GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH, COUNT (1660-1734), Russian statesman, was
attached (1677), while still a lad, to the court of the tsarevitch
Peter, afterwards Peter the Great, with whose mother Natalia he was
connected, and vigilantly guarded him during the disquieting period of
the regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great (1682-1689). He
accompanied the young tsar abroad on his first foreign tour, and worked
by his side in the dockyards of Saardam. In 1706 he succeeded Golovin in
the direction of foreign affairs, and was created the first Russian
grand-chancellor on the field of Poltava (1709). Golovkin held this
office for twenty-five years. In the reign of Catherine I. he became a
member of the supreme privy council which had the chief conduct of
affairs during this and the succeeding reigns. The empress also
entrusted him with her last will whereby she appointed the young Peter
II. her successor and Golovkin one of his guardians. On the death of
Peter II. in 1730 he declared openly in favour of Anne, duchess of
Courland, in opposition to the aristocratic Dolgorukis and Golitsuins,
and his determined attitude on behalf of autocracy was the chief cause
of the failure of the proposed constitution, which would have converted
Russia into a limited monarchy. Under Anne he was a member of the first
cabinet formed in Russia, but had less influence in affairs than
Ostermann and Munnich. In 1707 he was created a count of the Holy Roman
empire, and in 1710 a count of the Russian empire. He was one of the
wealthiest, and at the same time one of the stingiest, magnates of his
day. His ignorance of any language but his own made his intercourse with
foreign ministers very inconvenient.
See R. N. Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897).
(R. N. B.)
GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH (1776-1831), Russian vice-admiral, was
born on the 20th of April 1776 in the village of Gulynki in the province
of Ryazan, and received his education at the Cronstadt naval school.
From 1801 to 1806 he served as a volunteer in the English navy. In 1807
he was commissioned by the Russian government to survey the coasts of
Kamchatka and of Russian America, including also the Kurile Islands.
Golovnin sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and on the 5th of October
1809, arrived in Kamchatka. In 1810, whilst attempting to survey the
coast of the island of Kunashiri, he was seized by the Japanese, and was
retained by them as a prisoner, until the 13th of October 1813, when he
was liberated, and in the following year he returned to St Petersburg.
Soon after this the government planned another expedition, which had for
its object the circumnavigation of the globe by a Russian ship, and
Golovnin was appointed to the command. He started from St Petersburg on
the 7th of September 1817, sailed round Cape Horn, and arrived in
Kamchatka in the following May. He returned to Europe by way of the Cape
of Good Hope, and landed at St Petersburg on the 17th of September 1819.
He died on the 12th of July 1831.
Golovnin published several works, of which the following are the most
important:--_Journey to Kamchatka_ (2 vols., 1819); _Journey Round the
World_ (2 vols., 1822); and _Narrative of my Captivity in Japan,
1811-1813_ (2 vols., 1816). The last has been translated into French,
German and English, the English edition being in three volumes (1824).
A complete edition of his works was published at St Petersburg in five
volumes in 1864, with maps and charts, and a biography of the author
by N. Grech.
GOLTZ, BOGUMIL (1801-1870), German humorist and satirist, was born at
Warsaw on the 20th of March 1801. After attending the classical schools
of Marienwerder and Konigsberg, he learnt farming on an estate near
Thorn, and in 1821 entered the university of Breslau as a student of
philosophy. But he soon abandoned an academical career, and, after
returning for a while to country life, retired to the small town of
Gollub, where he devoted himself to literary studies. In 1847 he settled
at Thorn, "the home of Copernicus," where he died on the 12th of
November 1870. Goltz is best known to literary fame by his _Buch der
Kindheit_ (Frankfort, 1847; 4th ed., Berlin, 1877), in which, after the
style of Jean Paul, and Adalbert Stifter, but with a more modern
realism, he gives a charming and idyllic description of the impressions
of his own childhood. Among his other works must be noted _Ein
Jugendleben_ (1852); _Der Mensch und die Leute_ (1858); _Zur
Charakteristik und Naturgeschichte der Frauen_ (1859); _Zur Geschichte
und Charakteristik des deutschen Genius_ (1864), and _Die Weltklugheit
und die Lebensweisheit_ (1869).
Goltz's works have not been collected, but a selection will be found
in Reclam's _Universalbibliothek_ (ed. by P. Stein, 1901 and 1906).
See O. Roquette, _Siebzig Jahre_, i. (1894).
