SAXONS AND DANES
The military equipment of our Saxon and Danish forefathers is of much
interest to us as a nation, inasmuch as we are curious to ascertain
with what weapons and with what personal defences our ancestors were
able, apart from personal courage, to overcome the fierce opposition
of the Romanised Britons. That this resistance was of a formidable
character we may judge from the extended time occupied in the conquest
of England, running into hundreds of years and necessitating waves
of invasion. They won the country bit by bit, and the conquered were
effectually displaced by the invaders; so thorough was this that
practically the Britons disappeared before the warlike Teutons, whereby
all their traces of occupation were wiped out and only the great works
of engineering or building skill of those “who built for eternity,
and not for time,” resisted their devastating march. It is probable
that during the many centuries of Roman occupation many of the Britons
had learned the method of warfare and the use of the weapons of their
conquerors; and we know that British recruits for the Roman armies
were in considerable demand. Consequently we may fairly assume that
the Saxons were opposed by Roman swords, spears, and javelins, and
that a certain amount of Roman armour protected the defenders. To this
equipment we may ascribe the fierce and prolonged resistance offered to
the invaders, who were only able to found their first petty kingdom,
that of Kent, after a struggle of nearly forty years’ duration.
[Illustration: PLATE V*
Italian Rondache, Sixteenth Century
_A. F. Calvert_]
_The Saxon Spear._--The chief weapon of offence among the Saxons was
undoubtedly the spear, which was of two kinds--the longer, used by
the cavalry, or in certain cases to be employed against them, and the
shorter, which partook of the dual nature of a spear and of a javelin.
The chief authorities for Saxon arms and armour are (_a_) the
illuminated manuscripts preserved in the British Museum, the Bodleian
Library, &c., some of which date back to the eighth century or even
earlier; (_b_) the written description of the equipment of certain
warriors of a still more remote period; and (_c_) the sagas, most
of them of a warlike nature, which not only laud the heroic deeds
of warriors but constantly refer to the weapons and armour borne by
them. But these details, necessarily crude and by themselves to a
certain extent unreliable, are fortunately supplemented by actual
examples which have been found in Saxon barrows all over the country
and preserved in many museums, from which we are enabled to verify the
illuminations and descriptions.
A spear is found as a rule in all Saxon interments, or more strictly
speaking the iron head, the wooden portion having generally decayed.
From numberless references to the latter we find that it was invariably
made of ash, and the warrior is often poetically referred to as the
“ash-bearer.” The shorter kind is found in barrows, doubtless because
of limitation of space, and so commonly do they occur, that probably
every Saxon, from freeman upwards, was interred with one. They are
sometimes found reversed, with the iron head near the feet, and the
hollow shoe or button which protected the end of the shaft near the
skull. From many measurements taken from the head of the spear to the
shoe, the total length of the shorter kind has been found to be about
six feet.
In some places portions of the wood have been found still preserved;
these have been tested and proved to be of ash wood, but in no case
have these remains demonstrated that the shaft was excessively thin as
is represented in illuminations, where as a rule only a narrow ruled
line is drawn for the shaft. Judging from the numerous illustrations of
mounted horsemen with which the MSS. abound, the length of the longer
variety was about nine or ten feet. The accompanying illustration (Fig.
62) represents various forms of spear-heads copied from Saxon MSS. in
the British Museum, from which it will be seen that no stereotyped
pattern was in vogue, but that almost every variety of possible form
was brought into use. That which at once attracts the attention is
the form of guard invariably used below the spear-head, and which was
doubtless intended to ward off sword-cuts which might possibly sever
the shaft. They were of iron, and sometimes as many as three were in
use. In two of these examples the barbed form of head is shown, which
is the most uncommon, both in illustrations and also in actual finds
in barrows. Probably this form was generally in use for javelins, the
other variety being easily withdrawn after inflicting a wound. In
Fig. 63, which presents examples of actual spear-heads found in Great
Britain, we notice that the shaft is fixed in a socket which is always
furnished with a longitudinal slit. Nails or rivets were used to fasten
it to the shaft. The absence of the cross guards should be noticed;
probably they were inserted in the shaft and formed no integral part
of the spear-head. In the Tower Collection, however, is a spear-head,
with a cross-piece similar to the guards shown in illustrations, which
was discovered some time since near Nottingham. The short spear was
not carried singly but generally in pairs, and at times three are
represented; for instance, in a British Museum MS. the destroying angel
is shown with three javelins, one in flight, one poised for throwing in
the right hand, and one grasped in the left.
[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Anglo-Saxon spears, &c. (Add. MS. 11695; Tib.
c. vi. &c.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Saxon spear-heads.]
