[1] Lincoln was about equally distant from Pawnee City and the Kansas
border, the leading Missouri river towns, and the important towns of
Fremont and Columbus on the N. side of the Platte.
LINCOLN JUDGMENT, THE. In this celebrated English ecclesiastical suit,
the bishop of Lincoln (Edward King, q.v.) was cited before his
metropolitan, the archbishop of Canterbury (Dr Benson), to answer
charges of various ritual offences committed at the administration of
Holy Communion in the church of St Peter at Gowts, in the diocese of
Lincoln, on the 4th of December 1887, and in Lincoln cathedral on the
10th of December 1887. The promoters were Ernest de Lacy Read, William
Brown, Felix Thomas Wilson and John Marshall, all inhabitants of the
diocese of Lincoln, and the last two parishioners of St Peter at Gowts.
The case has a permanent importance in two respects. First, certain
disputed questions of ritual were legally decided. Secondly, the
jurisdiction of the archbishop of Canterbury alone to try one of his
suffragan bishops for alleged ecclesiastical offences was considered and
judicially declared to be well founded both by the judicial committee of
privy council and by the archbishop of Canterbury with the concurrence
of his assessors. The proceedings were begun on the 2nd of June 1888 by
a petition presented by the promoters to the archbishop, praying that a
citation to the bishop of Lincoln might issue calling on him to answer
certain ritual charges. On the 26th of June 1888 the archbishop, by
letter, declined to issue citation, on the ground that until instructed
by a competent court as to his jurisdiction, he was not clear that he
had it. The promoters appealed to the judicial committee of the privy
council, to which an appeal lies under 25 Henry VIII. c. 19 for "lack of
justice" in the archbishop's court. The matter was heard on the 20th of
July 1888, and on the 8th of August 1888 the committee decided (i.) that
an appeal lay from the refusal of the archbishop to the judicial
committee, and (ii.) that the archbishop had jurisdiction to issue a
citation to the bishop of Lincoln and to hear the promoters' complaint,
but they abstained from expressing an opinion as to whether the
archbishop had a discretion to refuse citation--whether, in fact, he had
any power of "veto" over the prosecution. The case being thus remitted
to the archbishop, he decided to entertain it, and on the 4th of January
1889 issued a citation to the bishop of Lincoln.
On the 12th of February 1889 the archbishop of Canterbury sat in Lambeth
Palace Library, accompanied by the bishops of London (Dr Temple),
Winchester (Dr Harold Browne), Oxford (Dr Stubbs) and Salisbury (Dr
Wordsworth), and the vicar-general (Sir J. Parker Deane) as assessors.
The bishop of Lincoln appeared in person and read a "Protest" to the
archbishop's jurisdiction to try him except in a court composed of the
archbishop and all the bishops of the province as judges. The court
adjourned in order that the question of jurisdiction might be argued. On
the 11th of May the archbishop gave judgment to the effect that whether
sitting alone or with assessors he had jurisdiction to entertain the
charge. On the 23rd and 24th of July 1889 a further preliminary
objection raised by the bishop of Lincoln's counsel was argued. The
offences alleged against the bishop of Lincoln were largely breaches of
various rubrics in the communion service of the Prayer Book which give
directions to the "minister." These rubrics are by the Acts of
Uniformity (1 Elizabeth c. 2, and 13 & 14 Car. II. c. 4) made legally
binding. But it was argued that a bishop is not a "minister" so as to be
bound by the rubrics. The archbishop, however, held otherwise, and the
assessors (except the bishop of Salisbury, who dissented) concurred in
this decision. At this and subsequent hearings the bishop of Hereford
(Dr Atlay) took the place of the bishop of Winchester as an assessor,
and the bishop of Rochester (Dr Thorold), originally appointed an
assessor, but absent from England at the outset, was present.
Charges and decisions.
The case was heard on its merits in February 1890, before the archbishop
and all the assessors, and the archbishop delivered his judgment on the
21st of November 1890. The alleged offences were eight in number. No
facts were in dispute, but only the legality of the various matters
complained of. I. The bishop was charged with having mixed water with
wine in the chalice during the communion service, and II. with having
administered the chalice so mixed to the communicants. It was decided
that the mixing of the water with the wine during service was illegal,
because an additional ceremony not enjoined in the Prayer Book, but that
the administration of the mixed chalice, the mixing having been effected
before service, was in accordance with primitive practice and not
forbidden in the Church of England. III. The bishop was charged with the
ceremonial washing of the vessels used for the holy communion, and with
drinking the water used for these ablutions. It was decided that the
bishop had committed no offence, and that what he had done was a
reasonable compliance with the requirement of the rubric that any of the
consecrated elements left over at the end of the celebration should be
then and there consumed. IV. The bishop was charged with taking the
eastward position (i.e. standing at the west side of the holy table with
his face to the east and his back to the congregation) during the
ante-communion service (i.e. the part of the communion service prior to
the consecration prayer). The rubric requires the celebrant to stand at
the north side of the table. A vast amount of research convinced the
archbishop that this is an intentionally ambiguous phrase which may with
equal accuracy be applied to the north end of the table as now arranged
in churches, and to the long side of the table, which, in Edward VI.'s
reign, was often placed lengthwise down the church, so that the long
sides would face north and south. It was therefore decided (one of the
assessors dissenting) that both positions are legal, and that the bishop
had not offended in adopting the eastward position. V. The bishop was
charged with so standing during the consecration prayer that the "Manual
Acts" of consecration were invisible to the people gathered round. It
should be stated that the courts (see _Ridsdale_ v. _Clifton_, L.R. 1
P.D. 316; 2 P.D. 276) had already decided that the eastward position
during the consecration prayer was legal, but that it must not be so
used by the celebrant as to conceal the "Manual Acts." The archbishop
held that the bishop of Lincoln had transgressed the law in this
particular. VI. The bishop was charged with having, during the
celebration of holy communion, allowed two candles to be alight on a
shelf or retable behind the altar when they were not necessary for
giving light. The archbishop decided that the mere presence of two altar
candles burning during the service, but lit before it began, was lawful
under the First Prayer Book of Edward VI., and has never been made
unlawful, and, therefore, that the bishop was justified in what he had
done. VII. The bishop was charged with having permitted the hymn known
as _Agnus Dei_ to be sung immediately after the consecration of the
elements at a celebration of the holy communion. The archbishop decided
that the use of hymns in divine service was too firmly established to be
legally questioned, and that there was nothing to differentiate the use
of this particular hymn at this point of the service from the use of
other hymns on other occasions in public worship. VIII. The bishop was
charged with making the sign of the Cross in the air with his hand in
the benediction and at other times during divine service. The archbishop
held that these crossings were ceremonies not enjoined and, therefore,
illegal. The judgment confined itself to the legal declarations here
summarized, and pronounced no monition or other sentence on the bishop
of Lincoln in respect of the matters in which he appeared to have
committed breaches of the ecclesiastical law.
The promoters appealed to the judicial committee. The bishop did not
appear on the appeal, which was therefore argued on the side of the
promoters only. The appeal was heard in June and July 1891, before Lords
Halsbury, Hobhouse, Esher, Herschell, Hannen and Shand and Sir Richard
Couch, with the bishop of Chichester (Dr Durnford), the bishop of St
Davids (Dr Basil Jones) and the bishop of Lichfield (Dr Maclagan) as
episcopal assessors. The points appealed were those above numbered II.,
III., IV., VI., VII. Judgment was given on the 2nd of August 1892, and
the appeal failed on all points. As to II., III., IV., and VII. the
Committee agreed with the archbishop. As to VI. (altar lights) they held
that, as it was not shown that the bishop was responsible for the
presence of lighted candles, the charge could not be sustained against
him, and so dismissed it without considering the general question of the
lawfulness of altar lights. They also held that the archbishop was
within his right in pronouncing no sentence against the bishop, who, it
should be added, conformed his practice to the judgment from the date of
its delivery. (L. T. D.)
