The variations in external characters which lions present, especially in
the colour and the amount of mane, as well as in the general colour of
the fur, indicate local races, to which special names have been given;
the Indian lion being _F. leo gujratensis_. It is noteworthy, however,
that, according to Mr F. C. Selous, in South Africa the black-maned lion
and others with yellow scanty manes are found, not only in the same
locality, but even among individuals of the same parentage.
The lion belongs to the genus _Felis_ of Linnaeus (for the characters
and position of which see CARNIVORA), and differs from the tiger and
leopard in its uniform colouring, and from all the other _Felidae_ in
the hair of the top of the head, chin and neck, as far back as the
shoulder, being not only much longer, but also differently disposed from
the hair elsewhere, being erect or directed forwards, and so
constituting the characteristic ornament called the mane. There is also
a tuft of elongated hairs at the end of the tail, one upon each elbow,
and in most lions a copious fringe along the middle line of the under
surface of the body, wanting, however, in some examples. These
characters are, however, peculiar to the adults of the male sex; and
even as regards coloration young lions show indications of the darker
stripes and mottlings so characteristic of the greater number of the
members of the genus. The usual colour of the adult is yellowish-brown,
but it may vary from a deep red or chestnut brown to an almost silvery
grey. The mane, as well as the long hair of the other parts of the body,
sometimes scarcely differs from the general colour, but is usually
darker and not unfrequently nearly black. The mane begins to grow when
the animal is about three years old, and is fully developed at five or
six.
In size the lion is only equalled or exceeded by the tiger among
existing _Felidae_; and though both species present great variations,
the largest specimens of the latter appear to surpass the largest lions.
A full-sized South African lion, according to Selous, measures slightly
less than 10 ft. from nose to tip of tail, following the curves of the
body. Sir Cornwallis Harris gives 10 ft. 6 in., of which the tail
occupies 3 ft. The lioness is about a foot less.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Front View of Skull of Lion.]
The internal structure of the lion, except in slight details,
resembles that of other _Felidae_, the whole organization being that
of an animal adapted for an active, predaceous existence. The teeth
especially exemplify the carnivorous type in its highest condition of
development. The most important function they have to perform, that of
seizing and holding firmly animals of considerable size and strength,
violently struggling for life, is provided for by the great,
sharp-pointed and sharp-edged canines, placed wide apart at the angles
of the mouth, the incisors between them being greatly reduced in size
and kept back nearly to the same level, so as not to interfere with
their action. The jaws are short and strong, and the width of the
zygomatic arches, and great development of the bony ridges on the
skull, give ample space for the attachment of the powerful muscles by
which they are closed. In the cheek-teeth the sectorial or
scissor-like cutting function is developed at the expense of the
tubercular or grinding, there being only one rudimentary tooth of the
latter form in the upper jaw, and none in the lower. They are,
however, sufficiently strong to break bones of large size. The tongue
is long and flat, and remarkable for the development of the papillae
of the anterior part of the dorsal surface, which (except near the
edge) are modified so as to resemble long, compressed, recurved, horny
spines or claws, which, near the middle line, attain the length of
one-fifth of an inch. They give the part of the tongue on which they
occur the appearance and feel of a coarse rasp. The feet are furnished
with round soft pads or cushions covered with thick, naked skin, one
on the under surface of each of the principal toes, and one larger one
of trilobed form, behind these, under the lower ends of the metacarpal
and metatarsal bones, which are placed nearly vertically in ordinary
progression. The claws are large, strongly compressed, sharp, and
exhibit the retractile condition in the highest degree, being drawn
backwards and upwards into a sheath by the action of an elastic
ligament so long as the foot is in a state of repose, but exerted by
muscular action when the animal strikes its prey.
