THE GREEKS.
Many musical instruments of the ancient Greeks are known to us by name;
but respecting their exact construction and capabilities there still
prevails almost as much diversity of opinion as is the case with those
of the Hebrews.
It is generally believed that the Greeks derived their musical system
from the Egyptians. Pythagoras and other philosophers are said to have
studied music in Egypt. It would, however, appear that the Egyptian
influence upon Greece, as far as regards this art, has been overrated.
Not only have the more perfect Egyptian instruments--such as the
larger harps, the tamboura--never been much in favour with the Greeks,
but almost all the stringed instruments which the Greeks possessed
are stated to have been originally derived from Asia. Strabo says:
“Those who regard the whole of Asia, as far as India, as consecrated
to Bacchus, point to that country as the origin of a great portion of
the present music. One author speaks of ‘striking forcibly the Asiatic
kithara,’ another calls the pipes Berecynthian and Phrygian. Some of
the instruments also have foreign names, as Nabla, Sambuka, Barbiton,
Magadis, and many others.”
We know at present little more of these instruments than that they
were in use in Greece. Of the Magadis it is even not satisfactorily
ascertained whether it was a stringed or a wind instrument. The other
three are known to have been stringed instruments. But they cannot have
been anything like such universal favourites as the lyre, because this
instrument and perhaps the _trigonon_ are almost the only stringed
instruments represented in the Greek paintings on pottery and other
monumental records. If, as might perhaps be suggested, their taste for
beauty of form induced the Greeks to represent the elegant lyre in
preference to other stringed instruments, we might at least expect to
meet with the harp; an instrument which equals if it does not surpass
the lyre in elegance of form.
[Illustration]
The representation of Polyhymnia with a harp, depicted on a splendid
Greek vase now in the Munich museum, may be noted as an exceptional
instance. This valuable relic dates from the time of Alexander the
great. The instrument resembles in construction as well as in shape
the Assyrian harp, and has thirteen strings. Polyhymnia is touching
them with both hands, using the right hand for the treble and the left
for the bass. She is seated, holding the instrument in her lap. Even
the little tuning-pegs, which in number are not in accordance with
the strings, are placed on the sound-board at the upper part of the
frame, exactly as on the Assyrian harp. If then we have here the Greek
harp, it was more likely an importation from Asia than from Egypt. In
short, as far as can be ascertained, the most complete of the Greek
instruments appear to be of Asiatic origin. Especially from the nations
who inhabited Asia-minor the Greeks are stated to have adopted several
of the most popular. Thus we may read of the short and shrill-sounding
pipes of the Carians; of the Phrygian pastoral flute, consisting of
several tubes united; of the three-stringed _kithara_ of the Lydians;
and so on.
The Greeks called the harp _kinyra_, and this may be the reason why in
the English translation of the Bible the _kinnor_ of the Hebrews, the
favourite instrument of king David, is rendered _harp_.
[Illustration]
The Greeks had lyres of various kinds, shown in the accompanying
woodcuts, more or less differing in construction, form, and size, and
distinguished by different names; such as _lyra, ithara_, _chelys_,
_phorminx_, etc. _Lyra_ appears to have implied instruments of this
class in general, and also the lyre with a body oval at the base and
held upon the lap or in the arms of the performer; while the _kithara_
had a square base and was held against the breast. These distinctions
have, however, not been satisfactorily ascertained. The _chelys_ was a
small lyre with the body made of the shell of a tortoise, or of wood in
imitation of the tortoise. The _phorminx_ was a large lyre; and, like
the _kithara_, was used at an early period singly, for accompanying
recitations. It is recorded that the _kithara_ was employed for solo
performances as early as B.C. 700.
The design on the Grecian vase at Munich (already alluded to)
represents the nine muses, of whom three are given in the engraving,
viz., Polyhymnia with the harp, and Kalliope and Erato with lyres. It
will be observed that some of the lyres engraved in the woodcuts on
page 29 are provided with a bridge, while others are without it. The
largest were held probably on or between the knees, or were attached
to the left arm by means of a band, to enable the performer to use his
hands without impediment. The strings, made of catgut or sinew, were
more usually twanged with a _plektron_ than merely with the fingers.
The _plektron_ was a short stem of ivory or metal pointed at both ends.
A fragment of a Greek lyre which was found in a tomb near Athens is
deposited in the British museum. The two pieces constituting its frame
are of wood. Their length is about eighteen inches, and the length
of the cross-bar at the top is about nine inches. The instrument is
unhappily in a condition too dilapidated and imperfect to be of any
essential use to the musical inquirer.
The _trigonon_ consisted originally of an angular frame, to which the
strings were affixed. In the course of time a third bar was added to
resist the tension of the strings, and its triangular frame resembled
in shape the Greek delta. Subsequently it was still further improved,
the upper bar of the frame being made slightly curved, whereby the
instrument obtained greater strength and more elegance of form.