LINCOLNSHIRE, an eastern county of England, bounded N. by the Humber, E.
by the German Ocean and the Wash, S.E. for 3 m. by Norfolk, S. by
Cambridgeshire and Northamptonshire, S.W. by Rutland, W. by
Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire and N.W. by Yorkshire. The area is
2646 sq. m., the county being second to Yorkshire of the English
counties in size.
The coast-line, about 110 m. in length, including the Humber shore, is
generally low and marshy, and artificial banks for guarding against the
inroads of the sea are to be found, in places, all along the coast. From
Grimsby to Skegness traces of a submarine forest are visible; but while
the sea is encroaching upon some parts of the coast it is receding from
others, as shown by Holbeach, which is now 6 m. from the sea. Several
thousand acres have been reclaimed from this part of the Wash, and round
the mouth of the Nene on the south-east. The deep bay between the coasts
of Lincolnshire and Norfolk, called the Wash, is full of dangerous
sandbanks and silt; the navigable portion off the Lincolnshire coast is
known as the Boston Deeps. The rapidity of the tides in this inlet, and
the lowness of its shores, which are generally indistinct on account of
mist from a moderate offing, render this the most difficult portion of
the navigation of the east coast of England. On some parts of the coast
there are fine stretches of sand, and Cleethorpes, Skegness, Mablethorpe
and Sutton-on-Sea are favourite resorts for visitors.
The surface of Lincolnshire is generally a large plain, small portions
of which are slightly below the level of the sea. The south-east parts
are perfectly flat; and about one-third of the county consists of fens
and marshes, intersected in all directions by artificial drains, called
locally dykes, delphs, drains, becks, leams and eaux. This flat surface
is broken by two ranges of calcareous hills running north and south
through the county, and known as the Lincoln Edge or Heights, or the
Cliff, and the Wolds. The former range, on the west, runs nearly due
north from Grantham to Lincoln, and thence to the Humber, traversing the
Heaths of Lincolnshire, which were formerly open moors, rabbit warrens
and sheep walks, but are now enclosed and brought into high cultivation.
The Wolds form a ridge of bold hills extending from Spilsby to
Barton-on-Humber for about 40 m., with an average breadth of about 8 m.
The Humber separates Lincolnshire from Yorkshire. Its ports on the
Lincolnshire side are the small ferry-ports of Barton and New Holland,
and the important harbour of Grimsby. The Trent forms part of the
boundary with Nottinghamshire, divides the Isle of Axholme (q.v.) from
the district of Lindsey, and falls into the Humber about 30 m. below
Gainsborough. The Witham rises on the S.W. border of the county, flows
north past Grantham to Lincoln, and thence E. and S.E. to Boston, after
a course of about 80 m. The Welland rises in north-west
Northamptonshire, enters the county at Stamford, and, after receiving
the Glen, flows through an artificial channel into the Fosdyke Wash. The
Nene on the south-east has but a small portion of its course in
Lincolnshire; it flows due north through an artificial outfall, called
the Wisbech Cut. Between the Wolds and the sea lie the Marshes, a level
tract of rich alluvial soil extending from Barton-on-Humber to
Wainfleet, varying in breadth from 5 to 10 m. Between the Welland and
the Nene in the south-east of the county are Gedney Marsh, Holbeach
Marsh, Moulton Marsh and Sutton Marsh.
The Fens (q.v.), the soil of which has been formed partly by tidal
action and partly by the decay of forests, occupy the Isle of Axholme on
the north-west, the vale of Ancholme on the north, and most of the
country south-east of Lincoln. The chief of these are the Holland,
Wildmore, West and East Fens draining into the Witham; and the Deeping,
Bourn, Great Porsand, and Whaplode Fens draining into the Welland.
The low lands adjoining the tidal reaches of the Trent and Humber, and
part of those around the Wash have been raised above the natural level
and enriched by the process of warping, which consists in letting the
tide run over the land, and retaining it there a sufficient time to
permit the deposit of the sand and mud held in solution by the waters.
_Geology._--The geological formations for the most part extend in
parallel belts, nearly in the line of the length of the county, from
north to south, and succeed one another in ascending order from west
to east. The lowest is the Triassic Keuper found in the Isle of
Axholme and the valley of the Trent in the form of marls, sandstone
and gypsum. Fish scales and teeth, with bones and footprints of the
_Labyrinthodon_, are met with in the sandstone. The red clay is
frequently dug for brick-making. The beds dip gently towards the east.
At the junction between the Trias and Lias are series of beds termed
Rhaetics, which seem to mark a transition from one to the other. These
belts are in part exposed in pits near Newark, and extend north by
Gainsborough to where the Trent flows into the Humber, passing thence
into Yorkshire. The characteristic shells are found at Lea, 2 m. south
of Gainsborough, with a thin bone-bed full of fish teeth and scales.
The Lower Lias comes next in order, with a valuable bed of ironstone
now largely worked. This bed is about 27 ft. in thickness, and crops
out at Scunthorpe and Frodingham, where the workings are open and
shallow. The Middle Lias, which enters the county near Woolsthorpe, is
about 20 or 30 ft. thick, and is very variable both in thickness and
mineralogical character; the iron ores of Denton and Caythorpe belong
to this horizon. The Upper Lias enters the county at Stainby, passing
by Grantham and Lincoln where it is worked for bricks. The Lias thus
occupies a vale about 8 or 10 m. in width in the south, narrowing
until on the Humber it is about a mile in width. To this succeed the
Oolite formations. The Inferior Oolite, somewhat narrower than the
Lias, extends from the boundary with Rutland due north past Lincoln to
the vicinity of the Humber; it forms the Cliff of Lincolnshire with a
strong escarpment facing westward. At Lincoln the ridge is notched by
the river Witham. The principal member of the Inferior Oolite is the
Lincolnshire limestone, which is an important water-bearing bed and is
quarried at Lincoln, Ponton, Ancaster, and Kirton Lindsey for building
stone. Eastward of the Inferior Oolite lie the narrow outcrops of the
Great Oolite and Cornbrash. The Middle Oolite, Oxford clay and
Corallian is very narrow in the south near Wilsthorpe, widening
gradually about Sleaford. It then proceeds north from Lincoln with
decreasing width to the vicinity of the Humber. The Upper Oolite,
Kimeridge clay, starts from the vicinity of Stamford, and after
attaining its greatest width near Horncastle, runs north-north-west to
the Humber. The Kimeridge clay is succeeded by the Spilsby sandstone,
Tealby limestone, Claxby ironstone, and carstone which represent the
highest Jurassic and lowest Cretaceous rocks. In the Cretaceous system
of the Wolds, the Lower Greensand runs nearly parallel with the Upper
Oolite past South Willingham to the Humber. The Upper Greensand and
Gault, represented in Lincolnshire by the Red Chalk, run north-west
from Irby, widening out as far as Kelstern on the east, and cross the
Humber. The Chalk formation, about equal in breadth to the three
preceding, extends from Burgh across the Humber. The rest of the
county, comprising all its south-east portions between the Middle
Oolite belt and the sea, all its north-east portions between the chalk
belt and the sea, and a narrow tract up the course of the Ancholme
river, consists of alluvial deposits or of reclaimed marsh. In the
northern part boulder clay and glacial sands cover considerable tracts
of the older rocks. Bunter, Permian, and Coal Measure strata have been
revealed by boring to underlie the Keuper near Haxey.
Gypsum is dug in the Isle of Axholme, whiting is made from the chalk
near the shores of the Humber, and lime is made on the Wolds.
Freestone is quarried around Ancaster, and good oolite building stone
is quarried near Lincoln and other places. Ironstone is worked at
several places and there are some blast furnaces.
At Woodhall Spa on the Horncastle branch railway there is a
much-frequented bromine and iodine spring.