_The Sword._--Swords were essentially cavalry weapons among the
Anglo-Saxons, and were not carried by any person beneath the rank of
thane. The earliest of those found in England have no quillons or
cross-pieces, but merely pommel, grip, and blade. The latter was long,
straight, rounded at the point, and double-edged, 30 inches long and
2 inches wide at the hilt; the grip was of wood and with but little
swell. The total length is generally about three feet. Irish swords
of the same period are about six inches shorter; both kinds were
provided with wooden scabbards. Undoubtedly this sword was fashioned
from classical models. During the later Saxon occupation a cross-piece
was added to the weapon; it became more acutely pointed, and the
pommel occasionally showed signs of ornamentation. No. 2 of Fig. 64
is a sword found in Cambridgeshire, and shows the quillons in an
incipient form, while the addition of a knob to the pommel relieves the
monotony seen in No. 1. No. 3, from the same find, has the cross-piece
enlarged, while the other swords show various stages of development.
The two swords, Nos. 5 and 6, are from MSS. of the eighth century. A
rare example of the sword of this period is preserved in the Wallace
Collection, and is shown in Fig. 65. It has a flat, crown-shaped
pommel, with five small lobes and short, straight quillons rounded at
the ends, the grip being missing. The blade is grooved, measures 30¼
inches in length, and shows traces of an inscription or ornament.
The sword preserved in the British Museum, which was obtained from
the bed of the River Witham, is very similar to this and is probably
contemporary, while another weapon has recently been found in the
Thames with the hilt upwards which is almost identical with that found
in the Witham. The blades of all three examples are about thirty
inches in length. The grip of the swords appears to have been made
of pine-wood, judging from a few remains which have been found. It
is more than probable that the wood was covered with leather, bone,
or horn. That the sword-hilts were at times of a costly character
and richly ornamented we may infer from the Wallace sword, which has
traces of silver work upon the quillons; the British Museum sword,
which has the pommel and quillons inlaid with gold and copper in a
lozenge pattern; and from numerous references in the MSS. to weapons
with hilts of gold or silver, inlaid work, setting of precious stones,
&c., the illuminations invariably showing the hilts and mountings of
a yellow colour, thus implying gold, or gold plating. The sheaths
were invariably of wood covered with leather, with ornamental designs
painted or stamped upon them, and mountings of bronze or more costly
metal. The sword is less often found in Saxon graves than the spear,
as might be expected, seeing that its use was confined to the upper
classes.
[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Saxon swords of various dates.]
[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Sword, 9th century, traces of ornamentation
very rare. (Wall. Coll.)]
_The Axe._--The axe was a distinctive and characteristic weapon of
the northern nations, and its use by the Anglo-Saxons is proved by
references and illustrations in a few late MSS. It is therefore
possible that the Danes introduced its extensive use.
Its occurrence in interments in this country is extremely rare, and but
very few examples have come to light. There appears to have been three
varieties in use, the taper, the broad, and the double. Examples of
the taper axe, found in Kent, are engraved in Fig. 66, Nos. 1 and 4;
the broad axe is shown in Nos. 2 and 3, while a few other varieties
are drawn. The double axe, or bipennis, very rarely occurs in
illuminations, and has not been found in any Anglo-Saxon grave. Its
form is shown in Fig. 62. The pole-axe is a variety, and appears in the
hands of the Saxons at the battle of Hastings.
[Illustration: FIG. 66.
1. Taper axe.
2. Broad axe.
3. Broad axe.
4. Taper axe.
5. Irish axe.
6. German axe.]
[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Saxon knives.]
_The Dagger_ or knife was a weapon in common use, and has been found in
many Saxon graves. They are of various sizes, but probably only those
of large dimensions were weapons, the smaller being used for domestic
purposes. A fine example from Kent is No. 1 in Fig. 67. It is 16 inches
in length, and provided with a small cross-piece. No. 2 is also from a
Kentish find; Nos. 3 and 4, Irish. No. 4 is remarkable by reason of
the preservation of the wooden handle, which shows traces of carving.
The use of the dagger is shown in a very spirited little sketch taken
from an Anglo-Saxon Psalter of the Duc de Berri (Fig. 68), where the
spearman has been assailed by a dagger of the form shown in Fig. 67,
No. 3. The head of the javelin is barbed in contradistinction to that
of the spear, as previously mentioned. Both of the combatants appear to
be emerging from the encounter second best. The long-bow was used by
the Anglo-Saxons, but not extensively, and but few illustrations are
found in MSS., while examples of arrow-heads in graves are uncommon;
those illustrated in Fig. 69 are from MSS. chiefly, and but few from
finds in graves. The sling was not extensively used, although it is
occasionally shown in MSS. The accompanying cut (Fig. 70) is from the
Anglo-Saxon and Latin Psalter of Boulogne. Other examples occur in
Cott. MS., Claudius B. IV., and on the Bayeux Tapestry. Fairly numerous
weapons may be cited as being occasionally in use, such as the bill,
the mace, the pike, the “morning star,” &c., but they were in their
incipient stage, and individual not universal favourites.
