years to a day after the birth of George Washington, whose footsteps, if
he followed at all, it was in an erring manner. He first made his
appearance in public, as we have seen, fighting in the war of
independence; it was he who, in 1821, expelled the royalists from Vera
Cruz, and took possession of the city. Yturbide thus owed to him, in
part, his success, but it was no intention of Santa Anna's to make an
emperor of him, and he applied the same vigor in pulling him down from
the throne, that he had to smooth the way to it. This effected, he
withdrew to his estates in Jalapa, accepting the federal government
decreed by Congress the 4th of October, 1824.
This Constitution, wisely drawn up in accordance with the best models,
provided an excellent system of government, if it could be adhered to.
Don Felix Fernandez Victoria, an army general, called by the people
Guadalupe Victoria, on account of the intervention in his favor against
the Spanish, as they believed, of the patron saint of Mexico, Our Lady
of Guadalupe, assumed office in 1824, and kept it for two years without
any commotion. He is described by Madame Calderon as a plain,
uneducated, well-intentioned man, brave and enduring. She gives an
anecdote to his credit. When Yturbide, alone, fallen, and a prisoner,
was banished from Mexico, General Bravo, who had the charge of
conducting him to Vera Cruz, treated him with every species of
indignity. Victoria, on the other hand, who had been the sworn foe of
the Emperor during his prosperity, now, when orders were given him to
see Yturbide embarked, surrounded him with respectful attentions; so
that Yturbide himself, after expressing his warm esteem for the
General's generous conduct, presented him with his watch, as a memorial
of his gratitude.
During his term, the legislature decreed the expulsion of the Spanish
from Mexico. Many military chiefs were violently anxious for this
measure, and it became a law before the end of the year. In consequence
of this arbitrary decision, worthy of an earlier century and of Philip
III., who drove out of Spain the Moriscoes to the lasting injury of the
country, many families left Mexico, taking with them their wealth, and
the source of income caused by their requirements. It is said that a
great many Spaniards settled in Bordeaux which thus increased in size
and prosperity. Between two countries, of which neither claimed them,
although to each they had a claim, these exiles are to be regarded as
victims of the injudicious legislation of the first republican Congress
of Mexico.
The close of Victoria's term was disturbed by one or two conspiracies,
civil wars, pronunciamentos, and "Plans." The presidential election of
1828 was marked by formidable divisions. The extreme liberals and the
conservatives formed two great political powers, which, with others
representing every shade of possible opinion, kept the country in a
state of disturbance. The unfortunate precedent of appealing to arms
after an election, instead of submitting to the result of the ballot,
became so established that the elections were little more than a farce.
Pedraza, the conservative candidate, was chosen against Guerrero,
liberal, by a majority of two. Santa Anna upon this _pronounced_ in
Perote, declaring the election of Guerrero valid. Attacked by the troops
of the regular army, if such it may be called, he entrenched himself in
Oaxaca, in the Convent of St. Domingo, where he defended himself with
the greatest bravery and ingenuity, until events made it useless to
contest him any longer, and he was released.
A mutiny broke out in the capital, Pedraza fled to Vera Cruz and thence
to New Orleans; flames burst forth all over the city, threatening its
destruction, while the populace ran about crying "Viva la Libertad!" The
Parian, where great wealth of gold, jewels, and rich stuff were stored,
was utterly destroyed. From December 3d for several days the town was
given over to pillage, the doors of the warehouses were driven in, and
every thing seized. The greatest confusion, anarchy in fact, reigned in
the capital, beyond any effort on the part of the revolutionary leaders
to restrain the disorder. For more than a month afterward stolen goods
from the Parian were openly sold in the public squares. The desolation
of the city on the night after the first outburst is described by one of
the principal actors. The sack, which had begun in the morning of the
3d, had ceased for the night. Sepulchral silence reigned in the vast
city. In the palace was General Victoria, alone, abandoned even by his
servants. The shops and warehouses stood open and empty, with shattered
doors, their contents carried off and strewn about the streets. Not a
voice was to be heard but the sound of the hour announced by the
_sereno_, from time to time breaking the silence which had fallen upon
the inhabitants of the capital.