_Climate, Soil and Agriculture._--The climate of the higher grounds is
healthy, and meteorological observation does not justify the
reputation for cold and damp often given to the county as a whole. The
soils vary considerably, according to the geological formations; ten
or twelve different kinds may be found in going across the country
from east to west. A good sandy loam is common in the Heath division;
a sandy loam with chalk, or a flinty loam on chalk marl, abounds on
portions of the Wolds; an argillaceous sand, merging into rich loam,
lies on other portions of the Wolds; a black loam and a rich vegetable
mould cover most of the Isle of Axholme on the north-west; a
well-reclaimed marine marsh, a rich brown loam, and a stiff cold clay
variously occupy the low tracts along the Humber, and between the
north Wolds and the sea; a peat earth, a deep sandy loam, and a rich
soapy blue clay occupy most of the east and south Fens; and an
artificial soil, obtained by "warping," occupies considerable low
strips of land along the tidal reaches of the rivers.
Lincolnshire is one of the principal agricultural, especially
grain-producing, counties in England. Nearly nine-tenths of the total
area is under cultivation. The wide grazing lands have long been
famous, and the arable lands are specially adapted for the growth of
wheat and beans. The largest individual grain-crop, however, is
barley. Both cattle and sheep are bred in great numbers. The cattle
raised are the Shorthorns and improved Lincolnshire breeds. The dairy,
except in the vicinity of large towns, receives little attention. The
sheep are chiefly of the Lincolnshire and large Leicestershire breeds,
and go to the markets of Yorkshire and London. Lincolnshire has long
been famous for a fine breed of horses both for the saddle and
draught. Horse fairs are held every year at Horncastle and Lincoln.
Large flocks of geese were formerly kept in the Fens, but their number
has been diminished since the drainage of these parts. Where a large
number of them were bred, nests were constructed for them one above
another; they were daily taken down by the gooseherd, driven to the
water, and then reinstated in their nests, without a single bird being
misplaced. Decoys were once numerous in the undrained state of the
Fens.
_Industries and Communications._--Manufactures are few and, relatively
to the agricultural industry, small. The mineral industries, however,
are of value, and there are considerable agricultural machine and
implement factories at Lincoln, Boston, Gainsborough, Grantham and
Louth. At Little Bytham a very hard brick, called adamantine clinker,
is made of the siliceous clay that the Romans used for similar works.
Bone-crushing, tanning, the manufacture of oil-cake for cattle, and
rope-making are carried on in various places. Grimsby is an important
port both for continental traffic and especially for fisheries; Boston
is second to it in the county; and Gainsborough has a considerable
traffic on the Trent. Sutton Bridge is a lesser port on the Wash.
The principal railway is the Great Northern, its main line touching
the county in the S.W. and serving Grantham. Its principal branches
are from Peterborough to Spalding, Boston, Louth and Grimsby; and from
Grantham to Sleaford and Boston, and to Lincoln, and Boston to
Lincoln. This company works jointly with the Great Eastern the line
from March to Spalding, Lincoln, Gainsborough and Doncaster, and with
the Midland that from Saxby to Bourn, Spalding, Holbeach, Sutton
Bridge and King's Lynn. The Midland company has a branch from Newark
to Lincoln, and the Lancashire, Derbyshire, and East Coast line
terminates at Lincoln. The Great Central railway connects the west,
Sheffield and Doncaster with Grimsby, and with Hull by ferry from New
Holland. Canals connect Louth with the Humber, Sleaford with the
Witham, and Grantham with the Trent near Nottingham; but the greater
rivers and many of the drainage cuts are navigable, being artificially
deepened and embanked.
_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
1,693,550 acres, with a population in 1891 of 472,878 and in 1901 of
498,847. The primary divisions are three trithings or Ridings (q.v.).
The north division is called the Parts of Lindsey, the south-west the
Parts of Kesteven, and the south-east the Parts of Holland. Each of
these divisions had in early times its own reeve or gerefa. Each
constitutes an administrative county, the Parts of Lindsey having an
area of 967,689 acres; Kesteven, 465,877 acres; and Holland, 262,766
acres. The Parts of Lindsey contain 17 wapentakes; Kesteven, exclusive
of the soke and borough of Grantham and the borough of Stamford, 9
wapentakes; and Holland, 3 wapentakes. The municipal boroughs and
urban districts are as follows:--
1. PARTS OF LINDSEY.--Municipal boroughs--Grimsby, a county borough
(pop. 63,138), Lincoln, a city and county borough and the county town
(48,784), Louth (9518). Urban districts--Alford (2478),
Barton-upon-Humber (5671), Brigg (3137), Broughton (1300), Brumby and
Frodingham (2273), Cleethorpes with Thrunscoe (12,578), Crowle (2769),
Gainsborough (17,660), Horncastle (4038), Mablethorpe (934), Market
Rasen (2188), Roxby-cum-Risby (389), Scunthorpe (6750), Skegness
(2140), Winterton (1361), Woodhall Spa (988).
2. PARTS OF KESTEVEN.--Municipal boroughs--Grantham (17,593), Stamford
(8229). Urban districts--Bourne (4361), Bracebridge (1752), Ruskington
(1196), Sleaford (5468).
3. PARTS OF HOLLAND.--Municipal borough--Boston (15,667). Urban
districts--Holbeach (4755), Long Sutton (2524), Spalding (9385),
Sutton Bridge (2105). In the Parts of Holland the borough of Boston
has a separate commission of the peace and there are two petty
sessional divisions. Lincolnshire is in the Midland circuit. In the
Parts of Kesteven the boroughs of Grantham and Stamford have each a
separate commission of the peace and separate courts of quarter
sessions, and there are 4 petty sessional divisions. In the Parts of
Lindsey the county boroughs of Grimsby and Lincoln have each a
separate commission of the peace and a separate court of quarter
sessions, while the municipal borough of Louth has a separate
commission of the peace, and there are 14 petty sessional divisions.
The three administrative counties and the county boroughs contain
together 761 civil parishes. The ancient county contains 580
ecclesiastical parishes and districts, wholly or in part. It is mostly
in the diocese of Lincoln, but in part also in the dioceses of
Southwell and York. For parliamentary purposes the county is divided
into seven divisions, namely, West Lindsey or Gainsborough, North
Lindsey or Brigg, East Lindsey or Louth, South Lindsey or Horncastle,
North Kesteven or Sleaford, South Kesteven or Stamford, and Holland or
Spalding, and the parliamentary boroughs of Boston, Grantham, Grimsby
and Lincoln, each returning one member.
_History._--Of the details of the English conquest of the district which
is now Lincolnshire little is known, but at some time in the 6th century
Engle and Frisian invaders appear to have settled in the country north
of the Witham, where they became known as the Lindiswaras, the southern
districts from Boston to the Trent basin being at this time dense
woodland. In the 7th century the supremacy over Lindsey alternated
between Mercia and Northumbria, but few historical references to the
district are extant until the time of Alfred, whose marriage with
Ealswitha was celebrated at Gainsborough three years before his
accession. At this period the Danish inroads upon the coast of Lindsey
had already begun, and in 873 Healfdene wintered at Torksey, while in
878 Lincoln and Stamford were included among the five Danish boroughs,
and the organization of the districts dependent upon them probably
resulted about this time in the grouping of Lindsey, Kesteven and
Holland to form the shire of Lincoln. The extent and permanence of the
Danish influence in Lincolnshire is still observable in the names of its
towns and villages and in the local dialect, and, though about 918 the
confederate boroughs were recaptured by Edward the Elder, in 993 a
Viking fleet again entered the Humber and ravaged Lindsey, and in 1013
the district of the five boroughs acknowledged the supremacy of Sweyn.
The county offered no active resistance to the Conqueror, and though
Hereward appears in the Domesday Survey as a dispossessed under-tenant
of the abbot of Peterborough at Witham-on-the-Hill, the legends
surrounding his name do not belong to this county. In his northward
march in 1068 the Conqueror built a castle at Lincoln, and portioned out
the principal estates among his Norman followers, but the Domesday
Survey shows that the county on the whole was leniently treated, and a
considerable number of Englishmen retained their lands as subtenants.
