[1] Greek coins of the Lipari Islands are preserved in the museum at
Cefalù.
LIPETSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tambov, 108 m. by rail
W. of the city of Tambov, on the right bank of the river Voronezh. Pop.
(1897) 16,353. The town is built of wood and the streets are unpaved.
There are sugar, tallow, and leather works, and distilleries, and an
active trade in horses, cattle, tallow, skins, honey and timber. The
Lipetsk mineral springs (chalybeate) came into repute in the time of
Peter the Great and attract a good many visitors.
LIPPE, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the Rhine. It rises
near Lippspringe under the western declivity of the Teutoburger Wald,
and, after being joined by the Alme, the Pader and the Ahse on the left,
and by the Stever on the right, flows into the Rhine near Wesel, after a
course of 154 m. It is navigable downwards from Lippstadt, for boats and
barges, by the aid of twelve locks, drawing less than 4 ft. of water.
The river is important for the transport facilities it affords to the
rich agricultural districts of Westphalia.
LIPPE, a principality of Germany and constituent state of the German
empire, bounded N.W., W. and S. by the Prussian province of Westphalia
and N.E. and E. by the Prussian provinces of Hanover and Hesse-Nassau
and the principality of Waldeck-Pyrmont. It also possesses three small
enclaves--Kappel and Lipperode in Westphalia and Grevenhagen near
Höxter. The area is 469 sq. m., and the population (1905) 145,610,
showing a density of 125 to the sq. m. The greater part of the surface
is hilly, and in the S. and W., where the Teutoburger Wald practically
forms its physical boundary, mountainous. The chief rivers are the
Weser, which crosses the north extremity of the principality, and its
affluents, the Werre, Exter, Kalle and Emmer. The Lippe, which gives its
name to the country, is a purely Westphalian river and does not touch
the principality at any point. The forests of Lippe, among the finest in
Germany, produce abundance of excellent timber. They occupy 28% of the
whole area, and consist mostly of deciduous trees, beech preponderating.
The valleys contain a considerable amount of good arable land, the
tillage of which employs the greater part of the inhabitants. Small
farms, the larger proportion of which are under 2½ acres, are numerous,
and their yield shows a high degree of prosperity among the peasant
farmers. The principal crops are potatoes, beetroot (for sugar), hay,
rye, oats, wheat and barley. Cattle, sheep and swine are also reared,
and the "Senner" breed of horses, in the stud farm at Lopshorn, is
celebrated. The industries are small and consist mainly in the
manufacture of starch, paper, sugar, tobacco, and in weaving and
brewing. Lemgo is famous for its meerschaum pipes and Salzuflen for its
brine-springs, producing annually about 1500 tons of salt, which is
mostly exported. Each year, in spring, about 15,000 brickmakers leave
the principality and journey to other countries, Hungary, Sweden and
Russia, to return home in the late autumn.
The roads are well laid and kept in good repair. A railway intersects
the country from Herford (on the Cologne-Hanover main line) to
Altenbeken; and another from Bielefeld to Hameln traverses it from W. to
E. More than 95% of the population in 1905 were Protestants. Education
is provided for by two gymnasia and numerous other efficient schools.
The principality contains seven small towns, the chief of which are
Detmold, the seat of government, Lemgo, Horn and Blomberg. The present
constitution was granted in 1836, but it was altered in 1867 and again
in 1876. It provides for a representative chamber of twenty-one members,
whose functions are mainly consultative. For electoral purposes the
population is divided into three classes, rated according to taxation,
each of which returns seven members. The courts of law are centred at
Detmold, whence an appeal lies to the court of appeal at Celle in the
Prussian province of Hanover. The estimated revenue in 1909 was £113,000
and the expenditure £116,000. The public debt in 1908 was £64,000. Lippe
has one vote in the German Reichstag, and also one vote in the
Bundesrat, or federal council. Its military forces form a battalion of
the 6th Westphalian infantry.
_History._--The present principality of Lippe was inhabited in early
times by the Cherusii, whose leader Arminius (Hermann) annihilated in
A.D. 9 the legions of Varus in the Teutoburger Wald. It was afterwards
occupied by the Saxons and was subdued by Charlemagne. The founder of
the present reigning family, one of the most ancient in Germany, was
Bernard I. (1113-1144), who received a grant of the territory from the
emperor Lothair, and assumed the title of lord of Lippe (_edler Herr von
Lippe_). He was descended from a certain Hoold who flourished about 950.
Bernard's successors inherited or obtained several counties, and one of
them, Simon III. (d. 1410), introduced the principles of primogeniture.
Under Simon V. (d. 1536), who was the first to style himself count, the
Reformation was introduced into the country. His grandson, Simon VI.
(1555-1613), is the ancestor of both lines of the princes of Lippe. In
1613 the country, as it then existed, was divided among his three sons,
the lines founded by two of whom still exist, while the third (Brake)
became extinct in 1709. Lippe proper was the patrimony of the eldest
son, Simon VII. (1587-1627), upon whose descendant Frederick William
Leopold (d. 1802) the title of prince of the empire was bestowed in
1789, a dignity already conferred, though not confirmed, in 1720.