Thus closed the year 1828, and the government of the first President.
During his term Texas was colonized by Austin, with three hundred
families, an event to be remembered on account of its connection with
the war of the United States. In the same year the government of the
United States recognized the independence of Mexico.
Manuel Gomez Pedraza, by virtue of his majority of two, assumed the
office of President. As an officer in the Spanish army he was
distinguished for his severe discipline and strict moral conduct. He had
supported Yturbide, who made him Commander-General of Mexico. He was
Minister of War under Victoria, in which office he was distinguished for
his great activity.
The ferment which succeeded the election was increased by the reports of
Santa Anna's conduct at Oaxaca. The army besieging him melted and ran
off. Both Pedraza and Guerrero disappeared.
Pedraza left the Republic. After another revolution, hearing that "the
Constitution and laws were established," he returned to Vera Cruz, but
was met by an order which forbade him to enter the country, and he
withdrew to New Orleans, to bide his time, while Congress declared in
favor of Guerrero, who ventured to return and try his hand as President.
Santa Anna distinguished himself by resisting the troops sent by Spain,
somewhat late, after the _mañana_ methods of both countries, to resent
the secession of their dependent colony. A Spanish force from Cuba, by
royal mandate of King Ferdinand, landed at Tampico. This invasion
aroused the patriotism of the country. Santa Anna, without waiting for
any orders, fitted out a force in Vera Cruz and advanced against the
invaders, combining on his way with the troops of government. Their
action was vigorous, and the Spanish commander, Barradas, capitulated
after two days, and returned to Cuba with what was left of his army.
This was the only attempt made by Spain to win back her lost province.
The wealth which Cortés had poured into her coffers had long ceased to
flow with regularity, and its source was now shut off from her.
In reward for this good service, Santa Anna was made Minister of War and
Commander-in-Chief by President Guerrero, but instead of being grateful,
he turned his powers against him, and with the army overthrew his
government and put Bustamente in his place. This general was already
Vice-President; he and Santa Anna _pronounced_ the Plan of Jalapa, at
that place. Guerrero set out at the head of a few troops, but scarcely
had he left the city when the garrison there _pronounced_ in favor of
one Bocanegro. Between two pronunciamentos, Guerrero once more withdrew
to the mountains of the south, where he took arms against his enemies,
and Bustamente became President. It was under his government that a
disgraceful method was taken to get rid of Guerrero. Persuaded that they
could not conquer him in open field, the ruling party bribed a Genoese
sailor to decoy Guerrero on board his little bark, _Colombo_, in the bay
of Acapulco. The General was invited to dinner as a guest, and accepted
in good faith. No sooner was the meal over than he was told of the plot.
Without power to resist, he saw the sails set, and was carried forcibly
to the little bark, on which he was forcibly detained, heading towards
another port, where he was handed over to his enemies. A few officials
went through the form of a military trial and condemned him to death. He
was shot, in the pueblo of Cuilapa, on the 15th of February, 1831.
Guerrero is regarded as one of the martyrs of the country, and two
monuments in his honor adorn the city of Mexico.
Bustamente did not long enjoy his repose. Santa Anna _pronounced_ again
in favor of his former opponent, Pedraza, who, in the opinion of many,
had never stopped being President. But early in 1833 our Mexican
Warwick, yielding to popular pressure, consented to be President
himself. He now left the radical party and, like many another reformer
in office, became conservative and joined the Centralists. He was a
favorite with the army, who after a time made him Dictator, in spite of
the distrust of the nation, who believed that he aimed at imperial
dignities.
The Vice-President at this time was Valentin Gomez Farías, whose merits
deserve notice. He was a native of Guadalajara, born in February, 1781.
He studied medicine, and made good advances in the scientific
discoveries of his time. He was appointed to the Cortés of Spain; but
organized instead a battalion in aid of Hidalgo in the cause of
independence, sacrificing to it his career and his personal fortune. He
was elected deputy to the Congress of Morelos, and afterwards made
governor of the state of Zacatecas. In 1833 he was chosen
Vice-President, and, events afterwards bringing him to occupy the first
place in the government, he displayed great capacity for business and
the cares of office, repressing pronunciamentos, unmasking intrigues,
and preserving always an honorable reputation. Forced to abandon the
presidency, he escaped to the United States to avoid assassination,
selling his ample library to raise funds, thus leaving Santa Anna in
full possession of the field. The Federal Constitution was done away
with, state legislatures abolished, and the governors of the states
became dependent upon central power.