The origin of the three main divisions of Lincolnshire is anterior to
that of the county itself, and the outcome of purely natural conditions,
Lindsey being in Roman times practically an island bounded by the swamps
of the Trent and the Witham on the west and south and on the east by the
North Sea, while Kesteven and Holland were respectively the regions of
forest and of fen. Lindsey in Norman times was divided into three
ridings--North, West and South--comprising respectively five, five and
seven wapentakes; while, apart from their division into wapentakes, the
Domesday Survey exhibits a unique planning out of the ridings into
approximately equal numbers of 12-carucate hundreds, the term hundred
possessing here no administrative or local significance, but serving
merely as a unit of area for purposes of assessment. The Norman division
of Holland into the three wapentakes of Elloe, Kirton and Skirbeck has
remained unchanged to the present day. In Kesteven the wapentakes of
Aswardhurn, Aveland, Beltisloe, Haxwell, Langoe, Loveden, Ness,
Winnibriggs, and Grantham Soke have been practically unchanged, but the
Domesday wapentakes of Boothby and Graffo now form the wapentake of
Boothby Graffo. In Northriding Bradley and Haverstoe have been combined
to form Bradley Haverstoe wapentake, and the Domesday wapentake of
Epworth in Westriding has been absorbed in that of Manley. Wall
wapentake in Westriding was a liberty of the bishop of Lincoln, and as
late as 1515 the dean and chapter of Lincoln claimed delivery and return
of writs in the manor and hundred of Navenby. In the 13th century
Baldwin Wake claimed return of writs and a market in Aveland. William de
Vesci claimed liberties and exemptions in Caythorpe, of which he was
summoned to render account at the sheriff's tourn at Halton. The abbot
of Peterborough, the abbot of Tupholme, the abbot of Bardney, the prior
of Catleigh, the prior of Sixhills, the abbot of St Mary's, York, the
prioress of Stixwould and several lay owners claimed liberties and
jurisdiction in their Lincolnshire estates in the 13th century.
The shire court for Lincolnshire was held at Lincoln every forty days,
the lords of the manor attending with their stewards, or in their
absence the reeve and four men of the vill. The ridings were each
presided over by a riding-reeve, and wapentake courts were held in the
reign of Henry I. twelve times a year, and in the reign of Henry III.
every three weeks, while twice a year all the freemen of the wapentake
were summoned to the view of frankpledge or tourn held by the sheriff.
The boundaries between Kesteven and Holland were a matter of dispute as
early as 1389 and were not finally settled until 1816.
Lincolnshire was originally included in the Mercian diocese of
Lichfield, but, on the subdivision of the latter by Theodore in 680, the
fen-district was included in the diocese of Lichfield, while the see for
the northern parts of the county was placed at "Sidnacester," generally
identified with Stow. Subsequently both dioceses were merged in the vast
West-Saxon bishopric of Dorchester, the see of which was afterwards
transferred to Winchester, and by Bishop Remigius in 1072 to Lincoln.
The archdeaconry of Lincoln was among those instituted by Remigius, and
the division into rural deaneries also dates from this period. Stow
archdeaconry is first mentioned in 1138, and in 1291 included four
deaneries, while the archdeaconry of Lincoln included twenty-three. In
1536 the additional deaneries of Hill, Holland, Loveden and Graffoe had
been formed within the archdeaconry of Lincoln, and the only deaneries
created since that date are East and West Elloe and North and South
Grantham in Lincoln archdeaconry. The deaneries of Gartree, Grimsby,
Hill, Horncastle, Louthesk, Ludborough, Walshcroft, Wraggoe and
Yarborough have been transferred from the archdeaconry of Lincoln to
that of Stow. Benedictine foundations existed at Ikanho, Barrow,
Bardney, Partney and Crowland as early as the 7th century, but all were
destroyed in the Danish wars, and only Bardney and Crowland were ever
rebuilt. The revival of monasticism after the Conquest resulted in the
erection of ten Benedictine monasteries, and a Benedictine nunnery at
Stainfield. The Cistercian abbeys at Kirkstead, Louth Park, Revesby,
Vaudey and Swineshead, and the Cistercian nunnery at Stixwould were
founded in the reign of Stephen, and at the time of the Dissolution
there were upwards of a hundred religious houses in the county.
In the struggles of the reign of Stephen, castles at Newark and Sleaford
were raised by Alexander, bishop of Lincoln, against the king, while
Ranulf "Gernons," earl of Chester, in 1140 garrisoned Lincoln for the
empress. The seizure of Lincoln by Stephen in 1141 was accompanied with
fearful butchery and devastation, and by an accord at Stamford William
of Roumare received Kirton in Lindsey, and his tenure of Gainsborough
Castle was confirmed. In the baronial outbreak of 1173 Roger Mowbray,
who had inherited the Isle of Axholme from Nigel d'Albini, garrisoned
Ferry East, or Kinnard's Ferry, and Axholme against the king, and, after
the destruction of their more northern fortresses in this campaign,
Epworth in Axholme became the principal seat of the Mowbrays. In the
struggles between John and his barons Lincoln in 1216 made peace with
the king by surrendering hostages for the payment of a fine of 1000
marks, but after the landing of Louis the city was captured by Gilbert
de Gant, then earl of Lincoln. After his disastrous march to Swineshead
Abbey, John journeyed through Sleaford to Newark, where he died, and in
the battle of Lincoln in 1217 Gilbert de Gant was captured and the city
sacked. At the time of the Wars of the Roses the county, owing to
territorial influence, was mainly Lancastrian, and in 1461 the Yorkist
strongholds of Grantham and Stamford were sacked to such effect that the
latter never recovered. The Lincolnshire rising of 1470 was crushed by
the defeat of the rebels in the skirmish known as "Losecoat Field" near
Stamford. In the Civil War of the 17th century, Lindsey for the most
part declared for the king, and the Royalist cause was warmly supported
by the earl of Lindsey, Viscount Newark, Sir Peregrine Bertie and the
families of Dymoke, Heneage and Thorold. Lord Willoughby of Parham was a
prominent Parliamentary leader, and the Isle of Axholme and the Puritan
yeomanry of Holland declared for the parliament. In 1643 Cromwell won a
small victory near Grantham, and the Royalist garrisons at Lynn and
Lincoln surrendered to Manchester. In 1644, however, Newark,
Gainsborough, Lincoln, Sleaford and Crowland were all in Royalist hands,
and Newark only surrendered in 1646. Among other historic families
connected with Lincolnshire were the Wakes of Bourne and the
d'Eyncourts, who flourished at Blankney from the Conquest to the reign
of Henry VI.; Belvoir Castle was founded by the Toenis, from whom it
passed by the Daubeneys, then to the Barons Ros and later to the
Manners, earls of Rutland. In the Lindsey Survey of 1115-1118 the name
of Roger Marmion, ancestor of the Marmion family, who had inherited the
fief of Robert Despenser, appears for the first time.
At the time of the Domesday Survey there were between 400 and 500 mills
in Lincolnshire; 2111 fisheries producing large quantities of eels; 361
salt-works; and iron forges at Stow, St Mary and at Bytham. Lincoln and
Stamford were flourishing centres of industry, and markets existed at
Kirton-in-Lindsey, Louth, Old Bolingbroke, Spalding, Barton and Partney.
The early manufactures of the county are all connected with the woollen
trade, Lincoln being noted for its scarlet cloth in the 13th century,
while an important export trade in the raw material sprang up at Boston.