Philip, the youngest son of Simon VI., received but a scanty part of his
father's possessions, but in 1640 he inherited a large part of the
countship of Schaumburg, including Bückeburg, and adopted the title of
count of Schaumburg-Lippe. The ruler of this territory became a
sovereign prince in 1807. Simon VII. had a younger son, Jobst Hermann
(d. 1678), who founded the line of counts of Lippe-Biesterfeld, and a
cadet branch of this family were the counts of Lippe-Weissenfeld. In
1762 these two counties--Biesterfeld and Weissenfeld--passed by
arrangement into the possession of the senior and ruling branch of the
family. Under the prudent government of the princess Pauline (from 1802
to 1820), widow of Frederick William Leopold, the little state enjoyed
great prosperity. In 1807 it joined the Confederation of the Rhine and
in 1813 the German Confederation. Pauline's son, Paul Alexander Leopold,
who reigned from 1820 to 1851, also ruled in a wise and liberal spirit,
and in 1836 granted the charter of rights upon which the constitution is
based. In 1842 Lippe entered the German Customs Union (_Zollverein_),
and in 1866 threw in its lot with Prussia and joined the North German
Confederation.
The Lippe succession dispute.
The line of rulers in Lippe dates back, as already mentioned, to Simon
VI. But besides this, the senior line, the two collateral lines of
counts, Lippe-Biesterfeld and Lippe-Weissenfeld and the princely line of
Schaumburg-Lippe, also trace their descent to the same ancestor, and
these three lines stand in the above order as regards their rights to
the Lippe succession, the counts being descended from Simon's eldest son
and the princes from his youngest son. These facts were not in dispute
when in March 1895 the death of Prince Woldemar, who had reigned since
1875, raised a dispute as to the succession. Woldemar's brother
Alexander, the last of the senior line, was hopelessly insane and had
been declared incapable of ruling. On the death of Woldemar, Prince
Adolph of Schaumburg-Lippe, fourth son of Prince Adolph George of that
country and brother-in-law of the German emperor, took over the regency
by virtue of a decree issued by Prince Woldemar, but which had until the
latter's death been kept secret. The Lippe house of representatives
consequently passed a special law confirming the regency in the person
of Prince Adolph, but with the proviso that the regency should be at an
end as soon as the disputes touching the succession were adjusted; and
with a further proviso that, should this dispute not have been settled
before the death of Prince Alexander, then, if a competent court of law
had been secured before that event happened, the regency of Prince
Adolph should continue until such court had given its decision. The
dispute in question had arisen because the heads of the two collateral
countly lines had entered a _caveat_. In order to adjust matters the
Lippe government moved the _Bundesrat_, on the 5th of July 1895, to pass
an imperial law declaring the _Reichsgericht_ (the supreme tribunal of
the empire) a competent court to adjudicate upon the claims of the rival
lines to the succession. In consequence the Bundesrat passed a
resolution on the 1st of February 1896, requesting the chancellor of the
empire to bring about a compromise for the appointment of a court of
arbitration between the parties. Owing to the mediation of the
chancellor a compact was on the 3rd of July 1896 concluded between the
heads of the three collateral lines of the whole house of Lippe, binding
"both on themselves and on the lines of which they were the heads." By
clause 2 of this compact, a court of arbitration was to be appointed,
consisting of the king of Saxony and six members selected by him from
among the members of the supreme court of law of the empire. This court
was duly constituted, and on the 22nd of June 1897 delivered judgment to
the effect that Count Ernest of Lippe-Biesterfeld, head of the line of
Lippe-Biesterfeld, was entitled to succeed to the throne of Lippe on the
death of Prince Alexander. In consequence of this judgment Prince Adolph
resigned the regency and Count Ernest became regent in his stead. On the
26th of September 1904 Count Ernest died and his eldest son, Count
Leopold, succeeded to the regency; but the question of the succession
was again raised by the prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, who urged that the
marriage of Count William Ernest, father of Count Ernest, with Modeste
von Unruh, and that of the count regent Ernest himself with Countess
Carline von Wartensleben were not _ebenbürtig_ (equal birth), and that
the issue of these marriages were therefore excluded from the
succession. Prince George of Schaumburg-Lippe and the count regent,
Leopold, thereupon entered into a compact, again referring the matter to
the Bundesrat, which requested the chancellor of the empire to agree to
the appointment of a court of arbitration consisting of two civil
senates of the supreme court, sitting at Leipzig, to decide finally the
matter in dispute. It was further provided in the compact that Leopold
should remain as regent, even after the death of Alexander, until the
decision of the court had been given. Prince Alexander died on the 13th
of January 1905; Count Leopold remained as regent, and on the 25th of
October the court of arbitration issued its award, declaring the
marriages in question (which were, as proved by document, contracted
with the consent of the head of the house in each case) _ebenbürtig_,
and that in pursuance of the award of the king of Saxony the family of
Lippe-Biesterfeld, together with the collateral lines sprung from Count
William Ernest (father of the regent, Count Ernest) were in the order of
nearest agnates called to the succession. Leopold (b. 1871) thus became
prince of Lippe.