The insurrection in Texas now broke out into open rebellion. Santa Anna
took the field in person, reaching the Rio Grande del Norte with an army
of six thousand men in February, 1836. He at first was successful, but
after one or two triumphs his army was completely routed, and he himself
made prisoner by the Texan army under Houston. Santa Anna was taken to
the United States by his conquerors. During his captivity he made a
treaty with the Texans, which amounted to nothing at all, as his
functions were suspended by the Mexican government. The next year he was
set at liberty and returned to his native country. He was coldly
received, and at the presidential election that year received only two
electoral votes out of sixty-nine.
He again retired to his estate near Jalapa, twenty-seven miles from Vera
Cruz; and, we may suppose, contemplated with content a period of repose
after action, and an opportunity to renew the acquaintance of his
family, from which a life of such variety had separated him.
XXIX.
STILL SANTA ANNA.
The Bourbons had regained possession of the government of France, and
Louis Philippe, under the title of King of the French, was upon the
throne. He was the head of the younger branch of the Bourbons, Duke of
Orleans. Military glory was a requisite to his security upon the throne;
among other enterprises the government sent an expedition to Mexico to
settle by force a long-pending discussion of demands due them since
their civil wars, as damages incurred by French citizens. One of the
items of this claim was sixty thousand dollars demanded by a French cook
for pastry stolen from him by revolutionists. The claim received the
name of the _reclamacion de los pasteles_, a claim for pie. It was
denied _in toto_ by the Mexican government. The French squadron,
commanded by the Prince de Joinville, captured the fortress of San Juan
de Ulóa, and occupied Vera Cruz on the 5th of December.
Out came Santa Anna and offered his services, and taking command after
the fall of the castle, he repelled the French from the city and forced
them to return to their ships. In this encounter he received a wound in
the leg, which made it necessary to amputate it, and afterwards he
always wore a wooden leg. Mexico in the end consented to make a treaty
of peace by paying the sum demanded,--and the French fleet sailed away.
Madame Calderon describes the home of Santa Anna at Manga la Clava,
twenty-seven miles from Vera Cruz, approached through a wilderness of
trees and flowers, the growth of the _tierra caliente_, and passing over
leagues of natural garden, the property of Santa Anna.
The house was pretty and in nice order. General Santa Anna was a
gentlemanly, good-looking, quietly dressed, rather melancholy-looking
person, with a wooden leg. Knowing nothing of his past history, he might
have been thought a philosopher, living in dignified retirement, one who
had tried the world and found it all vanity, one who had suffered
ingratitude, and who, if he were ever persuaded to emerge from his
retreat, would only do so, like Cincinnatus, for the benefit of his
country.
It was only now and then in conversation that the expression of his eye
was startling, especially when he spoke of his leg, which was cut off
below the knee. He gave an account of the wound, and in alluding to the
French his countenance assumed an alarming appearance of bitterness.
[Illustration: INDIAN HUT IN THE TIERRA CALIENTE.]
In 1837 Bustamente was recalled. On the succession of Pedraza to the
presidency, he had been banished, and went away to pursue his medical
studies in France; for he, like Farías, had received a diploma as doctor
of medicine, and had been the family physician of the viceroy Calleja.
He returned to Mexico on the outbreak of the Texan revolution, was made
President, and filled the office with dignity and respectability,
whenever he was allowed to, by his untiring enemy, or rival, Santa Anna,
who, however, was sometimes on his side. In 1840 there was trouble
again, with Santa Anna at the head of the government forces. Against him
was arrayed General Mejia, a Mexican known for his valor, which amounted
to rashness. He was a rival and personal enemy to Santa Anna, and the
struggle between them was a duel _à la mort_. Fate was against Mejia
and he perished. Taken prisoner on the field of battle at the hacienda
La Blanca, he was shot. It is said that, being informed of the sentence
of death passed upon him, he asked when he was to be shot.