The disafforesting of Kesteven in 1230 brought large areas under
cultivation, and the same period is marked by the growth of the maritime
and fishing towns, especially Boston (which had a famous fish-market),
Grimsby, Barton, Saltfleet, Wainfleet and Wrangle. The Lincolnshire
towns suffered from the general decay of trade in the eastern counties
which marked the 15th century, but agriculture was steadily improving,
and with the gradual drainage of the fen-districts culminating in the
vast operations of the 17th century, over 330,000 acres in the county
were brought under cultivation, including more than two-thirds of
Holland. The fen-drainage resulted in the extinction of many local
industries, such as the trade in goose-feathers and the export of wild
fowl to the London markets, a 17th-century writer terming this county
"the aviary of England, 3000 mallards with other birds having been
caught sometimes in August at one draught." Other historic industries of
Lincolnshire are the breeding of horses and dogs and rabbit-snaring; the
Witham was noted for its pike; and ironstone was worked in the south,
now chiefly in the north and west.
As early as 1295 two knights were returned to parliament for the shire
of Lincoln, and two burgesses each for Lincoln, Grimsby and Stamford. In
the 14th century Lincoln and Stamford were several times the
meeting-places of parliament or important councils, the most notable
being the Lincoln Parliament of 1301, while at Stamford in 1309 a truce
was concluded between the barons, Piers Gaveston and the king. Stamford
discontinued representation for some 150 years after the reign of Edward
II.; Grantham was enfranchised in 1463 and Boston in 1552. Under the act
of 1832 the county was divided into a northern and southern division,
returning each two members, and Great Grimsby lost one member. Under
the act of 1868 the county returned six members in three divisions and
Stamford lost one member. Under the act of 1885 the county returned
seven members in seven divisions; Lincoln, Boston and Grantham lost one
member each and Stamford was disfranchised.
_Antiquities._--At the time of the suppression of the monasteries in
the reign of Henry VIII. there were upwards of one hundred religious
houses; and among the Fens rose some of the finest abbeys held by the
Benedictines. The Gilbertines were a purely English order which took
its rise in Lincolnshire, the canons following the Austin rule, the
nuns and lay brothers that of the Cistercians. They generally lived in
separate houses, but formed a community having a common church in
which the sexes were divided by a longitudinal wall. These houses were
at Alvingham, Catley, Holland Brigg, Lincoln, before the gate of which
the first Eleanor Cross was erected by Edward I. to his wife, Newstead
in Lindsey, Sempringham, the chief house of the order, founded by St
Gilbert of Gaunt in 1139, of which the Norman nave of the church is in
use, Stamford (a college for students) and Wellow. There were
nunneries of the order at Haverholme, Nun Ormsby and Tunstal.
The following are a few of the most famous abbeys. Barlings
(Premonstratensian), N.E. of Lincoln, was founded 1154, for fourteen
canons. The tower, Decorated, with arcading pierced with windows, and
the east wall of the south wing remain. The Benedictine Mitred Abbey
of Crowland (q.v.) was founded 716, and refounded in 948. Part of the
church is still in use. Thornton Abbey (Black Canons) in the north
near the Humber was founded in 1139. There remain a fragment of the
south wing of the transept, two sides of the decagonal chapter-house
(1282) and the beautiful west gate-house, Early Perpendicular
(1332-1388), with an oriel window on the east. Kirkstead Abbey
(Cistercian) was founded in 1139. Little remains beyond an Early
English chapel of singular beauty.
In the Parts of Lindsey several churches present curious early
features, particularly the well-known towers of St Peter,
Barton-on-Humber, St Mary-le-Wigford and St Peter at Gowts, Lincoln,
which exhibit work of a pre-Conquest type. Stow church for Norman of
various dates, Bottesford and St James, Grimsby, for Early English,
Tattershall and Theddlethorpe for Perpendicular are fine examples of
various styles.
In the Parts of Kesteven the churches are built of excellent stone
which abounds at Ancaster and near Sleaford. The church of St Andrew,
Heckington, is the best example of Decorated architecture in the
county; it is famed for its Easter sepulchre and fine sedilia. The
noble church of St Wulfram, Grantham, with one of the finest spires in
England, is also principally Decorated; this style in fact is
particularly well displayed in Kesteven, as in the churches of
Caythorpe, Claypole, Navenby and Ewerby. At Stamford (q.v.) there are
five churches of various styles.
It is principally in the Parts of Holland that the finest churches in
the county are found; they are not surpassed by those of any other
district in the kingdom, which is the more remarkable as the district
is composed wholly of marsh land and is without stone of any kind. It
is highly probable that the churches of the south part of this
district owe their origin to the munificence of the abbeys of Crowland
and Spalding. The church of Long Sutton, besides its fine Norman nave,
possesses an Early English tower and spire which is comparable with
the very early specimen at Oxford cathedral. Whaplode church is
another noteworthy example of Norman work; for Early English work the
churches of Kirtop-in-Holland, Pinchbeck and Weston may be noticed;
for Decorated those at Donington and Spalding; and for Perpendicular,
Gedney, together with parts of Kirton church. Of the two later styles,
however, by far the most splendid example is the famous church of St
Botolph, Boston (q.v.), with its magnificent lantern-crowned tower or
"stump."
There are few remains of medieval castles, although the sites of a
considerable number are traceable. Those of Lincoln and Tattershall (a
fine Perpendicular building in brick) are the most noteworthy, and
there are also fragments at Boston and Sleaford, Country seats worthy
of note (chiefly modern) are Aswarby Hall, Belton House, Brocklesby,
Casewick, Denton Manor, Easton Hall, Grimsthorpe (of the 16th and 18th
centuries, with earlier remains), Haverholm Priory, Nocton Hall,
Panton Hall, Riby Grove, Somerby Hall, Syston Park and Uffington. The
city of Lincoln is remarkably rich in remains of domestic architecture
from the Norman period onward, and there are similar examples at
Stamford and elsewhere. In this connexion the remarkable triangular
bridge at Crowland of the 14th century (see BRIDGES) should be
mentioned.
See _Victoria County History, Lincolnshire_; Thomas Allen, _The
History of the County of Lincoln_ (2 vols., London, 1834); C. G.
Smith, _A Translation of that portion of the Domesday Book which
relates to Lincolnshire and Rutlandshire_ (London, 1870); G. S.
Streatfield, _Lincolnshire and the Danes_ (London, 1884); _Chronicle
of the Rebellion in Lincolnshire, 1470_, ed. J. E. Nicholls, Camden
Society, _Camden Miscellany_, vol. i. (London, 1847); _The
Lincolnshire Survey, temp. Henry I._, ed. James Greenstreet (London,
1884); _Lincolnshire Notes and Queries_ (Horncastle, 1888);
_Lincolnshire Record Society_ (Horncastle, 1891).