The lion lives chiefly in sandy plains and rocky places interspersed
with dense thorn-thickets, or frequents the low bushes and tall rank
grass and reeds that grow along the sides of streams and near the
springs where it lies in wait for the larger herbivorous animals on
which it feeds. Although occasionally seen abroad during the day,
especially in wild and desolate regions, where it is subject to little
molestation, the night is, as in the case of so many other predaceous
animals, the period of its greatest activity. It is then that its
characteristic roar is chiefly heard, as thus graphically described by
Gordon-Cumming:--
"One of the most striking things connected with the lion is his voice,
which is extremely grand and peculiarly striking. It consists at times
of a low deep moaning, repeated five or six times, ending in faintly
audible sighs; at other times he startles the forest with loud,
deep-toned, solemn roars, repeated in quick succession, each
increasing in loudness to the third or fourth, when his voice dies
away in five or six low muffled sounds very much resembling distant
thunder. At times, and not unfrequently, a troop may be heard, roaring
in concert, one assuming the lead, and two, three or four more
regularly taking up their parts, like persons singing a catch. Like
our Scottish stags at the rutting season, they roar loudest in cold
frosty nights; but on no occasions are their voices to be heard in
such perfection, or so intensely powerful, as when two or three troops
of strange lions approach a fountain to drink at the same time. When
this occurs, every member of each troop sounds a bold roar of defiance
at the opposite parties; and when one roars, all roar together, and
each seems to vie with his comrades in the intensity and power of his
voice. The power and grandeur of these nocturnal concerts is
inconceivably striking and pleasing to the hunter's ear."
"The usual pace of a lion," C. J. Andersson says, "is a walk, and,
though apparently rather slow, yet, from the great length of his body,
he is able to get over a good deal of ground in a short time.
Occasionally he trots, when his speed is not inconsiderable. His
gallop--or rather succession of bounds--is, for a short distance, very
fast--nearly or quite equal to that of a horse."
"The lion, as with other members of the feline family," the same writer
says, "seldom attacks his prey openly, unless compelled by extreme
hunger. For the most part he steals upon it in the manner of a cat, or
ambushes himself near to the water or a pathway frequented by game. At
such times he lies crouched upon his belly in a thicket until the animal
approaches sufficiently near, when, with one prodigious bound, he pounces
upon it. In most cases he is successful, but should his intended victim
escape, as at times happens, from his having miscalculated the distance,
he may make a second or even a third bound, which, however, usually prove
fruitless, or he returns disconcerted to his hiding-place, there to wait
for another opportunity." His food consists of all the larger herbivorous
animals of the country in which he resides--buffaloes, antelopes, zebras,
giraffes or even young elephants or rhinoceroses. In cultivated districts
cattle, sheep, and even human inhabitants are never safe from his
nocturnal ravages. He appears, however, as a general rule, only to kill
when hungry or attacked, and not for the mere pleasure of killing, as
with some other carnivorous animals. He, moreover, by no means limits
himself to animals of his own killing, but, according to Selous, often
prefers eating game that has been killed by man, even when not very
fresh, to taking the trouble to catch an animal himself.
The lion appears to be monogamous, a single male and female continuing
attached to each other irrespectively of the pairing season. At all
events the lion remains with the lioness while the cubs are young and
helpless, and assists in providing her and them with food, and in
educating them in the art of providing for themselves. The number of
cubs at a birth is from two to four, usually three. They are said to
remain with their parents till they are about three years old.
Though not strictly gregarious, lions appear to be sociable towards
their own species, and often are found in small troops sometimes
consisting of a pair of old ones with their nearly full-grown cubs, but
occasionally of adults of the same sex; and there seems to be evidence
that several lions will associate for the purpose of hunting upon a
preconcerted plan. Their natural ferocity and powerful armature are
sometimes turned upon one another; combats, often mortal, occur among
male lions under the influence of jealousy; and Andersson relates an
instance of a quarrel between a hungry lion and lioness over the carcase
of an antelope which they had just killed, and which did not seem
sufficient for the appetite of both, ending in the lion not only
killing, but devouring his mate. Old lions, whose teeth have become
injured with constant wear, become "man-eaters," finding their easiest
means of obtaining a subsistence in lurking in the neighbourhood of
villages, and dashing into the tents at night and carrying off one of
the sleeping inmates. Lions never climb.