The _magadis_, also called _pektis_, had twenty strings which were
tuned in octaves, and therefore produced only ten tones. It appears
to have been some sort of dulcimer, but information respecting its
construction is still wanting. There appears to have been also a
kind of bagpipe in use called _magadis_, of which nothing certain is
known. Possibly, the same name may have been applied to two different
instruments.
[Illustration]
The _barbiton_ was likewise a stringed instrument of this kind. The
_sambyke_ is traditionally said to have been invented by Ibykos, B.C.
540. The _simmikon_ had thirty-five strings, and derived its name from
its inventor, Simos, who lived about B.C. 600. It was perhaps a kind of
dulcimer. The _nabla_ had only two strings, and probably resembled the
_nebel_ of the Hebrews, of which but little is known with certainty.
The _pandoura_ is supposed to have been a kind of lute with three
strings. Several of the instruments just noticed were used in Greece,
chiefly by musicians who had immigrated from Asia; they can therefore
hardly be considered as national musical instruments of the Greeks. The
_monochord_ had (as its name implies) only a single string, and was
used in teaching singing and the laws of acoustics.
[Illustration]
The flute, _aulos_, of which there were many varieties, as shown in
the woodcut p. 31, was a highly popular instrument, and differed in
construction from the flutes and pipes of the ancient Egyptians.
Instead of being blown through a hole at the side near the top it was
held like a flageolet, and a vibrating reed was inserted into the
mouth-piece, so that it might be more properly described as a kind
of oboe or clarionet. The Greeks were accustomed to designate by the
name of _aulos_ all wind instruments of the flute and oboe kind, some
of which were constructed like the flageolet or like our antiquated
_flûte à bec_. The single flute was called _monaulos_, and the double
one _diaulos_. A _diaulos_, which was found in a tomb at Athens, is in
the British museum. The wood of which it is made seems to be cedar,
and the tubes are fifteen inches in length. Each tube has a separate
mouth-piece and six finger-holes, five of which are at the upper side
and one is underneath.
The _syrinx_, or Pandean pipe, had from three to nine tubes, but seven
was the usual number. The straight trumpet, _salpinx_, and the curved
horn, _keras_, made of brass, were used exclusively in war. The small
hand-drum, called _tympanon_, resembled in shape our tambourine, but
was covered with parchment at the back as well as at the front. The
_kymbala_ were made of metal, and resembled our small cymbals. The
_krotala_ were almost identical with our castanets, and were made of
wood or metal.
THE ETRUSCANS AND ROMANS.
The Romans are recorded to have derived some of their most popular
instruments originally from the Etruscans; a people which at an early
period excelled all other Italian nations in the cultivation of the
arts as well as in social refinement, and which possessed musical
instruments similar to those of the Greeks. It must, however, be
remembered that many of the vases and other specimens of art which
have been found in Etruscan tombs, and on which delineations of lyres
and other instruments occur, are supposed to be productions of Greek
artists whose works were obtained from Greece by the Etruscans, or who
were induced to settle in Etruria.
The flutes of the Etruscans were not unfrequently made of ivory;
those used in religious sacrifices were of box-wood, of a species of
the lotus, of ass’ bone, bronze and silver. A bronze flute, somewhat
resembling our flageolet, has been found in a tomb; likewise a huge
trumpet of bronze. An Etruscan _cornu_ (engraved) is deposited in the
British museum, and measures about four feet in length.
[Illustration]
To the Etruscans is also attributed by some the invention of the
hydraulic organ. The Greeks possessed a somewhat similar contrivance
which they called _hydraulos_, _i.e._ water-flute, and which probably
was identical with the _organum hydraulicum_ of the Romans. The
instrument ought more properly to be regarded as a pneumatic organ,
for the sound was produced by the current of air through the pipes;
the water applied serving merely to give the necessary pressure to the
bellows and to regulate their action. The pipes were probably caused
to sound by means of stops, perhaps resembling those on our organ,
which were drawn out or pushed in. The construction was evidently but
a primitive contrivance, contained in a case which could be carried by
one or two persons and which was placed on a table. The highest degree
of perfection which the hydraulic organ obtained with the ancients is
perhaps shown in a representation on a coin of the emperor Nero, in
the British museum. Only ten pipes are given to it and there is no
indication of any key board, which would probably have been shown had
it existed. The man standing at the side and holding a laurel leaf in
his hand is surmised to represent a victor in the exhibitions of the
circus or the amphitheatre. The hydraulic organ probably was played on
such occasions; and the medal containing an impression of it may have
been bestowed upon the victor.
[Illustration]
During the time of the republic, and especially subsequently under
the reign of the emperors, the Romans adopted many new instruments
from Greece, Egypt, and even from western Asia; without essentially
improving any of their importations.
