-Wednesday, at the beginning of Lent, and Good
Friday, the day of our Lord's crucifixion. Other days of fasting and
abstinence are the forty days of Lent, all the Fridays in the year, the
Ember-days (the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday before the four stated
Times of Ordination to the holy ministry), and the Rogation-days (the
Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday before Ascension Day).
From Advent, with which the Church Year begins, to Trinity, our Lord is
set before us in His life and His work. "We live over again, year by
year, the time of the Incarnation from Bethlehem to Bethany." The
design is to "bring out, and to bring home to the minds and hearts of
all who shall reverently use these holy festivals and fasts, the great
representative facts of Christ's life--to exhibit and to glorify Him.
And that not in a vague, mystic, or one-sided way, but by setting Him
before us in all the majesty and beauty and completeness of His
character, from the manger to the Cross, and from {117} the Cross up to
the mediatorial throne. Thus a complete Christ, if one may so speak,
is set before us. All the great facts of His life are marshaled into
line and proportion; every feature and lineament of His character is
revealed and illuminated; every office He sustained in the work of
redemption is affirmed and emphasized."
In the long season from Trinity to Advent we are taught to use
practically the Faith in which we have thus been instructed, and "to
follow the blessed steps of His most holy life."
In conjunction with this teaching there is also the thankful
commemoration of "the wonderful grace and virtue declared in the saints
who have been the choice vessels of God's grace and the lights of the
world in their several generations." By a series of Saints'-days
distributed throughout the year, and falling one or two in each month,
we are kept in mind of how we are "knit together" with the blessed
saints "in one communion and fellowship in the mystical body of Christ
our Lord," and are called to follow "the example of their steadfastness
in the faith and obedience to God's holy commandments." There are days
dedicated to the memory of the Blessed Virgin; the Apostles; the
Baptist as the precursor, and St. Stephen as the {118} protomartyr; to
St. Mark and St. Luke as Evangelists; to St. Paul and St. Barnabas on
account of their extraordinary call; to the Holy Innocents as the
earliest who suffered for Christ's sake; to St. Michael and All Angels,
to remind us of the benefits received by the ministry of angels; and to
All Saints, as the memorial of all those who have died in the faith.
The advantages of thus making days and seasons the ever-recurring
memorials of our Saviour, and of the virtue and example of the saints,
are evident. Each year brings to mind the facts of our Lord's life and
the great doctrines which He taught. Not a single essential truth of
the Gospel is allowed to fall into practical neglect or to drift into
forgetfulness. We are reminded to continue steadfast in this Faith and
to live by it, and are instructed and encouraged in so doing by the
example of the saints whose rest is won.
"And when the strife is fierce, the warfare long,
Steals on the ear the distant triumph-song,
And hearts are brave again, and arms are strong.
Alleluia."
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_List of Books for Reference_
"Stones of the Temple." Field.
"Our Parish Church." Baring-Gould.
"The Spiritual House." Huntington.
"Manual of Information." Shinn.
"Hints on Church Furnishing," etc. "The Living Church Quarterly," 1892.
"Symbolism in Christian Art." Hulme.
"Christian Iconography." Didron.
"History of Christian Art." Lindsay.
"Art Teaching of the Primitive Church." Tyrwhit.
"Christian Art and Symbolism." Tyrwhit.
"History of Medieval Art." Reber.
"Signs and Symbols." "The Churchman," 1895.
"Our Mother Church." Mercier.
"Calendar of the Prayer-Book." Parker & Co., London.
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"Red-Letter Saints." S. P. C. K.
"Sacred and Legendary Art." Jameson.
"Dictionary of Art." Adelene.
"Pagan and Christian Rome." Lanciani.
"History of the Church Catholic." Hore.
"Handbook of Christian Symbols." Clement.
"Dictionary of Heraldry." Coats.
"English Heraldry." Boutell.
"Handbook of Heraldry." Cussan.
"Church Decoration." French.
"Church Decoration." Frederick Warne & Co., London.
"Folk-Lore of Plants." Dyer.
"Sacred Trees and Flowers." "London Quarterly Review," 1863, vol. cxiv.
"Annotated Book of Common Prayer." Blunt.
"The Prayer-Book." Daniel.
"Parish Lectures on the Prayer-Book." Snively.
"Notes on the Use of the Prayer-Book." Hall.
"The Congregation in Church." Mowbray & Co., London.
"Church Needlework." Lambert.
"Embroidery for Church Guilds." Woodward.
"Church Vestments." Dolby.
"Vestiarum Christianum." Harriott.
"Ecclesiastical Vestments." Macalister.
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