"In three hours," answered the official.
"If Santa Anna had fallen into my power, I should have given him only
three minutes," was his reply.
There have been other generals of the same name and family who have
shown equal bravery in death.
In September, 1841, occurred another brief revolution, so fully
described by Madame Calderon, that it may serve as a specimen. She says:
"This revolution is like a game of chess, in which kings, castles,
knights, and bishops are making different moves, while the pawns are
looking on and taking no part whatever.
"To understand the state of the board, it is necessary to explain the
position of the four principal pieces,--Santa Anna, Bustamente, Paredes,
and Valencia. The first move was made by Paredes, who published his
'Plan,' and _pronounced_ on the 8th of August, at Guadalajara. Shortly
after a newspaper of Vera Cruz, entirely devoted to Santa Anna,
_pronounced_ in favor of the 'Plan' of Paredes, and Santa Anna, with a
few miserable troops, and a handful of cavalry, arrived at Perote. Here
he remains for the present, kept in check by the government forces.
Meanwhile Paredes, with about six hundred men, left Guadalajara and
marched upon Guanajuato, and there a blow was given to the government
party through the defection of General Cortazar, who thought fit thus to
show his grateful sense of having just received the rank of general of
brigade, with the insignia of this new grade, which the President put on
with his own hands. Another check to the President. Once begun,
defection spread rapidly, and Paredes and Cortazar, having advanced upon
Querétaro, found that the General there had _pronounced_ just at the
moment he was expected in Mexico to assist the government.
"Meanwhile General Valencia, pressed to declare his 'Plan,' has replied
that he awaits the announcement of the intention of the Generals Paredes
and Santa Anna, and for his own part he only desires the dismissal of
Bustamente.
"This, then, is the position of the three pronounced chiefs, on this
second day of September of the year of our Lord, 1841: Santa Anna in
Perote, hesitating whether to advance or retreat, and in fact prevented
from doing either; Paredes in Querétaro, with the other revolted
generals; Valencia in the citadel of Mexico with his _pronunciados_;
while Bustamente, the mark against which all these hostile operations
are directed, is determined, it is said, to fight to the last.
"Mexico looks as if it had got a general holiday. Shops shut up and all
business at a stand. The people with the utmost apathy are collected in
groups talking quietly; officers are galloping about, generals in a
somewhat party-colored dress, with large gray hats (sombreros), striped
pantaloons, old coats, and generals' belts, fine horses, and crimson
velvet saddles. The shopkeepers in the square have been removing their
goods and money. An occasional shot is heard, sometimes a volley,
followed by a dead silence. The archbishop shows his reverend face now
and then upon the balcony of his palace, looks out a little while, and
then retires. The chief effect so far is universal idleness for man and
beast, the soldiers and their quadrupeds excepted.
"It is said that the Federalists are very much elated, hoping for the
eventual triumph of their party in consequence of a proclamation by
Valencia which appeared two days ago. Since then the revolution has
taken the name of liberal and is supported by men of name, the Pedrazas,
Belderas, Riva Palacio, which is of great importance to Valencia.
Besides this it is said that certain rich bankers, on the side of the
_pronunciados_ are constantly supplying the citadel with cart-loads of
copper.
"The conduct of the people is a constant source of surprise. Left
entirely uncurbed, no one to direct them, thousands out of employment,
many without bread, they do not complain, and scarcely seem to feel any
interest in the result. How easily might such a people be directed for
their good! It is said that all their apathetic sympathies are in favor
of Bustamente."
Several days later she describes the army of the _pronunciados_ on their
way to the capital: "The infantry, it must be confessed, was in a ragged
and rather drunken condition; the cavalry, better clad, have borrowed
fresh horses as they went along, which, with their high saddles, bronzed
faces, and picturesque attire, had a fine effect as they passed along
under the burning sun. The sick followed on asses, and amongst them
various masculine women, with _serapes_ and large straw hats, tied down
with colored handkerchiefs, mounted on mules or horses. The
sumpter-mules followed, carrying provisions, camp-beds, etc., and Indian
women trotted on foot in the rear, carrying their husbands' boots and
clothes. The game is nearly up now. Check from two knights and a
castle--Santa Anna and Paredes in Tacubaya, and Valencia in the citadel.