With regard to the character of the lion, those who have had
opportunities of observing it in its native haunts differ greatly. The
accounts of early writers as to its courage, nobility and magnanimity
have led to a reaction, causing some modern authors to accuse it of
cowardice and meanness. Livingstone goes so far as to say, "nothing that
I ever learned of the lion could lead me to attribute to it either the
ferocious or noble character ascribed to it elsewhere," and he adds that
its roar is not distinguishable from that of the ostrich. These different
estimates depend to a great extent upon the particular standard of the
writer, and also upon the circumstance that lions, like other animals,
show considerable individual differences in character, and behave
differently under varying circumstances. (W. H. F.; R. L.*)
LIONNE, HUGUES DE (1611-1671), French statesman, was born at Grenoble on
the 11th of October 1611, of an old family of Dauphiné. Early trained
for diplomacy, his remarkable abilities attracted the notice of Cardinal
Mazarin, who sent him as secretary of the French embassy to the congress
of Münster, and, in 1642, on a mission to the pope. In 1646 he became
secretary to the queen regent; in 1653 obtained high office in the
king's household; and in 1654 was ambassador extraordinary at the
election of Pope Alexander VII. He was instrumental in forming the
league of the Rhine, by which Austria was cut off from the Spanish
Netherlands, and, as minister of state, was associated with Mazarin in
the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659), which secured the marriage of Louis
XIV. to the infanta Maria Theresa. At the cardinal's dying request he
was appointed his successor in foreign affairs, and, for the next ten
years, continued to direct French foreign policy. Among his most
important diplomatic successes were the treaty of Breda (1667), the
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668) and the sale of Dunkirk. He died in
Paris on the 1st of September 1671, leaving memoirs. He was a man of
pleasure, but his natural indolence gave place to an unflagging energy
when the occasion demanded it; and, in an age of great ministers, his
consummate statesmanship placed him in the front rank.
See Ulysse Chevalier, _Lettres inédites de Hugues de Lionne ...
précédées d'une notice historique sur la famille de Lionne_ (Valence,
1879); J. Valfrey, _La diplomatie française au XVIII^e siècle:
Hugues de Lionne, ses ambassadeurs_ (2 vols., Paris, 1877-1881). For
further works see Rochas, _Biogr. du Dauphiné_ (Paris, 1860), tome ii.
p. 87.
LIOTARD, JEAN ETIENNE (1702-1789), French painter, was born at Geneva.
He began his studies under Professor Gardelle and Petitot, whose enamels
and miniatures he copied with considerable skill. He went to Paris in
1725, studying under J. B. Massé and F. le Moyne, on whose
recommendation he was taken to Naples by the Marquis Puysieux. In 1735
he was in Rome, painting the portraits of Pope Clement XII. and several
cardinals. Three years later he accompanied Lord Duncannon to
Constantinople, whence he went to Vienna in 1742 to paint the portraits
of the imperial family. His eccentric adoption of oriental costume
secured him the nickname of "the Turkish painter." Still under
distinguished patronage he returned to Paris in 1744, visited England,
where he painted the princess of Wales in 1753, and went to Holland in
1756, where, in the following year, he married Marie Fargues. Another
visit to England followed in 1772, and in the next two years his name
figures among the Royal Academy exhibitors. He returned to his native
town in 1776 and died at Geneva in 1789.
Liotard was an artist of great versatility, and though his fame depends
largely on his graceful and delicate pastel drawings, of which "La
Liseuse," the "Chocolate Girl," and "La Belle Lyonnaise" at the Dresden
Gallery are delightful examples, he achieved distinction by his enamels,
copper-plate engravings and glass painting. He also wrote a _Treatise on
the Art of Painting_, and was an expert collector of paintings by the
old masters. Many of the masterpieces he had acquired were sold by him
at high prices on his second visit to England. The museums of Amsterdam,
Berne, and Geneva are particularly rich in examples of his paintings and
pastel drawings. A picture of a Turk seated is at the Victoria and
Albert Museum, while the British Museum owns two of his drawings. The
Louvre has, besides twenty-two drawings, a portrait of General Hérault
and a portrait of the artist is to be found at the Sala dei pittori, in
the Uffizi Gallery, Florence.
