THE ASSYRIANS.
Our acquaintance with the Assyrian instruments has been derived almost
entirely from the famous bas-reliefs which have been excavated from the
mounds of Nimroud, Khorsabad, and Kouyunjik, situated near the river
Tigris in the vicinity of the town of Mosul in Asiatic Turkey.
The Assyrian harp was about four feet high, and appears of larger size
than it actually was on account of the ornamental appendages which were
affixed to the lower part of its frame. It must have been but light in
weight, since we find it not unfrequently represented in the hands of
persons who are playing upon it while they are dancing. Like all the
Oriental harps, modern as well as ancient, it was not provided with a
front pillar. The upper portion of the frame contained the sound-holes,
somewhat in the shape of an hour-glass. Below them were the screws, or
tuning-pegs, arranged in regular order. The strings were perhaps made
of silk, like those which the Burmese use at the present time on their
harps; or they may have been of catgut, which was used by the ancient
Egyptians.
The largest assemblage of Assyrian musicians which has been discovered
on any monument consists of eleven performers upon instruments, besides
a chorus of singers. The first musician--probably the leader of the
band, as he marches alone at the head of the procession--is playing
upon a harp. Behind him are two men; one with a dulcimer and the
other with a double-pipe: then follow two men with harps. Next come
six female musicians, four of whom are playing upon harps, while one
is blowing a double-pipe and another is beating a small hand-drum
covered only at the top. Close behind the instrumental performers are
the singers, consisting of a chorus of females and children. They are
clapping their hands in time with the music, and some of the musicians
are dancing to the measure. One of the female singers is holding her
hand to her throat in the same manner as the women in Syria, Arabia,
and Persia are in the habit of doing at the present day when producing,
on festive occasions, those peculiarly shrill sounds of rejoicing which
have been repeatedly noticed by travellers.
The dulcimer is in too imperfect a state on the bas-relief to
familiarize us with its construction. The slab representing the
procession in which it occurs has been injured; the defect which
extended over a portion of the dulcimer has been repaired, and it
cannot be said that in repairing it much musical knowledge has been
evinced.
The instrument of the Trigonon species was held horizontally, and was
twanged with a rather long plectrum slightly bent at the end at which
it was held by the performer. It is of frequent occurrence on the
bas-reliefs. A number of them appear to have been generally played
together. At any rate, we find almost invariably on the monuments two
together, evidently implying “more than one,” “a number.” The left hand
of the performer seems to have been occupied in checking the vibration
of the strings when its discontinuance was required. From the position
of the strings the performer could not have struck them as those of
the dulcimer are struck. If he did not twang them, he may have drawn
the plectrum across them. Indeed, for twanging, a short plectrum would
have been more practical, considering that the strings are placed
horizontally one above the other at regular distances. It is therefore
by no means improbable that we have here a rude prototype of the violin
bow.
The Lyre occurs in three different forms, and is held horizontally
in playing, or at least nearly so. Its front bar was generally either
oblique or slightly curved. The strings were tied round the bar so as
to allow of their being pushed upwards or downwards. In the former case
the tension of the strings increases, and the notes become therefore
higher; on the other hand, if the strings are pushed lower down the
pitch of the notes must become deeper. The lyre was played with a small
plectrum as well as with the fingers.
The Assyrian trumpet was very similar to the Egyptian. Furthermore, we
meet with three kinds of drums, of which one is especially noteworthy
on account of its odd shape, somewhat resembling a sugar-loaf; with
the tambourine; with two kinds of cymbals; and with bells, of which
a considerable number have been found in the mound of Nimroud. These
bells, which have greatly withstood the devastation of time, are but
small in size, the largest of them being only 3¼ inches in height
and 2½ inches in diameter. Most of them have a hole at the top, in
which probably the clapper was fastened. They are made of copper mixed
with 14 per cent. of tin.