LIND, JENNY (1820-1887), the famous Swedish singer, was born at
Stockholm on the 6th of October 1820, the daughter of a lace
manufacturer. Mlle Lundberg, an opera-dancer, first discovered her
musical gift, and induced the child's mother to have her educated for
the stage; during the six or seven years in which she was what was
called an "actress pupil," she occasionally appeared on the stage, but
in plays, not operas, until 1836, when she made a first attempt in an
opera by A. F. Lindblad. She was regularly engaged at the opera-house In
1837. Her first great success was as Agathe, in Weber's _Der
Freischütz_, in 1838, and by 1841, when she started for Paris, she had
already become identified with nearly all the parts in which she
afterwards became famous. But her celebrity in Sweden was due in great
part to her histrionic ability, and there is comparatively little said
about her wonderful vocal art, which was only attained after a year's
hard study under Manuel Garcia, who had to remedy many faults that had
caused exhaustion in the vocal organs. On the completion of her studies
she sang before G. Meyerbeer, in private, in the Paris Opera-house, and
two years afterwards was engaged by him for Berlin, to sing in his
_Feldlager in Schlesien_ (afterwards remodelled as _L' Étoile du nord_);
but the part intended for her was taken by another singer, and her first
appearance took place in _Norma_ on the 15th of December 1844. She
appeared also in Weber's _Euryanthe_ and Bellini's _La Sonnambula_, and
while she was at Berlin the English manager, Alfred Bunn, induced her to
sign a contract (which she broke) to appear in London in the following
season. In December 1845 she appeared at a Gewandhaus concert at
Leipzig, and made the acquaintance of Mendelssohn, as well as of Joachim
and many other distinguished German musicians. In her second Berlin
season she added the parts of Donna Anna (Mozart's _Don Giovanni_),
Julia (Spontini's _Vestalin_) and Valentine (Meyerbeer's _Les
Huguenots_) to her repertory. She sang in operas or concerts at
Aix-la-Chapelle, Hanover, Hamburg, Vienna, Darmstadt and Munich during
the next year, and took up two Donizetti rôles, those of Lucia and "la
Figlia del Reggimento," in which she was afterwards famous. At last
Lumley, the manager of Her Majesty's Theatre, succeeded in inducing Mlle
Lind to visit England, in spite of her dread of the penalties threatened
by Bunn on her breach of the contract with him, and she appeared on the
4th of May 1847 as Alice in Meyerbeer's _Robert le Diable_. Her début
had been so much discussed that the _furore_ she created was a foregone
conclusion. Nevertheless it exceeded everything of the kind that had
taken place in London or anywhere else; the sufferings and struggles of
her well-dressed admirers, who had to stand for hours to get into the
pit, have become historic. She sang in several of her favourite
characters, and in that of Susanna in Mozart's _Figaro_, besides
creating the part of Amalia in Verdi's _I Masnadieri_, written for
England and performed on the 22nd of July. In the autumn she appeared in
operas in Manchester and Liverpool, and in concerts at Brighton,
Birmingham, Hull, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Perth, Norwich, Bristol, Bath and
Exeter. At Norwich began her acquaintance with the bishop, Edward
Stanley (1779-1849), which was said to have led to her final
determination to give up the stage as a career. After four more
appearances in Berlin, and a short visit to Stockholm, she appeared in
London in the season of 1848, when she sang in Donizetti's _L'Elisire
d'amore_ and Bellini's _I Puritani_, in addition to her older parts. In
the same year she organized a memorable performance of _Elijah_, with
the receipts of which the Mendelssohn scholarship was founded, and sang
at a great number of charity and benefit concerts. At the beginning of
the season of 1849 she intended to give up operatic singing, but a
compromise was effected by which she was to sing the music of six
operas, performed without action, at Her Majesty's Theatre; but the
first, a concert performance of Mozart's _Il Flauto magico_, was so
coldly received that she felt bound, for the sake of the manager and the
public, to give five more regular representations, and her last
performance on the stage was on the 10th of May 1849, in _Robert le
Diable_. Her decision was not even revoked when the king of Sweden
urged her to reappear in opera at her old home. She paid visits to
Germany and Sweden again before her departure for America in 1850. Just
before sailing she appeared at Liverpool, for the first time in England,
in an oratorio of Handel, singing the soprano music in _The Messiah_
with superb art. She remained in America for nearly two years, being for
a great part of the time engaged by P. T. Barnum. In Boston, on the 5th
of February 1852, she married Otto Goldschmidt (1829-1907), whom she had
met at Lübeck in 1850. For some years after her return to England, her
home for the rest of her life, she appeared in oratorios and concerts,
and her dramatic instincts were as strongly and perhaps as
advantageously displayed in these surroundings as they had been on the
stage, for the grandeur of her conceptions in such passages as the
"Sanctus" of _Elijah_, the intensity of conviction which she threw into
the scene of the widow in the same work, or the religious fervour of "I
know that my Redeemer liveth," could not have found a place in opera. In
her later years she took an active interest in the Bach Choir, conducted
by her husband, and not only sang herself in the chorus, but gave the
benefit of her training to the ladies of the society. For some years she
was professor of singing at the Royal College of Music. Her last public
appearance was at Düsseldorf on the 20th of January 1870 when she sang
in _Ruth_, an oratorio composed by her husband. She died at Malvern on
the 2nd of November 1887. The supreme position she held so long in the
operatic world was due not only to the glory of her voice, and the
complete musicianship which distinguished her above all her
contemporaries, but also to the naïve simplicity of her acting in her
favourite parts, such as Amina, Alice or Agathe. In these and others she
had the precious quality of conviction, and identified herself with the
characters she represented with a thoroughness rare in her day. Unharmed
by the perils of a stage career, she was a model of rectitude,
generosity and straightforwardness, carrying the last quality into a
certain blunt directness of manner that was sometimes rather startling.
(J. A. F. M.)
LINDAU, PAUL (1839- ), German dramatist and novelist, the son of a
Protestant pastor, was born at Magdeburg on the 3rd of June 1839. He was
educated at the gymnasium in Halle and subsequently in Leipzig and
Berlin. He spent five years in Paris to further his studies, acting
meanwhile as foreign correspondent to German papers. After his return to
Germany in 1863 he was engaged in journalism in Düsseldorf and
Elberfeld. In 1870 he founded _Das neue Blatt_ at Leipzig; from 1872 to
1881 he edited the Berlin weekly, _Die Gegenwart_; and in 1878 he
founded the well-known monthly, _Nord und Süd_, which he continued to
edit until 1904. Two books of travel, _Aus Venetien_ (Düsseldorf, 1864)
and _Aus Paris_ (Stuttgart, 1865). were followed by some volumes of
critical studies, written in a light, satirical vein, which at once made
him famous. These were _Harmlose Briefe eines deutschen Kleinstädters_
(Leipzig, 2 vols., 1870), _Moderne Märchen für grosse Kinder_ (Leipzig,
1870) and _Literarische Rücksichtslosigkeiten_ (Leipzig, 1871). He was
appointed intendant of the court theatre at Meiningen in 1895, but
removed to Berlin in 1899, where he became manager of the Berliner
Theater, and subsequently, until 1905, of the Deutsches Theater. He had
begun his dramatic career in 1868 with _Marion_, the first of a long
series of plays in which he displayed a remarkable talent for stage
effect and a command of witty and lively dialogue. Among the more famous
were _Maria und Magdalena_ (1872), _Tante Therese_ (1876), _Gräfin Lea_
(1879), _Die Erste_ (1895), _Der Abend_ (1896), _Der Herr im Hause_
(1899), _So ich dir_ (1903), and he adapted many plays by Dumas, Augier
and Sardou for the German stage. Five volumes of his plays have been
published (Berlin, 1873-1888). Some of his volumes of short stories
acquired great popularity, notably _Herr und Frau Bewer_ (Breslau, 1882)
and T_oggenburg und andere Geschichten_ (Breslau, 1883). A
novel-sequence entitled _Berlin_ included _Der Zug nach dem Westen_
(Stuttgart, 1886, 10th ed. 1903), _Arme Mädchen_ (1887, 9th ed. 1905)
and _Spitzen_ (1888, 8th ed. 1904). Later novels were _Die Gehilfin_
(Breslau, 1894), _Die Brüder_, (Dresden, 1895), _Der König von Sidon_
(Breslau, 1898). His earlier books on _Molière_ (Leipzig, 1871) and
_Alfred de Musset_ (Berlin, 1877) were followed by some volumes of
dramatic and literary criticism, _Gesammelte Aufsätze_ (Berlin, 1875),
_Dramaturgische Blätter_ (Stuttgart, 2 vols., 1875; new series, Breslau,
1878, 2 vols.), _Vorspiele auf dem Theater_ (Breslau, 1895).
His brother, RUDOLF LINDAU (b. 1829), was a well-known diplomatist and
author. His novels and tales were collected in 1893 (Berlin, 6 vols.).
The most attractive, such as _Reisegefährten_ and _Der lange Holländer_,
deal with the life of European residents in the Far East.
See Hadlich, _Paul Lindau als dramatischer Dichter_ (2nd ed., Berlin,
1876).
LINDAU, a town and pleasure resort in the kingdom of Bavaria, and the
central point of the transit trade between that country and Switzerland,
situated on two islands off the north-eastern shore of Lake Constance.