See A. Falkmann, _Beiträge zur Geschichte des Fürstenthums Lippe_
(Detmold, 1857-1892; 6 vols.); Schwanold, _Das Fürstentum Lippe, das
Land und seine Bewohner_ (Detmold, 1899); Piderit, _Die lippischen
Edelherrn im Mittelalter_ (Detmold, 1876); A. Falkmann and O. Preuss,
_Lippische Regenten_ (Detmold, 1860-1868); H. Triepel, _Der Streit um
die Thronfolge im Fürstentum Lippe_ (Leipzig, 1903); and P. Laband,
_Die Thronfolge im Fürstentum Lippe_ (Freiburg, 1891); and
_Schiedsspruch in dem Rechtstreit über die Thronfolge im Fürstentum
Lippe vom 25 Okt. 1905_ (Leipzig, 1906).
LIPPI, the name of three celebrated Italian painters.
I. FRA FILIPPO LIPPI (1406-1469), commonly called Lippo Lippi, one of
the most renowned painters of the Italian quattrocento, was born in
Florence--his father, Tommaso, being a butcher. His mother died in his
childhood, and his father survived his wife only two years. His aunt, a
poor woman named Monna Lapaccia, then took charge of the boy; and in
1420, when fourteen years of age, he was registered in the community of
the Carmelite friars of the Carmine in Florence. Here he remained till
1432, and his early faculty for fine arts was probably developed by
studying the works of Masaccio in the neighbouring chapel of the
Brancacci. Between 1430 and 1432 he executed some works in the
monastery, which were destroyed by a fire in 1771; they are specified by
Vasari, and one of them was particularly marked by its resemblance to
Masaccio's style. Eventually Fra Filippo quitted his convent, but it
appears that he was not relieved from some sort of religious vow; in a
letter dated in 1439 he speaks of himself as the poorest friar of
Florence, and says he is charged with the maintenance of six
marriageable nieces. In 1452 he was appointed chaplain to the convent of
S. Giovannino in Florence, and in 1457 rector (_Rettore Commendatario_)
of S. Quirico at Legania, and his gains were considerable and uncommonly
large from time to time; but his poverty seems to have been chronic, the
money being spent, according to one account, in frequently recurring
amours.
Vasari relates some curious and romantic adventures of Fra Filippo,
which modern biographers are not inclined to believe. Except through
Vasari, nothing is known of his visits to Ancona and Naples, and his
intermediate capture by Barbary pirates and enslavement in Barbary,
whence his skill in portrait-sketching availed to release him. This
relates to a period, 1431-1437, when his career is not otherwise clearly
accounted for. The doubts thrown upon his semi-marital relations with a
Florentine lady appear, however, to be somewhat arbitrary; Vasari's
account is circumstantial, and in itself not greatly improbable. Towards
June 1456 Fra Filippo was settled in Prato (near Florence) for the
purpose of fulfilling a commission to paint frescoes in the choir of the
cathedral. Before actually undertaking this work he set about painting,
in 1458, a picture for the convent chapel of S. Margherita of Prato, and
there saw Lucrezia Buti, the beautiful daughter of a Florentine,
Francesco Buti; she was either a novice or a young lady placed under the
nuns' guardianship. Lippi asked that she might be permitted to sit to
him for the figure of the Madonna (or it might rather appear of S.
Margherita); he made passionate love to her, abducted her to his own
house, and kept her there spite of the utmost efforts the nuns could
make to reclaim her. The fruit of their loves was a boy, who became the
painter, not less celebrated than his father, Filippino Lippi (noticed
below). Such is substantially Vasari's narrative, published less than a
century after the alleged events; it is not refuted by saying, more than
three centuries later, that perhaps Lippo had nothing to do with any
such Lucrezia, and perhaps Lippino was his adopted son, or only an
ordinary relative and scholar. The argument that two reputed portraits
of Lucrezia in paintings by Lippo are not alike, one as a Madonna in a
very fine picture in the Pitti gallery, and the other in the same
character in a Nativity in the Louvre, comes to very little; and it is
reduced to nothing when the disputant adds that the Louvre painting is
probably not done by Lippi at all. Besides, it appears more likely that
not the Madonna in the Louvre but a S. Margaret in a picture now in the
Gallery of Prato is the original portrait (according to the tradition)
of Lucrezia Buti.
The frescoes in the choir of Prato cathedral, being the stories of the
Baptist and of St Stephen, represented on the two opposite wall spaces,
are the most important and monumental works which Fra Filippo has left,
more especially the figure of Salome dancing, and the last of the
series, showing the ceremonial mourning over Stephen's corpse. This
contains a portrait of the painter, but which is the proper figure is a
question that has raised some diversity of opinion. At the end wall of
the choir are S. Giovanni Gualberto and S. Alberto, and on the ceiling
the four evangelists.