GOLTZ, COLMAR, FREIHERR VON DER (1843- ), Prussian soldier and
military writer, was born at Bielkenfeld, East Prussia, on the 12th of
August 1843, and entered the Prussian infantry in 1861. In 1864 he
entered the Berlin Military Academy, but was temporarily withdrawn in
1866 to serve in the Austrian war, in which he was wounded at Trautenau.
In 1867 he joined the topographical section of the general staff, and at
the beginning of the Franco-German War of 1870-71 was attached to the
staff of Prince Frederick Charles. He took part in the battles of
Vionville and Gravelotte and in the siege of Metz. After its fall he
served under the Red Prince in the campaign of the Loire, including the
battles of Orleans and Le Mans. He was appointed in 1871 professor at
the military school at Potsdam, and the same year was promoted captain
and placed in the historical section of the general staff. It was then
he wrote _Die Operationen der II. Armee bis zur Capitulation von Metz_
and _Die Sieben Tage von Le Mans_, both published in 1873. In 1874 he
was appointed to the staff of the 6th division, and while so employed
wrote _Die Operationen der II. Armee an der Loire and Leon Gambetta und
seine Armeen_, published in 1875 and 1877 respectively. The latter was
translated into French the same year, and both are impartially written.
The views expressed in the latter work led to his being sent back to
regimental duty for a time, but it was not long before he returned to
the military history section. In 1878 von der Goltz was appointed
lecturer in military history at the military academy at Berlin, where he
remained for five years and attained the rank of major. He published, in
1883, _Rossbach und Jena_ (new and revised edition, _Von Rossbach bis
Jena und Auerstadt_, 1906), _Das Volk in Waffen_ (English translation
_The Nation in Arms_), both of which quickly became military classics,
and during his residence in Berlin contributed many articles to the
military journals. In June 1883 his services were lent to Turkey to
reorganize the military establishments of the country. He spent twelve
years in this work, the result of which appeared in the Greco-Turkish
War of 1897, and he was made a pasha and in 1895 a _mushir_ or
field-marshal. On his return to Germany in 1896 he became a
lieutenant-general and commander of the 5th division, and in 1898, head
of the Engineer and Pioneer Corps and inspector-general of
fortifications. In 1900 he was made general of infantry and in 1902
commander of the I. army corps. In 1907 he was made inspector-general of
the newly created sixth army inspection established at Berlin, and in
1908 was given the rank of colonel-general (_Generaloberst_).
In addition to the works already named and frequent contributions to
military periodical literature, he wrote _Kriegfuhrung_ (1895, later
edition _Krieg- und Heerfuhrung_, 1901; Eng. trans. _The Conduct of
War_); _Der thessalische Krieg_ (Berlin, 1898); _Ein Ausflug nach
Macedonien_ (1894); _Anatolische Ausfluge_ (1896); a map and
description of the environs of Constantinople; _Von Jena bis Pr.
Eylau_ (1907), a most important historical work, carrying on the story
of _Rossbach und Jena_ to the peace of Tilsit, &c.
GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK (1558-1617), Dutch painter and engraver, was born in
1558 at Mulebrecht, in the duchy of Julich. After studying painting on
glass for some years under his father, he was taught the use of the
burin by Dirk Volkertsz Coornhert, a Dutch engraver of mediocre
attainment, whom he soon surpassed, but who retained his services for
his own advantage. He was also employed by Philip Galle to engrave a set
of prints of the history of Lucretia. At the age of twenty-one he
married a widow somewhat advanced in years, whose money enabled him to
establish at Haarlem an independent business; but his unpleasant
relations with her so affected his health that he found it advisable in
1590 to make a tour through Germany to Italy, where he acquired an
intense admiration for the works of Michelangelo, which led him to
surpass that master in the grotesqueness and extravagance of his
designs. He returned to Haarlem considerably improved in health, and
laboured there at his art till his death, on the 1st of January 1617.
Goltzius ought not to be judged chiefly by the works he valued most, his
eccentric imitations of Michelangelo. His portraits, though mostly
miniatures, are master-pieces of their kind, both on account of their
exquisite finish, and as fine studies of individual character. Of his
larger heads, the life-size portrait of himself is probably the most
striking example. His "master-pieces," so called from their being
attempts to imitate the style of the old masters, have perhaps been
overpraised. In his command of the burin Goltzius is not surpassed even
by Durer; but his technical skill is often unequally aided by higher
artistic qualities. Even, however, his eccentricities and extravagances
are greatly counterbalanced by the beauty and freedom of his execution.
He began painting at the age of forty-two, but none of his works in this
branch of art--some of which are in the imperial collection at
Vienna--display any special excellences. He also executed a few pieces
in chiaroscuro.