Instrumental music was used by the Assyrians and Babylonians in their
religious observances. This is obvious from the sculptures, and is to
some extent confirmed by the mode of worship paid by command of king
Nebuchadnezzar to the golden image: “Then an herald cried aloud, To
you it is commanded, O people, nations, and languages, that at what
time ye hear the sound of the cornet, flute, harp, sackbut, psaltery,
dulcimer, and all kinds of musick, ye fall down and worship the golden
image that Nebuchadnezzar the king hath set up.” The kings appear
to have maintained at their courts musical bands, whose office it
was to perform secular music at certain times of the day or on fixed
occasions. Of king Darius we are told that, when he had cast Daniel
into the den of lions, he “went to his palace, and passed the night
fasting, neither were instruments of musick brought before him;” from
which we may conclude that his band was in the habit of playing before
him in the evening. A similar custom prevailed also at the court of
Jerusalem, at least in the time of David and Solomon; both of whom
appear to have had their royal private bands, besides a large number of
singers and instrumental performers of sacred music who were engaged in
the Temple.
THE HEBREWS.
As regards the musical instruments of the Hebrews, we are from biblical
records acquainted with the names of many of them; but representations
to be trusted are still wanting, and it is chiefly from an examination
of the ancient Egyptian and Assyrian instruments that we can conjecture
almost to a certainty their construction and capabilities. From various
indications, which it would be too circumstantial here to point out, we
believe the Hebrews to have possessed the following instruments:
THE HARP. There cannot be a doubt that the Hebrews possessed the
harp, seeing that it was a common instrument among the Egyptians
and Assyrians. But it is uncertain which of the Hebrew names of the
stringed instruments occurring in the Bible really designates the harp.
THE DULCIMER. Some writers on Hebrew music consider the _nebel_ to have
been a kind of dulcimer; others conjecture the same of the _psanterin_
mentioned in the book of Daniel,--a name which appears to be synonymous
with the _psalterion_ of the Greeks, and from which also the present
oriental dulcimer, _santir_, may have been derived. Some of the
instruments mentioned in the book of Daniel may have been synonymous
with some which occur in other parts of the Bible under Hebrew names;
the names given in Daniel being Chaldæan. The _asor_ was a ten-stringed
instrument played with a plectrum, and is supposed to have borne some
resemblance to the _nebel_.
THE LYRE. This instrument is represented on some Hebrew coins generally
ascribed to Judas Maccabæus, who lived in the second century before the
Christian era. There are several of them in the British museum; some
are of silver, and the others of copper. On three of them are lyres
with three strings, another has one with five, and another one with six
strings. The two sides of the frame appear to have been made of the
horns of animals, or they may have been of wood formed in imitation of
two horns which originally were used. Lyres thus constructed are still
found in Abyssinia. The Hebrew square-shaped lyre of the time of Simon
Maccabæus is probably identical with the _psalterion_. The _kinnor_,
the favourite instrument of king David, was most likely a lyre if not a
small triangular harp. The lyre was evidently an universally known and
favoured instrument among ancient eastern nations. Being more simple
in construction than most other stringed instruments it undoubtedly
preceded them in antiquity. The _kinnor_ is mentioned in the Bible as
the oldest stringed instrument, and as the invention of Jubal. Even
if the name of one particular stringed instrument is here used for
stringed instruments in general, which may possibly be the case, it
is only reasonable to suppose that the oldest and most universally
known stringed instrument would be mentioned as a representative of
the whole class rather than any other. Besides, the _kinnor_ was a
light and easily portable instrument; king David, according to the
Rabbinic records, used to suspend it during the night over his pillow.
All its uses mentioned in the Bible are especially applicable to the
lyre. And the resemblance of the word _kinnor_ to _kithara_, _kissar_,
and similar names known to denote the lyre, also tends to confirm
the supposition that it refers to this instrument. It is, however,
not likely that the instruments of the Hebrews--indeed their music
altogether--should have remained entirely unchanged during a period
of many centuries. Some modifications were likely to occur even from
accidental causes; such, for instance, as the influence of neighbouring
nations when the Hebrews came into closer contact with them. Thus
may be explained why the accounts of the Hebrew instruments given by
Josephus, who lived in the first century of the Christian era, are not
in exact accordance with those in the Bible. The lyres at the time of
Simon Maccabæus may probably be different from those which were in use
about a thousand years earlier, or at the time of David and Solomon
when the art of music with the Hebrews was at its zenith.