Pop. (1905) 6531. The town is a terminus of the Vorarlberg railway, and
of the Munich-Lindau line of the Bavarian state railways, and is
connected with the mainland both by a wooden bridge and by a railway
enbankment erected in 1853. There are a royal palace and an old and a
new town-hall (the older one having been built in 1422 and restored in
1886-1888), a museum and a municipal library with interesting
manuscripts and a collection of Bibles, also classical, commercial and
industrial schools. The harbour is much frequented by steamers from
Constance and other places on the lake. There are also some Roman
remains, the Heidenmauer, and a fine modern fountain, the Reichsbrunnen.
Opposite the custom-house is a bronze statue of the Bavarian king
Maximilian II., erected in 1856.
On the site now occupied by the town there was a Roman camp, the
_castrum Tiberii_, and the authentic records of Lindau date back to the
end of the 9th century, when it was known as Lintowa. In 1274, or
earlier, it became a free imperial town; in 1331 it joined the Swabian
league, and in 1531 became a member of the league of Schmalkalden,
having just previously accepted the reformed doctrines. In 1647 it was
ineffectually besieged by the Swedes. In 1804 it lost its imperial
privileges and passed to Austria, being transferred to Bavaria in 1805.
See Boulan, _Lindau, vor altem und jetzt_ (Lindau, 1872); and
Stettners, _Führer durch Lindau und Umgebungen_ (Lindau, 1900).
LINDEN, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover, 3 m. S.W. by rail
from the city of that name, of which it practically forms a suburb, and
from which it is separated by the Ihme. Pop. (1905) 57,941. It has a
fine modern town-hall, and a classical and other schools. Chief among
its industries are machine building, weaving, iron and steel works and
the manufacture of chemicals, india-rubber goods and carpets.
LINDESAY, ROBERT, of Pitscottie (c. 1530-c. 1590), Scottish historian,
of the family of the Lindesays of the Byres, was born at Pitscottie, in
the parish of Ceres, Fifeshire, which he held in lease at a later
period. His _Historie and Cronicles of Scotland_, the only work by which
he is remembered, is described as a continuation of that of Hector
Boece, translated by John Bellenden. It covers the period from 1437 to
1565, and, though it sometimes degenerates into a mere chronicle of
short entries, is not without passages of great picturesqueness. Sir
Walter Scott made use of it in _Marmion_; and, in spite of its
inaccuracy in details, it is useful for the social history of the
period. Lindesay's share in the _Cronicles_ was generally supposed to
end with 1565; but Dr Aeneas Mackay considers that the frank account of
the events connected with Mary Stuart between 1565 and 1575 contained in
one of the MSS. is by his hand and was only suppressed because it was
too faithful in its record of contemporary affairs.
The _Historie and Cronicles_ was first published in 1728. A complete
edition of the text (2 vols.), based on the Laing MS. No. 218 in the
university of Edinburgh, was published by the Scottish Text Society in
1899 under the editorship of Aeneas J. G. Mackay. The MS., formerly in
the possession of John Scott of Halkshill, is fuller, and, though in a
later hand, is, on the whole, a better representative of Lindesay's
text.
LINDET, JEAN BAPTISTE ROBERT (1749-1825), French revolutionist, was
born at Bernay (Eure). Before the Revolution he was an _avocat_ at
Bernay. He acted as _procureur-syndic_ of the district of Bernay during
the session of the Constituent Assembly. Appointed deputy to the
Legislative Assembly and subsequently to the Convention, he attained
considerable prominence. He was very hostile to the king, furnished a
_Rapport sur les crimes imputés à Louis Capet_ (10th of December 1792),
and voted for the death of Louis without appeal or respite. He was
instrumental in the establishment of the Revolutionary Tribunal and
contributed to the downfall of the Girondists. As member of the
Committee of Public Safety, he devoted himself particularly to the
question of food-supplies, and it was only by dint of dogged
perseverance and great administrative talent that he was successful in
coping with this difficult problem. He had meanwhile been sent to
suppress revolts in the districts of Rhône, Eure, Calvados and
Finistère, where he had been able to pursue a conciliatory policy.
Without being formally opposed to Robespierre, he did not support him,
and he was the only member of the Committee of Public Safety who did not
sign the order for the execution of Danton and his party. In a like
spirit of moderation he opposed the Thermidorian reaction, and defended
Barère, Billaud-Varenne the Collot d'Herbois from the accusations
launched against them on the 22nd of March 1795. Himself denounced on
the 20th of May 1795, he was defended by his brother Thomas, but only
escaped condemnation by the vote of amnesty of the 4th of Brumaire, year
IV. (26th of October 1795). He was minister of finance from the 18th of
June to the 9th of November 1799, but refused office under the Consulate
and the Empire. In 1816 he was proscribed by the Restoration government
as a regicide, and did not return to France until just before his death
on the 17th of February 1825. His brother Thomas made some mark as a
Constitutional bishop and member of the Convention.
See Amand Montier, _Robert Lindet_ (Paris, 1899); H. Turpin, _Thomas
Lindet_ (Bernay, 1886); A. Montier, _Correspondance de Thomas Lindet_
(Paris, 1899).
LINDLEY, JOHN (1799-1865), English botanist, was born on the 5th of
February 1799 at Catton, near Norwich, where his father, George Lindley,
author of _A Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen Garden_, owned a nursery
garden. He was educated at Norwich grammar school. His first
publication, in 1819, a translation of the _Analyse du fruit_ of L. C.
M. Richard, was followed in 1820 by an original _Monographia Rosarum_,
with descriptions of new species, and drawings executed by himself, and
in 1821 by _Monographia Digitalium_, and by "Observations on Pomaceae,"
contributed to the Linnean Society. Shortly afterwards he went to
London, where he was engaged by J. C. Loudon to write the descriptive
portion of the _Encyclopaedia of Plants_. In his labours on this
undertaking, which was completed in 1829, he became convinced of the
superiority of the "natural" system of A. L. de Jussieu, as
distinguished from the "artificial" system of Linnaeus followed in the
_Encyclopaedia_; the conviction found expression in _A Synopsis of
British Flora, arranged according to the Natural Order_ (1829) and in
_An Introduction to the Natural System of Botany_ (1830). In 1829
Lindley, who since 1822 had been assistant secretary to the
Horticultural Society, was appointed to the chair of botany in
University College, London, which he retained till 1860; he lectured
also on botany from 1831 at the Royal Institution, and from 1836 at the
Botanic Gardens, Chelsea. During his professoriate he wrote many
scientific and popular works, besides contributing largely to the
_Botanical Register_, of which he was editor for many years, and to the
_Gardener's Chronicle_, in which he had charge of the horticultural
department from 1841. He was a fellow of the Royal, Linnean and
Geological Societies. He died at Turnham Green on the 1st of November
1865.
Besides those already mentioned, his works include _An Outline of the
First Principles of Horticulture_ (1832), _An Outline of the Structure
and Physiology of Plants_ (1832), _A Natural System of Botany_ (1836),
_The Fossil Flora of Great Britain_ (with William Hutton, 1831-1837),
_Flora Medica_ (1838), _Theory of Horticulture_ (1840), _The Vegetable
Kingdom_ (1846), _Folia Orchidacea_ (1852), _Descriptive Botany_
(1858).
LINDLEY, NATHANIEL LINDLEY, BARON (1828- ), English judge, son of John
Lindley (q.v.), was born at Acton Green, Middlesex, on the 29th of
November 1828. He was educated at University College School, and studied
for a time at University College, London. He was called to the bar at
the Middle Temple in 1850, and began practice in the Court of Chancery.