Their most favourite stringed instrument was the lyre, of which they
had various kinds, called, according to their form and arrangement
of strings, _lyra_, _cithara_, _chelys_, _testudo_, _fidis_ (or
_fides_), and _cornu_. The name _cornu_ was given to the lyre when the
sides of the frame terminated at the top in the shape of two horns.
The _barbitos_ was a kind of lyre with a large body, which gave the
instrument somewhat the shape of the Welsh _crwth_. The _psalterium_
was a kind of lyre of an oblong square shape. Like most of the Roman
lyres, it was played with a rather large plectrum. The _trigonum_ was
the same as the Greek _trigonon_, and was probably originally derived
from Egypt. It is recorded that a certain musician of the name of
Alexander Alexandrinus was so admirable a performer upon it that when
exhibiting his skill in Rome he created the greatest _furore_. Less
common, and derived from Asia, were the _sambuca_ and _nablia_, the
exact construction of which is unknown.
The flute, _tibia_, was originally made of the shin bone, and had a
mouth-hole and four finger-holes. Its shape was retained even when,
at a later period, it was constructed of other substances than bone.
The _tibia gingrina_ consisted of a long and thin tube of reed with
a mouth-hole at the side of one end. The _tibia obliqua_ and _tibia
vasca_ were provided with mouth-pieces affixed at a right angle to the
tube; a contrivance somewhat similar to that on our bassoon. The _tibia
longa_ was especially used in religious worship. The _tibia curva_
was curved at its broadest end. The _tibia ligula_ appears to have
resembled our flageolet. The _calamus_ was nothing more than a simple
pipe cut off the kind of reed which the ancients used as a pen for
writing.
The Romans had double flutes as well as single flutes. The double flute
consisted of two tubes united, either so as to have a mouth-piece
in common or to have each a separate mouth-piece. If the tubes were
exactly alike the double flute was called _Tibiæ pares_; if they were
different from each other, _Tibiæ impares_. Little plugs, or stoppers,
were inserted into the finger-holes to regulate the order of intervals.
The _tibia_ was made in various shapes. The _tibia dextra_ was usually
constructed of the upper and thinner part of a reed; and the _tibia
sinistra_, of the lower and broader part. The performers used also the
_capistrum_,--a bandage round the cheeks identical with the _phorbeia_
of the Greeks.
The British museum contains a mosaic figure of a Roman girl playing
the _tibia_, which is stated to have been disinterred in the year 1823
on the Via Appia. Here the _holmos_ or mouth-piece, somewhat resembling
the reed of our oboe, is distinctly shown. The finger-holes, probably
four, are not indicated, although they undoubtedly existed on the
instrument.
[Illustration]
Furthermore, the Romans had two kinds of Pandean pipes, viz. the
_syrinx_ and the _fistula_. The bagpipe, _tibia utricularis_, is said
to have been a favourite instrument of the emperor Nero.
[Illustration]
The _cornu_ was a large horn of bronze, curved. The performer held
it under his arm with the broad end upwards over his shoulder. It is
represented in the engraving, with the _tuba_ and the _lituus_.
The _tuba_ was a straight trumpet. Both the _cornu_ and the _tuba_
were employed in war to convey signals. The same was the case with the
_buccina_,--originally perhaps a conch shell, and afterwards a simple
horn of an animal,--and the _lituus_, which was bent at the broad end
but otherwise straight. The _tympanum_ resembled the tambourine and was
beaten like the latter with the hands. Among the Roman instruments
of percussion the _scabillum_, which consisted of two plates combined
by means of a sort of hinge, deserves to be noticed; it was fastened
under the foot and trodden in time, to produce certain rhythmical
effects in musical performances. The _cymbalum_ consisted of two metal
plates similar to our cymbals. The _crotala_ and the _crusmata_ were
kinds of castanets, the former being oblong and of a larger size than
the latter. The Romans had also a _triangulum_, which resembled the
triangle occasionally used in our orchestra. The _sistrum_ they derived
from Egypt with the introduction of the worship of Isis. Metal bells,
arranged according to a regular order of intervals and placed in a
frame, were called _tintinnabula_. The _crepitaculum_ appears to have
been a somewhat similar contrivance on a hoop with a handle.
Through the Greeks and Romans we have the first well-authenticated
proof of musical instruments having been introduced into Europe from
Asia. The Romans in their conquests undoubtedly made their musical
instruments known, to some extent, also in western Europe. But the
Greeks and Romans are not the only nations which introduced eastern
instruments into Europe. The Phœnicians at an early period colonized
Sardinia, and traces of them are still to be found on that island.
Among these is a peculiarly constructed double-pipe, called _lionedda_
or _launedda_. Again, at a much later period the Arabs introduced
several of their instruments into Spain, from which country they became
known in France, Germany, and England. Also the crusaders, during the
eleventh and twelfth centuries, may have helped to familiarize the
western European nations with instruments of the east.