The close of Lippi's life was spent at Spoleto, where he had been
commissioned to paint, for the apse of the cathedral, some scenes from
the life of the Virgin. In the semidome of the apse is Christ crowning
the Madonna, with angels, sibyls and prophets. This series, which is not
wholly equal to the one at Prato, was completed by Fra Diamante after
Lippi's death. That Lippi died in Spoleto, on or about the 8th of
October 1469, is an undoubted fact; the mode of his death is again a
matter of dispute. It has been said that the pope granted Lippi a
dispensation for marrying Lucrezia, but that, before the permission
arrived, he had been poisoned by the indignant relatives either of
Lucrezia herself, or of some lady who had replaced her in the inconstant
painter's affections. This is now generally regarded as a fable; and
indeed a vendetta upon a man aged sixty-three for a seduction committed
at the already mature age of fifty-two seems hardly plausible. Fra
Filippo lies buried in Spoleto, with a monument erected to him by
Lorenzo the Magnificent; he had always been zealously patronized by the
Medici family, beginning with Cosimo, Pater Patriae. Francesco di
Pesello (called Pesellino) and Sandro Botticelli were among his most
distinguished pupils.
In 1441 Lippi painted an altarpiece for the nuns of S. Ambrogio which
is now a prominent attraction in the Academy of Florence, and has been
celebrated in Browning's well-known poem. It represents the coronation
of the Virgin among angels and saints, of whom many are Bernardine
monks. One of these, placed to the right, is a half-length portrait of
Lippo, pointed out by an inscription upon an angel's scroll "Is
perfecit opus." The price paid for this work in 1447 was 1200
Florentine lire, which seems surprisingly large. For Germiniano
Inghirami of Prato he painted the "Death of St Bernard," a fine
specimen still extant. His principal altarpiece in this city is a
Nativity in the refectory of S. Domenico--the Infant on the ground
adored by the Virgin and Joseph, between Sts George and Dominic, in a
rocky landscape, with the shepherds playing and six angels in the sky.
In the Uffizi is a fine Virgin adoring the infant Christ, who is held
by two angels; in the National Gallery, London, a "Vision of St
Bernard." The picture of the "Virgin and Infant with an Angel," in
this same gallery, also ascribed to Lippi, is disputable.
Few pictures are so thoroughly enjoyable as those of Lippo Lippi; they
show the naiveté of a strong, rich nature, redundant in lively and
somewhat whimsical observation. He approaches religious art from its
human side, and is not pietistic though true to a phase of Catholic
devotion. He was perhaps the greatest colourist and technical adept of
his time, with good draughtsmanship--a naturalist, with less vulgar
realism than some of his contemporaries, and with much genuine
episodical animation, including semi-humorous incidents and low
characters. He made little effort after perspective and none for
foreshortenings, was fond of ornamenting pilasters and other
architectural features. Vasari says that Lippi was wont to hide the
extremities in drapery to evade difficulties. His career was one of
continual development, without fundamental variation in style or in
colouring. In his great works the proportions are larger than life.
Along with Vasari's interesting and amusing, and possibly not very
unauthentic, account of Lippo Lippi, the work of Crowe and
Cavalcaselle should be consulted. Also: E. C. Strutt, _Fra Lippo
Lippi_ (1901); C. M. Phillimore, _Early Florentine Painters_ (1881);
B. Supino, _Fra Filippo Lippi_ (illustrated) (1902). It should be
observed that Crowe and Cavalcaselle give 1412 as the date of the
painter's birth, and this would make a considerable difference in
estimating details of his after career. We have preferred to follow
the more usual account. The self-portrait dated 1441 looks like a man
much older than twenty-nine.
II. FILIPPINO, or LIPPINO LIPPI (1460-1505), was the natural son of Fra
Lippo Lippi and Lucrezia Buti, born in Florence and educated at Prato.
Losing his father before he had completed his tenth year, the boy took
up his avocation as a painter, studying under Sandro Botticelli and
probably under Fra Diamante. The style which he formed was to a great
extent original, but it bears clear traces of the manner both of Lippo
and of Botticelli--more ornamental than the first, more realistic and
less poetical than the second. His powers developed early; for we find
him an accomplished artist by 1480, when he painted an altarpiece, the
"Vision of St Bernard," now in the Badia of Florence; it is in tempera,
with almost the same force as oil painting. Soon afterwards, probably
from 1482 to 1490, he began to work upon the frescoes which completed
the decoration of the Brancacci chapel in the Carmine, commenced by
Masolino and Masaccio many years before. He finished Masaccio's
"Resurrection of the King's Son," and was the sole author of "Paul's
Interview with Peter in Prison," the "Liberation of Peter," the "Two
Saints before the Proconsul" and the "Crucifixion of Peter." These works
are sufficient to prove that Lippino stood in the front rank of the
artists of his time. The dignified and expressive figure of St Paul in
the second-named subject has always been particularly admired, and
appears to have furnished a suggestion to Raphael for his "Paul at
Athens." Portraits of Luigi Pulci, Antonio Pollajuolo, Lippino himself
and various others are in this series. In 1485 he executed the great
altarpiece of the "Virgin and Saints," with several other figures, now
in the Uffizi Gallery. Another of his leading works is the altarpiece
for the Nerli chapel in S. Spirito--the "Virgin Enthroned," with
splendidly living portraits of Nerli and his wife, and a thronged
distance. In 1489 Lippino was in Rome, painting in the church of the
Minerva, having first passed through Spoleto to design the monument for
his father in the cathedral of that city. Some of his principal frescoes
in the Minerva are still extant, the subjects being in celebration of St
Thomas Aquinas. In one picture the saint is miraculously commended by a
crucifix; in another, triumphing over heretics. In 1496 Lippino painted
the "Adoration of the Magi" now in the Uffizi, a very striking picture,
with numerous figures. This was succeeded by his last important
undertaking, the frescoes in the Strozzi chapel, in the church of S.