[Illustration: FIG. 68.--From an Anglo-Saxon Psalter.]
Respecting the defensive equipment of the Anglo-Saxons we are forced
to the conclusion that the helmet and the shield were the principal
portions, and that in numberless cases these only were adopted, others
being considered subsidiary or superfluous. Indeed in the earlier
periods of the Saxon occupation they are invariably represented with
these defences only, the byrnie, &c., being essentially reserved
for the leaders; but as the nation increased in prosperity so the
additional defences were slowly added.
[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Saxon arrow-heads.]
[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Saxon slinger.]
[Illustration: PLATE VI*
Italian Rondache, Sixteenth Century
_A. F. Calvert_]
_The Saxon Helmet_ was commonly of the Phrygian shape, but examples
are plentiful of the hemispherical, the conical, and the combed
hemispherical, side by side with the Phrygian. The foundation of the
helmet was a framework of bronze or iron bands riveted together, of
which the principal was the piece passing round the head, and that
reaching from the forehead over the head to its junction with the
plate at the back. These two were of thicker material than the
rest. Occasionally the latter band was produced so as to form a nasal
which became universal at the end of the tenth century. Upon this
sub-structure a leather cap of varying forms was fixed, sometimes with
ornamental additions in leather crowning it. The commonest form is seen
in Fig. 75, while other varieties are perceived in Figs. 71, 76, and 77.
[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Saxon helmets.]
[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Saxon helmet with comb. (Add. MS., 18043.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 73.-Saxon umbos.]
_The Shield._--The shield was of wood covered with leather, invariably
round in shape, but at times oval and convex. The lime was the
favourite wood used in its construction, the “yellow linden” being
often mentioned by Saxon poets. The distinguishing characteristic
of this defence was the central boss or umbo, of which such a large
number have been found in Saxon interments (Fig. 73). It was a hollow
boss of varying form and dimensions, but generally about six inches in
diameter, and projecting three or four inches from the outer surface
of the shield; the wood was cut away to allow of its being fixed, and
across the hollow at the back a piece of metal was carried, riveted at
both ends to the boss. This formed a grasp for the left hand by which
the shield was carried, the umbo protecting the hand from injury. As it
was often spiked there is reason to suppose that at times the shield
was used as an offensive weapon (Fig. 75). To strengthen it, radiating
strips of iron or bronze were occasionally carried from the umbo to the
edges of the shield, the simplest being a prolongation of the grip. It
was not a heavy shield, in no way comparable to those of some other
nations. The mode of carrying the shield when not in use is seen in
Fig. 76.
[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Saxon umbos, from the Herts County Museum, St.
Albans.]
[Illustration: FIG. 75.--Saxon king and shield bearer. (MS., end of
10th century.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 76.--Anglo-Saxon horseman. (Cott. MS., Cleop. C.
8.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 77.--Saxon byrnie of leather. (Cott. MS., Cleop. C.
8.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 78.--Leather armour, 10th century.]
_The Byrnie or Battle-Sark_ was at times made of leather. In the figure
reproduced from a British Museum MS. (Fig. 77) the coat appears to be
of hide with much of the hair apparently left upon it; its lower edges
are dagged, and it defends the body and a part of the legs, whereas
in Fig. 78 the defensive covering appears only upon the upper part of
the body. The byrnie was also made of padded stuff judging from the
illustrations, but the earlier examples are so excessively crude and
inartistic that it is rash to make authoritative statements. When a
forest is indicated by four leaves and a twig, a mountain pass by
a bulbous mole-hill, and elaborate Saxon embroidery by half-a-dozen
scattered dots, it will readily be perceived that such a technical
detail as body armour cannot be definitely settled by these rude
drawings. Hence a controversy has arisen, which can by no means be
considered as definitely decided, upon the question as to whether the
Anglo-Saxons possessed byrnies of true interlinked chain mail. Hewitt
in his “Ancient Armour” maintains the affirmative, and contends that
the references in the poem of “Beowulf” to the “twisted breast-net,”
the “hard battle-net,” the “locked battle-shirt,” the “byrnie twisted
with hands,” the “war byrnie, hard and hand-locked,” can only mean
chain-mail. He further refers to the Bayeux Tapestry where a body is
being stripped, and the links show inside the hauberk as they are
represented on the outside. These arguments certainly carry weight,
but until a _bonâ-fide_ example of Anglo-Saxon manufacture is brought
to light the question must apparently be left in abeyance. One of the
modes of defence concerning which there is no doubt was the sewing on
of separate flat rings of iron to a tunic of woven material or leather,
and also the covering of the same with metal or leather plates,
either cut into the form of scales and overlapping, or square or oblong.