His prints amount to more than 300 plates, and are fully described in
Bartsch's _Peintre-graveur_, and Weigel's supplement to the same work.
GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR, COUNT (1849- ), Austrian statesman, was born on
the 25th of March 1849. His father, descended from an old and noble
Polish family, was governor of Galicia. Entering the diplomatic service,
the son was in 1872 appointed attache to the Austrian embassy at Berlin,
where he became secretary of legation, and thence he was transferred to
Paris. After rising to the rank of counsellor of legation, he was in
1887 made minister at Bucharest, where he remained till 1893. In these
positions he acquired a great reputation as a firm and skilful
diplomatist, and on the retirement of Count Kalnoky in May 1895 was
chosen to succeed him as Austro-Hungarian minister for foreign affairs.
The appointment of a Pole caused some surprise in view of the importance
of Austrian relations with Russia (then rather strained) and Germany,
but the choice was justified by events. In his speech of that year to
the delegations he declared the maintenance of the Triple Alliance, and
in particular the closest intimacy with Germany, to be the keystone of
Austrian policy; at the same time he dwelt on the traditional friendship
between Austria and Great Britain, and expressed his desire for a good
understanding with all the powers. In pursuance of this policy he
effected an understanding with Russia, by which neither power was to
exert any separate influence in the Balkan peninsula, and thus removed a
long-standing cause of friction. This understanding was formally
ratified during a visit to St Petersburg on which he accompanied the
emperor in April 1897. He took the lead in establishing the European
concert during the Armenian troubles of 1896, and again resisted
isolated action on the part of any of the great powers during the Cretan
troubles and the Greco-Turkish War. In November 1897, when the
Austro-Hungarian flag was insulted at Mersina, he threatened to bombard
the town if instant reparation were not made, and by his firm attitude
greatly enhanced Austrian prestige in the East. In his speech to the
delegations in 1898 he dwelt on the necessity of expanding Austria's
mercantile marine, and of raising the fleet to a strength which, while
not vying with the fleets of the great naval powers, would ensure
respect for the Austrian flag wherever her interests needed protection.
He also hinted at the necessity for European combination to resist
American competition. The understanding with Russia in the matter of the
Balkan States temporarily endangered friendly relations with Italy, who
thought her interests threatened, until Goluchowski guaranteed in 1898
the existing order. He further encouraged a good understanding with
Italy by personal conferences with the Italian foreign minister,
Tittoni, in 1904 and 1905. Count Lamsdorff visited Vienna in December
1902, when arrangements were made for concerted action in imposing on
the sultan reforms in the government of Macedonia. Further steps were
taken after Goluchowski's interview with the tsar at Murzsteg in 1903,
and two civil agents representing the countries were appointed for two
years to ensure the execution of the promised reforms. This period was
extended in 1905, when Goluchowski was the chief mover in forcing the
Porte, by an international naval demonstration at Mitylene, to accept
financial control by the powers in Macedonia. At the conference
assembled at Algeciras to settle the Morocco Question, Austria supported
the German position, and after the close of the conferences the emperor
William II. telegraphed to Goluchowski: "You have proved yourself a
brilliant second on the duelling ground and you may feel certain of like
services from me in similar circumstances." This pledge was redeemed in
1908, when Germany's support of Austria in the Balkan crisis proved
conclusive. By the Hungarians, however, Goluchowski was hated; he was
suspected of having inspired the emperor's opposition to the use of
Magyar in the Hungarian army, and was made responsible for the slight
offered to the Magyar deputation by Francis Joseph in September 1905. So
long as he remained in office there was no hope of arriving at a
settlement of a matter which threatened the disruption of the Dual
monarchy, and on the 11th of October 1906 he was forced to resign.
GOMAL, or GUMAL, the name of a river of Afghanistan, and of a mountain
pass on the Dera Ismail Khan border of the North-West Frontier Province
of British India. The Gomal river, one of the most important rivers in
Afghanistan, rises in the unexplored regions to the south-east of
Ghazni. Its chief tributary is the Zhob. Within the limits of British
territory the Gomal forms the boundary between the North-West Frontier
Province and Baluchistan, and more or less between the Pathan and Baluch
races. The Gomal pass is the most important pass on the Indian frontier
between the Khyber and the Bolan. It connects Dera Ismail Khan with the
Gomal valley in Afghanistan, and has formed for centuries the outlet for
the povindah trade. Until the year 1889 this pass was almost unknown to
the Anglo-Indian official; but in that year the government of India
decided that, in order to maintain the safety of the railway as well as
to perfect communication between Quetta and the Punjab, the Zhob valley
should, like the Bori valley, be brought under British protection and
control, and the Gomal pass should be opened. After the Waziristan
expedition of 1894 Wana was occupied by British troops in order to
dominate the Gomal and Waziristan; but on the formation of the
North-West Frontier Province in 1901 it was decided to replace these
troops by the South Waziristan militia, who now secure the safety of the
pass.