Maria Novella in Florence--"Drusiana Restored to Life by St John, the
Evangelist," "St John in the Cauldron of Boiling Oil" and two subjects
from the legend of St Philip. These are conspicuous and attractive
works, yet somewhat grotesque and exaggerated--full of ornate
architecture, showy colour and the distinctive peculiarities of the
master. Filippino, who had married in 1497, died in 1505. The best
reputed of his scholars was Raffaellino del Garbo.
Like his father, Filippino had a most marked original genius for
painting, and he was hardly less a chief among the artists of his time
than Fra Filippo had been in his; it may be said that in all the
annals of the art a rival instance is not to be found of a father and
son each of whom had such pre-eminent natural gifts and leadership.
The father displayed more of sentiment and candid sweetness of motive;
the son more of richness, variety and lively pictorial combination. He
was admirable in all matters of decorative adjunct and presentment,
such as draperies, landscape backgrounds and accessories; and he was
the first Florentine to introduce a taste for antique details of
costume, &c. He formed a large collection of objects of this kind, and
left his designs of them to his son. In his later works there is a
tendency to a mannered development of the extremities, and generally
to facile overdoing. The National Gallery, London, possesses a good
and characteristic though not exactly a first-rate specimen of
Lippino, the "Virgin and Child between Sts Jerome and Dominic"; also
an "Adoration of the Magi," of which recent criticism contests the
authenticity. Crowe and Cavalcaselle, supplemented by the writings of
Berenson, should be consulted as to this painter. An album of his
works is in Newnes' Art-library.
III. LORENZO LIPPI (1606-1664), painter and poet, was born in Florence.
He studied painting under Matteo Rosselli, the influence of whose style,
and more especially of that of Santi di Tito, is to be traced in Lippi's
works, which are marked by taste, delicacy and a strong turn for
portrait-like naturalism. His maxim was "to poetize as he spoke, and to
paint as he saw." After exercising his art for some time in Florence,
and having married at the age of forty the daughter of a rich sculptor
named Susini, Lippi went as court painter to Innsbruck, where he has
left many excellent portraits. There he wrote his humorous poem named
_Malmantile Racquistato_, which was published under the anagrammatic
pseudonym of "Perlone Zipoli." Lippi was somewhat self-sufficient, and,
when visiting Parma, would not look at the famous Correggios there,
saying that they could teach him nothing. He died of pleurisy in 1664,
in Florence.
The most esteemed works of Lippi as a painter are a "Crucifixion" in
the Uffizi gallery at Florence, and a "Triumph of David" which he
executed for the saloon of Angiolo Galli, introducing into it
portraits of the seventeen children of the owner. The _Malmantile
Racquistato_ is a burlesque romance, mostly compounded out of a
variety of popular tales; its principal subject-matter is an
expedition for the recovery of a fortress and territory whose queen
had been expelled by a female usurper. It is full of graceful or racy
Florentine idioms, and is counted by Italians as a "testo di lingua."
Lippi is more generally or more advantageously remembered by this poem
than by anything which he has left in the art of painting. It was not
published until 1688, several years after his death. Lanzi as to
Lorenzo Lippi's pictorial work, and Tiraboschi and other literary
historians as to his writings, are among the best authorities.
(W. M. R.)
LIPPSPRINGE, a town and watering-place in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, lying under the western slope of the Teutoburger Wald, 5 m.
N. of Paderborn. Pop. (1905) 3100. The springs, the Arminius Quelle and
the Liborius Quelle, for which it is famous, are saline waters of a
temperature of 70° F., and are utilized both for bathing and drinking in
cases of pulmonary consumption and chronic diseases of the respiratory
organs. The annual number of visitors amounts to about 6000. Lippspringe
is mentioned in chronicles as early as the 9th century, and here in the
13th century the order of the Templars established a stronghold. It
received civic rights about 1400.
See Dammann, _Der Kurort Lippspringe_ (Paderborn, 1900); Königer,
_Lippspringe_ (Berlin, 1893); and Frey, _Lippspringe, Kurort für
Lungenkranke_ (Paderborn, 1899).