[Illustration: PLATE VII*
Milanese Salade, Fifteenth Century
_A. F. Calvert_]
A very interesting little group is shown in Fig. 79 from a Saxon MS.,
Cleopatra B. 4, in the British Museum. The book is Ælfric’s Paraphrase
of the Pentateuch and Joshua, and the subject of the drawing is the
battle of the three kings against the cities of the plain. One king
is habited in a ringed byrnie which extends to the knees and half way
down the arms; he wields a sword with a trilobed pommel and short
quillons, and defends himself with a shield having a spiked umbo. His
armour-bearer carries another shield, but is quite unarmed, his duty
merely being to defend his master. The Phrygian cap and simple tunic
he wears are probably those of everyday life. The second king has no
defensive armour and no armour-bearer, unless the figure seen behind
him in a grotesque attitude fulfils that office. The bifid beards and
the characteristic Saxon wrinkling of the sleeves should be noticed, as
also that the legs of the group appear to be bare.
[Illustration: FIG. 79.--Group from Cott. MS., Cleop. B. 4. _c._ 1000.]
[Illustration: FIG. 80.--From Anglo-Saxon MS., Prudentius, 11th
century.]
The leg-bands seen upon the Saxon soldiery were similar to those worn
by all civilians, and adjusted in the same manner; if, however, they
were of leather instead of the usual textile fabric a certain amount of
defence could be obtained (Figs. 77 and 80). It is curious to observe
that a number of soldiers are habited precisely as the civilians,
with no other defences than the helmet and the shield, from which we
conclude that the Anglo-Saxon of an early period simply dropped his
implements of husbandry at the call to arms and took up the shield,
helmet, and the spear.
Towards the latter end of the Saxon period the arms and armour
became almost identical with that in use on the Continent owing to
the constant intercourse which occurred in the reign of Edward the
Confessor, so that in 1066 the difference in accoutrement was simply
small matters of detail.
THE DANES
[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Danish helmet, shield, and sword.]
The military equipment of the Danes was very similar to that of other
northern Teutonic nations, and no single piece of their arms and armour
has been immortalised as of special significance with the single
exception of the Danish axe. Upon their first appearance in England
the only armour worn was a defence for the chest, consisting of a
broad collar encircling the neck, with depending pieces upon which
were sewn flat rings, plates of metal, horn, &c. In addition to this
pectoral, if it may be so termed, greaves were used, consisting of
stout pieces of leather affixed after the form of shin-pieces, and,
judging by representations in illuminated MSS., carefully moulded to
the limb, inasmuch as the prominent muscles are shown upon them. This
was probably effected by boiling the leather and subsequently pressing
it into shape. After their settlement in England they gradually adopted
other defences in imitation of the Saxons, but more especially of
the Normans, until their equipment in the first half of the eleventh
century became in every respect a replica of that of the latter nation.
The Danish helmet in its early form was a close-fitting skull-cap
fitting well down into the back of the neck; upon this as a foundation
the chiefs wore protruding horns, and at times wings of metal,
imparting a highly-ornamental aspect to the headpiece. Later a conical
helmet having a knob upon the top and being made of metal or leather,
or a mixture of both, was adopted; this in its fully-developed state
was fitted with a nasal (Fig. 81).
[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Danish weapons.]
The shield is reputed to have been of the shape shown in Fig. 81, which
is taken from the prayer-book of King Canute, MSS., Cal. A. 7, in the
British Museum. Presuming that the illuminator has not allowed his
imagination to run riot we must admire the highly ornamental form there
delineated, evidently founded upon the universal circular shield of the
Teutonic nations.
The Danish sword was similar to that of the Anglo-Saxons, and differed
only in the scabbard, upon which more labour was spent in ornamentation.
The spear illustrated (Fig. 82, No. 2) is that of Canute as shown upon
his coins, while the companion weapon is that of the ordinary soldiery.
The Danish axe (Fig. 82, No. 3) was the famed bipennis, consisting
of two axe-blades of similar form on either side of the shaft, which
latter in a few cases was furnished with a spike. The axe could be
used as a pole-axe for close combat, or, if furnished with a shorter
handle, be hurled in a similar way to the francisca. A variation of the
bipennis is seen in the companion axe, which is furnished upon one side
with a diamond-pointed cutting blade of steel in substitution for the
axe-blade.
[Illustration: PLATE VIII
The Bayard Armour in the Rotunda, Woolwich]