In 1855 he published _An Introduction to the Study of Jurisprudence_,
consisting of a translation of the general part of Thibaut's _System des
Pandekten Rechts_, with copious notes. In 1860 he published in two
volumes his _Treatise on the Law of Partnership, including its
Application to Joint Stock and other Companies_, and in 1862 a
supplement including the Companies Act of 1862. This work has since been
developed into two text-books well known to lawyers as _Lindley on
Companies_ and _Lindley on Partnership_. He became a Q.C. in January
1872. In 1874 he was elected a bencher of the Middle Temple, of which he
was treasurer in 1894. In 1875 he was appointed a justice of common
pleas, the appointment of a chancery barrister to a common-law court
being justified by the fusion of law and equity then shortly to be
brought about, in theory at all events, by the Judicature Acts. In
pursuance of the changes now made be became a justice of the common
pleas division of the High Court of Justice, and in 1880 of the queen's
bench division. In 1881 he was raised to the Court of Appeal and made a
privy councillor. In 1897, Lord Justice Lindley succeeded Lord Esher as
master of the rolls, and in 1900 he was made a lord of appeal in
ordinary with a life peerage and the title of Baron Lindley. He resigned
the judicial post in 1905. Lord Lindley was the last serjeant-at-law
appointed, and the last judge to wear the serjeant's coif, or rather the
black patch representing it, on the judicial wig. He married in 1858
Sarah Katherine, daughter of Edward John Teale of Leeds.
LINDLEY, WILLIAM (1808-1900), English engineer, was born in London on
the 7th of September 1808, and became a pupil under Francis Giles, whom
he assisted in designing the Newcastle and Carlisle and the London and
Southampton railways. Leaving England about 1837, he was engaged for a
time in railway work in various parts of Europe, and then returned, as
engineer-in-chief to the Hamburg-Bergedorf railway, to Hamburg, near
which city he had received his early education, and to which he was
destined to stand in much the same relation as Baron Haussmann to Paris.
His first achievement was to drain the Hammerbrook marshes, and so add
some 1400 acres to the available area of the city. His real opportunity,
however, came with the great fire which broke out on the 5th of May 1842
and burned for three days. He was entrusted with the direction of the
operations to check its spread, and the strong measures he adopted,
including the blowing-up of the town hall, brought bis life into danger
with the mob, who professed to see in him an English agent charged with
the destruction of the port of Hamburg. After the extinction of the fire
he was appointed consulting engineer to the senate and town council, to
the Water Board and to the Board of Works. He began with the
construction of a complete sewerage system on principles which did not
escape criticism, but which experience showed to be good. Between 1844
and 1848 water-works were established from his designs, the intake from
the Elbe being at Rothenburgsort. Subsidence tanks were used for
clarification, but in 1853, when he designed large extensions, he urged
the substitution of sand-filtration, which, however, was not adopted
until the cholera epidemic of 1892-1893 had shown the folly of the
opposition directed against it. In 1846 he erected the Hamburg
gas-works; public baths and wash-houses were built, and large extensions
to the port executed according to his plans in 1854; and he supervised
the construction of the Altona gas and water works in 1855. Among other
services he rendered to the city may be mentioned the trigonometrical
survey executed between 1848 and 1860, and the conduct of the
negotiations which in 1852 resulted in the sale of the "Steelyard" on
the banks of the Thames belonging to it jointly with the two other
Hanseatic towns, Bremen and Lübeck. In 1860 he left Hamburg, and during
the remaining nineteen years of his professional practice he was
responsible for many engineering works in various European cities,
among them being Frankfort-on-the-Main, Warsaw, Pesth, Düsseldorf,
Galatz and Basel. In Frankfort he constructed sewerage works on the same
principles as those he followed in Hamburg, and the system was widely
imitated not only in Europe, but also in America. He was also consulted
in regard to water-works at Berlin, Kiel, Stralsund, Stettin and
Leipzig; he advised the New River Company of London on the adoption of
the constant supply system in 1851; and he was commissioned by the
British Government to carry out various works in Heligoland, including
the big retaining wall "Am Falm." He died at Blackheath, London, on the
22nd of May 1900.
LINDO, MARK PRAGER (1819-1879), Dutch prose writer, of English-Jewish
descent, was born in London on the 18th of September 1810. He went to
Holland when nineteen years of age, and once established there as a
private teacher of the English language, he soon made up his mind to
remain. In 1842 he passed his examination at Arnhem, qualifying him as a
professor of English in Holland, subsequently becoming a teacher of the
English language and literature at the gymnasium in that town. In 1853
he was appointed in a similar capacity at the Royal Military Academy in
Breda. Meanwhile Lindo had obtained a thorough grasp of the Dutch
language, partly during his student years at Utrecht University, where
in 1854 he gained the degree of doctor of literature. His proficiency in
the two languages led him to translate into Dutch several of the works
of Dickens, Thackeray and others, and afterwards also of Fielding,
Sterne and Walter Scott. Some of Lindo's translations bore the imprint
of hasty and careless work, and all were very unequal in quality. His
name is much more likely to endure as the writer of humorous original
sketches and novelettes in Dutch, which he published under the pseudonym
of De Oude Herr Smits ("Old Mr Smits"). Among the most popular are;
_Brieven en Ontboezemingen_ ("Letters and Confessions," 1853, with three
"Continuations"); _Familie van Ons_ ("Family of Ours," 1855);
_Bekentenissen eener Jonge Dame_ ("Confessions of a Young Lady," 1858);
_Uittreksels uit het Dagboek van Wijlen den Heer Janus Snor_ ("Extracts
from the Diary of the late Mr Janus Snor," 1865); _Typen_ ("Types,"
1871); and, particularly, _Afdrukken van Indrukken_ ("Impressions from
Impressions," 1854, reprinted many times). The last-named was written in
collaboration with Lodewyk Mulder, who contributed some of its drollest
whimsicalities of Dutch life and character, which, for that reason, are
almost untranslatable. Lodewyk Mulder and Lindo also founded together,
and carried on, for a considerable time alone, the _Nederlandsche
Spectator_ ("The Dutch Spectator"), a literary weekly, still published
at The Hague, which bears little resemblance to its English prototype,
and which perhaps reached its greatest popularity and influence when
Vosmaer contributed to it a brilliant weekly letter under the fanciful
title of Vlugmaren ("Swifts"). Lindo's serious original Dutch writings
he published under his own name, the principal one being _De Opkomst en
Ontwikkeling van het Engelsche Volk_ ("The Rise and Development of the
British People," 2 vols. 1868-1874)--a valuable history. Lodewyk Mulder
published in 1877-1879 a collected edition of Lindo's writings in five
volumes, and there has since been a popular reissue. Lindo was appointed
an inspector of primary schools in the province of South Holland in
1865, a post he held until his death at The Hague on the 9th of March
1879.
LINDSAY, the family name of the earls of Crawford. The family is one of
great antiquity in Scotland, the earliest to settle in that country
being Sir Walter de Lindesia, who attended David, earl of Huntingdon,
afterwards King David I., in his colonization of the Lowlands early in
the 12th century. The descendants of Sir Walter divided into three
branches, one of which held the baronies of Lamberton in Scotland, and
Kendal and Molesworth in England; another held Luffness and Crawford in
Scotland and half Limesi in England; and a third held Breneville and
Byres in Scotland and certain lands, not by baronial tenure, in England.
The heads of all these branches sat as barons in the Scottish parliament
for more than two hundred years before the elevation of the chief of the
house to an earldom in 1398. The Lindsays held the great mountain
district of Crawford in Clydesdale, from which the title of the earldom
is derived, from the 12th century till the close of the 15th, when it
passed to the Douglas earls of Angus. See CRAWFORD, EARLS OF.
See A. W. C. Lindsay, afterwards earl of Crawford, _Lives of the
Lindsays, or a Memoir of the Houses of Crawford and Belcarres_ (3
vols., 1843 and 1858).
LINDSAY, a town and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, and capital of
Victoria county, on the Scugog river, 57 m. N.E. of Toronto by rail, on
the Canadian Pacific railway, and at the junction of the Port Hope and
Haliburton branches and the Midland division of the Grand Trunk railway.
Pop. (1901) 7003. It has steamboat communication, by way of the Trent
canal, with Lake Scugog and the ports on the Trent system. It contains
saw and grist mills, agricultural implement and other factories.