LIPPSTADT, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on the river
Lippe, 20 m. by rail W. by S. of Paderborn, on the main line to
Düsseldorf. Pop. (1905) 15,436. The Marien Kirche is a large edifice in
the Transitional style, dating from the 13th century. It has several
schools, among them being one which was originally founded as a nunnery
in 1185. The manufactures include cigar-making, distilling,
carriage-building and metal-working.
Lippstadt was founded in 1168 by the lords of Lippe, the rights over one
half of the town passing subsequently by purchase to the counts of the
Mark, which in 1614 was incorporated with Brandenburg. In 1850 the
prince of Lippe-Detmold sold his share to Prussia when this joint
lordship ceased. In 1620 Lippstadt was occupied by the Spaniards and in
1757 by the French.
See Chalybäus, _Lippstadt, ein Beitrag zur deutschen Städtegeschichte_
(Lippstadt, 1876).
LIPSIUS, JUSTUS (1547-1606), the Latinized name of Joest (Juste or
Josse) Lips, Belgian scholar, born on the 18th of October (15th of
November, according to Amiel) 1547 at Overyssche, a small village in
Brabant, near Brussels. Sent early to the Jesuit college in Cologne, he
was removed at the age of sixteen to the university of Louvain by his
parents, who feared that he might be induced to become a member of the
Society of Jesus. The publication of his _Variarum Lectionum Libri Tres_
(1567), dedicated to Cardinal Granvella, procured him an appointment as
Latin secretary and a visit to Rome in the retinue of the cardinal. Here
Lipsius remained two years, devoting his spare time to the study of the
Latin classics, collecting inscriptions and examining MSS. in the
Vatican. A second volume of miscellaneous criticism (_Antiquarum
Lectionum Libri Quinque_, 1575), published after his return from Rome,
compared with the _Variae Lectiones_ of eight years earlier, shows that
he had advanced from the notion of purely conjectural emendation to that
of emending by collation. In 1570 he wandered over Burgundy, Germany,
Austria, Bohemia, and was engaged for more than a year as teacher in the
university of Jena, a position which implied an outward conformity to
the Lutheran Church. On his way back to Louvain, he stopped some time at
Cologne, where he must have comported himself as a Catholic. He then
returned to Louvain, but was soon driven by the Civil War to take refuge
in Antwerp, where he received, in 1579, a call to the newly founded
university of Leiden, as professor of history. At Leiden, where he must
have passed as a Calvinist, Lipsius remained eleven years, the period of
his greatest productivity. It was now that he prepared his _Seneca_,
perfected, in successive editions, his _Tacitus_ and brought out a
series of works, some of pure scholarship, others collections from
classical authors, others again of general interest. Of this latter
class was a treatise on politics (_Politicorum Libri Sex_, 1589), in
which he showed that, though a public teacher in a country which
professed toleration, he had not departed from the state maxims of Alva
and Philip II. He lays it down that a government should recognize only
one religion, and that dissent should be extirpated by fire and sword.
From the attacks to which this avowal exposed him, he was saved by the
prudence of the authorities of Leiden, who prevailed upon him to publish
a declaration that his expression, _Ure, seca_, was a metaphor for a
vigorous treatment. In the spring of 1590, leaving Leiden under pretext
of taking the waters at Spa, he went to Mainz, where he was reconciled
to the Roman Catholic Church. The event deeply interested the Catholic
world, and invitations poured in on Lipsius from the courts and
universities of Italy, Austria and Spain. But he preferred to remain in
his own country, and finally settled at Louvain, as professor of Latin
in the Collegium Buslidianum. He was not expected to teach, and his
trifling stipend was eked out by the appointments of privy councillor
and historiographer to the king of Spain. He continued to publish
dissertations as before, the chief being his _De militia romana_
(Antwerp, 1595) and _Lovanium_ (Antwerp, 1605; 4th ed., Wesel, 1671),
intended as an introduction to a general history of Brabant. He died at
Louvain on the 23rd of March (some give 24th of April) 1606.
Lipsius's knowledge of classical antiquity was extremely limited. He had
but slight acquaintance with Greek, and in Latin literature the poets
and Cicero lay outside his range. His greatest work was his edition of
Tacitus. This author he had so completely made his own that he could
repeat the whole, and offered to be tested in any part of the text, with
a poniard held to his breast, to be used against him if he should fail.
His _Tacitus_ first appeared in 1575, and was five times revised and
corrected--the last time in 1606, shortly before his death. His _Opera
Omnia_ appeared in 8 vols. at Antwerp (1585, 2nd ed., 1637).
A full list of his publications will be found in van der Aa,
_Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden_ (1865), and in
_Bibliographie Lipsienne_ (Ghent, 1886-1888). In addition to the
biography by A. le Mire (Aubertus Miraeus) (1609), the only original
account of his life, see M. E. C. Nisard, _Le Triumvirat littéraire au
XVI^e siècle_ (1852); A. Räss, _Die Convertiten seit der
Reformation_ (1867); P. Bergman's _Autobiographie de J. Lipse_ (1889);
L. Galesloot, _Particularités sur la vie de J. Lipse_ (1877); E.
Amiel, _Un Publiciste du XVI^e siècle. Juste Lipse_ (1884); and L.