"The end of this, after some little firing on both sides, was a
capitulation. Bustamente renounced the presidency, and Santa Anna was
triumphant. He made his solemn entry into the capital, with the Generals
Valencia and Canalizo at the head of the forces. Not a solitary viva was
heard as they passed along the streets, nor afterwards, during his
speech in Congress. Immediately after the ceremony Santa Anna retired to
the archbishop's palace, in Tacubaya, in a splendid coach, drawn by four
beautiful white horses, a retinue of other carriages, brilliant
aides-de-camp, and an immense escort of cavalry.
"Thus ended the revolution of 1841: but no one felt that its results
were going to be permanent.
"On the 4th of November a great _function_ was given in the opera of the
capital in honor of his Excellency. The theatre was brilliantly
illuminated with wax lights. Two principal boxes were thrown into one
for the President and his suite, and lined with crimson and gold, with
draperies of the same. The staircase leading to the box was lighted by
rows of footmen all the way up, in crimson and gold livery. A crowd of
gentlemen stood waiting in the lobby for the arrival of the hero of the
fête. He came at last, in regal state, carriages and outriders at full
gallop, himself, staff, and suite in splendid uniforms. As he entered,
the libretto of the opera was presented to him, bound in red and gold.
His expression was resigned and rather melancholy, his manner grave but
agreeable; surrounded by pompous officers, he alone looked quiet,
gentlemanly, and high-bred.
"The theatre was crowded to suffocation--boxes, pit, and galleries.
There was no applause as he entered. One solitary voice in the pit said:
'Viva Santa Anna!' but it seemed checked by a slight movement of
disapprobation, scarcely amounting to a murmur.
"The generals, in their scarlet and gold uniforms, sat, like peacocks,
surrounding Santa Anna, who looked modest and retiring, as if quite
unaccustomed to public gaze."
General Bustamente, as usual, resigned his power to Santa Anna without
further struggle, and withdrew to Europe, where he remained several
years. After the fall of Santa Anna in 1845, he returned to his country,
establishing his residence in the interior. He died a natural death in
San Miguel de Allende in 1853.
We will leave Santa Anna in his opera-box, surrounded by brilliant
officers and fair ladies sparkling with diamonds until the time comes to
take up his story again.
[Illustration: CATHEDRAL--CITY OF MEXICO.]
XXX.
SOCIETY.
A clear picture of the state of society in Mexico, at this period is
given in the journal, before quoted, of Madame Calderon de la Barca,
published without her name in 1843, with a preface by Prescott, the
historian.
For some time after the violent separation of the colony from the mother
country, Spain made no effort to recognize her truant, grown-up Mexico.
It was not until 1839 that its independence was finally acknowledged,
and its right to be regarded as a friendly state, by Spain. In that year
Señor Don Calderon de la Barca was sent by Ferdinand VII. as accredited
Ambassador to the Republic of Mexico where Bustamente was then
President. The occasion was hailed with satisfaction by all parties as a
signal of peace between the two countries; the remaining Mexicans of
Spanish blood especially hailed the arrival of such an agreeable
accession to society as Madame Calderon, a very accomplished woman,
whose lively letters, not at all intended for publication, give an
account of Mexican scenery and manners, useful to help us in our
knowledge of them at that time, a sort of interregnum between the old
Spanish influences and the present full-fledged condition of the
Republic. Civil war had already much disturbed the old Spanish
landmarks, but much remained of the customs of provincial society,
especially among the higher class in the capital. Balls, receptions, the
opera, were kept up with something of the splendor of viceregal days,
their revival stimulated by this fresh arrival from a European court.
Madame Calderon loved to wander under the cypresses of Chapultepec. In
her day the viceregal apartments were lonely and abandoned, for the
governor, in whose hands they then were, did not care to live there. The
walls were falling to ruin, the glass of the windows and the carved work
of the doors had been sold, so that the interior was exposed to every
wind that blew around the lofty height.