There appears to be a probability that a Hebrew lyre of the time of
Joseph (about 1700 B.C.) is represented on an ancient Egyptian painting
discovered in a tomb at Beni Hassan,--which is the name of certain
grottoes on the eastern bank of the Nile. Sir Gardner Wilkinson, in his
“Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,” observes: “If, when we
become better acquainted with the interpretation of hieroglyphics, the
‘Strangers’ at Beni Hassan should prove to be the arrival of Jacob’s
family in Egypt, we may examine the Jewish lyre drawn by an Egyptian
artist. That this event took place about the period when the inmate
of the tomb lived is highly probable--at least, if I am correct in
considering Osirtasen I. to be the Pharaoh the patron of Joseph; and
it remains for us to decide whether the disagreement in the number
of persons here introduced--thirty-seven being written over them in
hieroglyphics--is a sufficient objection to their identity. It will
not be foreign to the present subject to introduce those figures which
are curious, if only considered as illustrative of ancient customs
at that early period, and which will be looked upon with unbounded
interest should they ever be found to refer to the Jews. The first
figure is an Egyptian scribe, who presents an account of their arrival
to a person seated, the owner of the tomb, and one of the principal
officers of the reigning Pharaoh. The next, also an Egyptian, ushers
them into his presence; and two advance bringing presents, the wild
goat or ibex and the gazelle, the productions of their country. Four
men, carrying bows and clubs, follow, leading an ass on which two
children are placed in panniers, accompanied by a boy and four women;
and, last of all, another ass laden, and two men--one holding a bow and
club, the other a lyre, which he plays with a plectrum. All the men
have beards, contrary to the custom of the Egyptians, but very general
in the East at that period, and noticed as a peculiarity of foreign
uncivilized nations throughout their sculptures. The men have sandals,
the women a sort of boot reaching to the ankle--both which were worn by
many Asiatic people. The lyre is rude, and differs in form from those
generally used in Egypt.” In the engraving the lyre-player, another
man, and some strange animals from this group, are represented.
[Illustration]
THE TAMBOURA. _Minnim_, _machalath_, and _nebel_ are usually supposed
to be the names of instruments of the lute or guitar kind. _Minnim_,
however, appears more likely to imply stringed instruments in general
than any particular instrument.
THE SINGLE PIPE. _Chalil_ and _nekeb_ were the names of the Hebrew
pipes or flutes.
THE DOUBLE PIPE. Probably the _mishrokitha_ mentioned in Daniel. The
_mishrokitha_ is represented in the drawings of our histories of music
as a small organ, consisting of seven pipes placed in a box with a
mouthpiece for blowing. But the shape of the pipes and of the box as
well as the row of keys for the fingers exhibited in the representation
of the _mishrokitha_ have too much of the European type not to suggest
that they are probably a product of the imagination. Respecting the
illustrations of Hebrew instruments which usually accompany historical
treatises on music and commentaries on the Bible, it ought to be borne
in mind that most of them are merely the offspring of conjectures
founded on some obscure hints in the Bible, or vague accounts by the
Rabbins.
THE SYRINX OR PANDEAN PIPE. Probably the _ugab_, which in the English
authorized version of the Bible is rendered “organ.”
THE BAGPIPE. The word _sumphonia_, which occurs in the book of
Daniel, is, by Forkel and others, supposed to denote a bagpipe. It
is remarkable that at the present day the bagpipe is called by the
Italian peasantry Zampogna. Another Hebrew instrument, the _magrepha_,
generally described as an organ, was more likely only a kind of
bagpipe. The _magrepha_ is not mentioned in the Bible but is described
in the Talmud. In tract Erachin it is recorded to have been a powerful
organ which stood in the temple at Jerusalem, and consisted of a case
or wind-chest, with ten holes, containing ten pipes. Each pipe was
capable of emitting ten different sounds, by means of finger-holes or
some similar contrivance: thus one hundred different sounds could be
produced on this instrument. Further, the _magrepha_ is said to have
been provided with two pairs of bellows and with ten keys, by means of
which it was played with the fingers. Its tone was, according to the
Rabbinic accounts, so loud that it could be heard at an incredibly long
distance from the temple. Authorities so widely differ that we must
leave it uncertain whether the much-lauded _magrepha_ was a bagpipe,
an organ, or a kettle-drum. Of the real nature of the Hebrew bagpipe
perhaps some idea may be formed from a syrinx with bellows, which has
been found represented on one of the ancient terra-cottas excavated in
Tarsus, Asia-minor, some years since, and here engraved. These remains
are believed to be about 2000 years old, judging from the figures upon
them, and from some coins struck about 200 years B.C. having been found
embedded with them. We have therefore before us, probably, the oldest
representation of a bagpipe hitherto discovered.