Müller, _Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in den Niederlanden_.
The articles by J. J. Thonissen of Louvain in the _Nouvelle Biographie
générale_, and L. Roersch in _Biographie nationale de Belgique_, may
also be consulted.
LIPSIUS, RICHARD ADELBERT (1830-1892), German Protestant theologian, son
of K. H. A. Lipsius (d. 1861), who was rector of the school of St Thomas
at Leipzig, was born at Gera on the 14th of February 1830. He studied at
Leipzig, and eventually (1871) settled at Jena as professor ordinarius.
He helped to found the "Evangelical Protestant Missionary Union" and the
"Evangelical Alliance," and from 1874 took an active part in their
management. He died at Jena on the 19th of August 1892. Lipsius wrote
principally on dogmatics and the history of early Christianity from a
liberal and critical standpoint. A Neo-Kantian, he was to some extent an
opponent of Albrecht Ritschl, demanding "a connected and consistent
theory of the universe, which shall comprehend the entire realm of our
experience as a whole. He rejects the doctrine of dualism in a truth,
one division of which would be confined to 'judgments of value,' and be
unconnected with our theoretical knowledge of the external world. The
possibility of combining the results of our scientific knowledge with
the declarations of our ethico-religious experience, so as to form a
consistent philosophy, is based, according to Lipsius, upon the unity of
the personal ego, which on the one hand knows the world scientifically,
and on the other regards it as the means of realizing the
ethico-religious object of its life" (Otto Pfleiderer). This, in part,
is his attitude in _Philosophie und Religion_ (1885). In his _Lehrbuch
der evang.-prot. Dogmatik_ (1876; 3rd ed., 1893) he deals in detail with
the doctrines of "God," "Christ," "Justification" and the "Church." From
1875 he assisted K. Hase, O. Pfleiderer and E. Schrader in editing the
_Jahrbücher für prot. Theologie_, and from 1885 till 1891 he edited the
_Theol. Jahresbericht_.
His other works include _Die Pilatusakten_ (1871, new ed., 1886),
_Dogmatische Beiträge_ (1878), _Die Quellen der ältesten
Ketzergeschichte_ (1875), _Die apokryphen Apostelgeschichten_
(1883-1890), _Hauptpunkte der christl. Glaubenslehre im Umriss
dargestellt_ (1889), and commentaries on the Epistles to the
Galatians, Romans and Philippians in H. J. Holtzmann's _Handkommentar
zum Neuen Testament_ (1891-1892).
LIPTON, SIR THOMAS JOHNSTONE, BART. (1850- ), British merchant, was
born at Glasgow in 1850, of Irish parents. At a very early age he was
employed as errand boy to a Glasgow stationer; at fifteen he emigrated
to America, where at first he worked in a grocery store, and afterwards
as a tram-car driver in New Orleans, as a traveller for a portrait firm,
and on a plantation in South Carolina. Eventually, having saved some
money, he returned to Glasgow and opened a small provision shop.
Business gradually increased, and by degrees Lipton had provision shops
first all over Scotland and then all over the United Kingdom. To supply
his retail shops on the most favourable terms, he purchased extensive
tea, coffee and cocoa plantations in Ceylon, and provided his own
packing-house for hogs in Chicago, and fruit farms, jam factories,
bakeries and bacon-curing establishments in England. In 1898 his
business was converted into a limited liability company. At Queen
Victoria's diamond jubilee in 1897 he gave £20,000 for providing dinners
for a large number of the London poor. In 1898 he was knighted, and in
1902 was made a baronet. In the world of yacht-racing he became well
known from his repeated attempts to win the America Cup.
LIQUEURS, the general term applied to perfumed or flavoured potable
spirits, sweetened by the addition of sugar. The term "liqueur" is also
used for certain wines and unsweetened spirits of very superior quality,
or remarkable for their bouquet, such as tokay or fine old brandy or
whisky. The basis of all the "liqueurs" proper consists of (a)
relatively strong alcohol or spirit, which must be as pure and neutral
as possible; (b) sugar or syrup; and (c) flavouring matters. There are
three distinct main methods of manufacturing liqueurs. The first, by
which liqueurs of the highest class are prepared, is the "distillation"
or "alcoholate" process. This consists in macerating various aromatic
substances such as seeds, leaves, roots and barks of plants, &c., with
strong spirit and subsequently distilling the infusion so obtained
generally in the presence of a whole or a part of the solid matter. The
mixture of spirit, water and flavouring matters which distils over is
termed the "alcoholate." To this is added a solution of sugar or syrup,
and frequently colouring matter in the shape of harmless vegetable
extracts or burnt sugar, and a further quantity of flavouring matter in
the shape of essential oils or clear spirituous vegetable extracts. The
second method of making liqueurs is that known as the "essence" process.