See _La Vie et les oeuvres de Jean Etienne Liotard (1702-1789), étude
biographique et iconographique_, by E. Humbert, A. Revilliod, and J.
W. R. Tilanus (Amsterdam, 1897).
LIP (a word common in various forms, to Teutonic languages, cf Ger.
_Lippe_, Dan. _laebe_; Lat. _labium_ is cognate), one of the two fleshy
protuberant edges of the mouth in man and other animals, hence
transferred to such objects as resemble a lip, the edge of a circular or
other opening, as of a shell, or of a wound, or of any fissure in
anatomy and zoology; in this last usage the Latin _labium_ is more
usually employed. It is also used of any projecting edge, as in
coal-mining, &c. Many figurative uses are derived from the connexion
with the mouth as the organ of speech. In architecture "lip moulding" is
a term given to a moulding employed in the Perpendicular period, from
its resemblance to an overhanging lip. It is often found in base
mouldings, and is not confined to England, there being similar examples
in France and Italy.
LIPA, a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine Islands,
about 90 m. S. by E. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 37,934. Lipa is on high
ground at the intersection of old military roads, is noted for its cool
and healthy climate, and is one of the largest and wealthiest inland
towns of the archipelago. Many of its houses have two storeys above the
ground-floor, and its church and convent together form a very large
building. The surrounding country is very fertile, producing sugar-cane,
Indian corn, cacao, tobacco and indigo. The cultivation of coffee was
begun here on a large scale about the middle of the 19th century and was
increased gradually until 1889-1890 when an insect pest destroyed the
trees. The language of Lipa is Tagalog.
LIPAN, a tribe of North American Indians of Athabascan stock. Their
former range was central Texas. Later they were driven into Mexico. They
were pure nomads, lived entirely by hunting, and were perhaps the most
daring of the Texas Indians. A few survivors were brought back from
Mexico in 1905 and placed on a reservation in New Mexico.
LIPARI ISLANDS (anc. [Greek: Aiolou nêsoi], or _Aeoliae Insulae_), a
group of volcanic islands N. of the eastern portion of Sicily. They are
seven in number--Lipari (_Lipara_, pop. in 1901, 15,290), Stromboli
(_Strongyle_), Salina (_Didyme_, pop. in 1901, 4934), Filicuri
(_Phoenicusa_), Alicuri (_Ericusa_), Vulcano (_Hiera_, _Therasia_ or
_Thermissa_), the mythical abode of Hephaestus, and Panaria
(_Euonymus_). The island of Aiolie, the home of Aiolos, lord of the
winds, which Ulysses twice visited in his wanderings, has generally been
identified with one of this group. A colony of Cnidians and Rhodians was
established on Lipara in 580-577 B.C.[1] The inhabitants were allied
with the Syracusans, and were attacked by the Athenian fleet in 427
B.C., and by the Carthaginians in 397 B.C., while Agathocles plundered a
temple on Lipara in 301 B.C. During the Punic wars the islands were a
Carthaginian naval station of some importance until the Romans took
possession of them in 252 B.C. Sextus Pompeius also used them as a naval
base. Under the Empire the islands served as a place of banishment for
political prisoners. In the middle ages they frequently changed hands.
The island of Lipari contains the chief town (population in 1901, 5855),
which bears the same name and had municipal rights in Roman times. It is
the seat of a bishop. It is fertile and contains sulphur springs and
vapour baths, which were known and used in ancient times. Pumicestone is
exported.
Stromboli, 22 m. N.E. of Lipari, is a constantly active volcano,
ejecting gas and lava at brief intervals, and always visible at night.
Salina, 3 m. N.W. of Lipari, consisting of the cones of two extinct
volcanoes, that on the S.E., Monte Salvatore (3155 ft.), being the
highest point in the islands, is the most fertile of the whole group and
produces good Malmsey wine: it takes its name from the salt-works on the
south coast. Vulcano, ½ m. S. of Lipari, contains a still smoking
crater. Sulphur works were started in 1874, have since been abandoned.
See Archduke Ludwig Salvator of Austria, _Die Liparischen Inseln_, 8
vols. (for private circulation) (Prague, 1893 seqq.).