[Illustration]
THE TRUMPET. Three kinds are mentioned in the Bible, viz. the _keren_,
the _shophar_, and the _chatzozerah_. The first two were more or less
curved and might properly be considered as horns. Most commentators are
of opinion that the _keren_--made of ram’s horn--was almost identical
with the _shophar_, the only difference being that the latter was more
curved than the former. The _shophar_ is especially remarkable as being
the only Hebrew musical instrument which has been preserved to the
present day in the religious services of the Jews. It is still blown in
the synagogue, as in time of old, at the Jewish new-year’s festival,
according to the command of Moses (Numb. XXIX. I). The _chatzozerah_
was a straight trumpet, about two feet in length, and was sometimes
made of silver. Two of these straight trumpets are shown in the famous
triumphal procession after the fall of Jerusalem on the arch of Titus,
engraved on the next page.
THE DRUM. There can be no doubt that the Hebrews had several kinds of
drums. We know, however, only of the _toph_, which appears to have
been a tambourine or a small hand-drum like the Egyptian darabouka.
In the English version of the Bible the word is rendered _timbrel_
or _tabret_. This instrument was especially used in processions on
occasions of rejoicing, and also frequently by females. We find it
in the hands of Miriam, when she was celebrating with the Israelitish
women in songs of joy the destruction of Pharaoh’s host; and in the
hands of Jephtha’s daughter, when she went out to welcome her father.
There exists at the present day in the East a small hand-drum called
_doff_, _diff_, or _adufe_--a name which appears to be synonymous with
the Hebrew _toph_.
[Illustration]
THE SISTRUM. Winer, Saalfchütz, and several other commentators are of
opinion that the _menaaneim_, mentioned in 2 Sam. vi. 5, denotes the
sistrum. In the English Bible the original is translated _cymbals_.
CYMBALS. The _tzeltzclim_, _metzilloth_, and _metzilthaim_, appear
to have been cymbals or similar metallic instruments of percussion,
differing in shape and sound.
BELLS. The little bells on the vestments of the high-priest were called
_phaamon_. Small golden bells were attached to the lower part of the
robes of the high-priest in his sacred ministrations. The Jews have, at
the present day, in their synagogues small bells fastened to the rolls
of the Law containing the Pentateuch: a kind of ornamentation which is
supposed to have been in use from time immemorial.
Besides the names of Hebrew instruments already given there occur
several others in the Old Testament, upon the real meaning of which
much diversity of opinion prevails. _Jobel_ is by some commentators
classed with the trumpets, but it is by others believed to designate a
loud and cheerful blast of the trumpet, used on particular occasions.
If _Jobel_ (from which _jubilare_ is supposed to be derived) is
identical with the name _Jubal_, the inventor of musical instruments,
it would appear that the Hebrews appreciated pre-eminently the
exhilarating power of music. _Shalisbim_ is supposed to denote a
triangle. _Nechiloth_, _gittith_, and _machalath_, which occur in
the headings of some psalms, are also by commentators supposed to
be musical instruments. _Nechiloth_ is said to have been a flute,
and _gittith_ and _machalath_ to have been stringed instruments, and
_machol_ a kind of flute. Again, others maintain that the words denote
peculiar modes of performance or certain favourite melodies to which
the psalms were directed to be sung, or chanted. According to the
records of the Rabbins, the Hebrews in the time of David and Solomon
possessed thirty-six different musical instruments. In the Bible only
about half that number are mentioned.
Most nations of antiquity ascribed the invention of their musical
instruments to their gods, or to certain superhuman beings. The Hebrews
attributed it to man; Jubal is mentioned in Genesis as “the father of
all such as handle the harp and organ” (_i.e._, performers on stringed
instruments and wind instruments). As instruments of percussion are
almost invariably in use long before people are led to construct
stringed and wind instruments it might perhaps be surmised that Jubal
was not regarded as the inventor of all the Hebrew instruments, but
rather as the first professional cultivator of instrumental music.