It is employed, as a rule, for cheap and inferior articles; the process
resolving itself into the addition of various essential oils, either
natural or artificially prepared, and of spirituous extracts to strong
spirit, filtering and adding the saccharine matter to the clear
filtrate. The third method of manufacturing liqueurs is the "infusion"
process, in which alcohol and sugar are added to various fresh fruit
juices. Liqueurs prepared by this method are frequently called
"cordials." It has been suggested that "cordials" are articles of home
manufacture, and that liqueurs are necessarily of foreign origin, but it
is at least doubtful whether this is entirely correct. The French, who
excel in the preparation of liqueurs, grade their products, according to
their sweetness and alcoholic strength, into _crêmes_, _huiles_ or
_baumes_, which have a thick, oily consistency; and _eaux_, _extraits_
or _élixirs_, which, being less sweetened, are relatively limpid.
Liqueurs are also classed, according to their commercial quality and
composition, as _ordinaires_, _demi-fines_, _fines_ and _sur-fines_.
Certain liqueurs, containing only a single flavouring ingredient, or
having a prevailing flavour of a particular substance, are named after
that body, for instance, _crême de vanille_, _anisette_, _kümmel_,
_crême de menthe_, &c. On the other hand, many well-known liqueurs are
compounded of very numerous aromatic principles. The nature and
quantities of the flavouring agents employed in the preparation of
liqueurs of this kind are kept strictly secret, but numerous "recipes"
are given in works dealing with this subject. Among the substances
frequently used as flavouring agents are aniseed, coriander, fennel,
wormwood, gentian, sassafras, amber, hyssop, mint, thyme, angelica,
citron, lemon and orange peel, peppermint, cinnamon, cloves, iris,
caraway, tea, coffee and so on. The alcoholic strength of liqueurs
ranges from close on 80% of alcohol by volume in some kinds of absinthe,
to 27% in anisette. The liqueur industry is a very considerable one,
there being in France some 25,000 factories. Most of these are small,
but some 600,000 gallons are annually exported from France alone. For
absinthe, benedictine, chartreuse, curaçoa, kirsch and vermouth see
under separate headings. Among other well-known trade liqueurs may be
mentioned maraschino, which takes its name from a variety of cherry--the
marasca--grown in Dalmatia, the centre of the trade being at Zara;
kümmel, the flavour of which is largely due to caraway seeds; allasch,
which is a rich variety of kümmel; and cherry and other "fruit" brandies
and whiskies, the latter being perhaps more properly termed cordials.
See Duplais, _La Fabrication des liqueurs_; and Rocques, _Les
Eaux-de-vie et liqueurs_.
LIQUIDAMBAR, LIQUID AMBER or SWEET GUM, a product of _Liquidambar
styraciflua_ (order Hamamelideae), a deciduous tree of from 80 to 140
ft. high, with a straight trunk 4 or 5 ft. in diameter, a native of the
United States, Mexico and Central America. It bears palmately-lobed
leaves, somewhat resembling those of the maple, but larger. The male and
female inflorescences are on different branches of the same tree, the
globular heads of fruit resembling those of the plane. This species is
nearly allied to _L. orientalis_, a native of a very restricted portion
of the south-west coast of Asia Minor, where it forms forests. The
earliest record of the tree appears to be in a Spanish work by F.
Hernandez, published in 1651, in which he describes it as a large tree
producing a fragrant gum resembling liquid amber, whence the name (_Nov.
Plant._, &c., p. 56). In Ray's _Historia Plantarum_ (1686) it is called
_Styrax liquida_. It was introduced into Europe in 1681 by John
Banister, the missionary collector sent out by Bishop Compton, who
planted it in the palace gardens at Fulham. The wood is very compact and
fine-grained--the heart-wood being reddish, and, when cut into planks,
marked transversely with blackish belts. It is employed for veneering in
America. Being readily dyed black, it is sometimes used instead of ebony
for picture frames, balusters, &c.; but it is too liable to decay for
outdoor work.
The gum resin yielded by this tree has no special medicinal virtues,
being inferior in therapeutic properties to many others of its class.
Mixed with tobacco, the gum was used for smoking at the court of the
Mexican emperors (Humboldt iv. 10). It has long been used in France as
a perfume for gloves, &c. It is mainly produced in Mexico, little
being obtained from trees growing in higher latitudes of North
America, or in England.
LIQUIDATION (i.e. making "liquid" or clear), in law, the clearing off or
settling of a debt. The word was more especially used in bankruptcy law
to define the method by which, under the Bankruptcy Act 1869, the
affairs of an insolvent debtor were arranged and a composition accepted
by his creditors without actual bankruptcy. It was abolished by the
Bankruptcy Act 1883 (see BANKRUPTCY). In a general sense, liquidation is
used for the act of adjusting debts, as the Egyptian Law of Liquidation,
July 1880, for a general settlement of the liabilities of Egypt. In
company law, liquidation is the winding up and dissolving a company. The
winding up may be either voluntary or compulsory, and an officer, termed
a liquidator, is appointed, who takes into his custody all the property
of the company and performs such duties as are necessary on its behalf
(see COMPANY).