GOMARUS, FRANZ (1563-1641), Dutch theologian, was born at Bruges on the
30th of January 1563. His parents, having embraced the principles of the
Reformation, emigrated to the Palatinate in 1578, in order to enjoy
freedom to profess their new faith, and they sent their son to be
educated at Strassburg under Johann Sturm (1507-1589). He remained there
three years, and then went in 1580 to Neustadt, whither the professors
of Heidelberg had been driven by the elector-palatine because they were
not Lutherans. Here his teachers in theology were Zacharius Ursinus
(1534-1583), Hieronymus Zanchius (1560-1590), and Daniel Tossanus
(1541-1602). Crossing to England towards the end of 1582, he attended
the lectures of John Rainolds (1549-1607) at Oxford, and those of
William Whitaker (1548-1595) at Cambridge. He graduated at Cambridge in
1584, and then went to Heidelberg, where the faculty had been by this
time re-established. He was pastor of a Reformed Dutch church in
Frankfort from 1587 till 1593, when the congregation was dispersed by
persecution. In 1594 he was appointed professor of theology at Leiden,
and before going thither received from the university of Heidelberg the
degree of doctor. He taught quietly at Leiden till 1603, when Jakobus
Arminius came to be one of his colleagues in the theological faculty,
and began to teach Pelagian doctrines and to create a new party in the
university. Gomarus immediately set himself earnestly to oppose these
views in his classes at college, and was supported by Johann B.
Bogermann (1570-1637), who afterwards became professor of theology at
Franeker. Arminius "sought to make election dependent upon faith, whilst
they sought to enforce absolute predestination as the rule of faith,
according to which the whole Scriptures are to be interpreted" (J. A.
Dorner, _History of Protestant Theology_, i. p. 417). Gomarus then
became the leader of the opponents of Arminius, who from that
circumstance came to be known as Gomarists. He engaged twice in personal
disputation with Arminius in the assembly of the estates of Holland in
1608, and was one of five Gomarists who met five Arminians or
Remonstrants in the same assembly of 1609. On the death of Arminius
shortly after this time, Konrad Vorstius (1569-1622), who sympathized
with his views, was appointed to succeed him, in spite of the keen
opposition of Gomarus and his friends; and Gomarus took his defeat so
ill that he resigned his post, and went to Middleburg in 1611, where he
became preacher at the Reformed church, and taught theology and Hebrew
in the newly founded _Illustre Schule_. From this place he was called in
1614 to a chair of theology at Saumur, where he remained four years, and
then accepted a call as professor of theology and Hebrew to Groningen,
where he stayed till his death on the 11th of January 1641. He took a
leading part in the synod of Dort, assembled in 1618 to judge of the
doctrines of Arminius. He was a man of ability, enthusiasm and learning,
a considerable Oriental scholar, and also a keen controversialist. He
took part in revising the Dutch translation of the Old Testament in
1633, and after his death a book by him, called the _Lyra Davidis_, was
published, which sought to explain the principles of Hebrew metre, and
which created some controversy at the time, having been opposed by Louis
Cappel. His works were collected and published in one volume folio, in
Amsterdam in 1645. He was succeeded at Groningen in 1643 by his pupil
Samuel Maresius (1599-1673).
GOMBERVILLE, MARIN LE ROY, SIEUR DU PARC ET DE (1600-1674), French
novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Paris in 1600. At
fourteen years of age he wrote a volume of verse, at twenty a _Discours
sur l'histoire_ and at twenty-two a pastoral, _La Carithee_, which is
really a novel. The persons in it, though still disguised as shepherds
and shepherdesses, represent real persons for whose identification the
author himself provides a key. This was followed by a more ambitious
attempt, _Polexandre_ (5 vols. 1632-1637). The hero wanders through the
world in search of the island home of the princess Alcidiane. It
contains much history and geography; the travels of Polexandre extending
to such unexpected places as Benin, the Canary Islands, Mexico and the
Antilles, and incidentally we learn all that was then known of Mexican
history. _Cytheree_ (4 vols.) appeared in 1630-1642, and in 1651 the
_Jeune Alcidiane_, intended to undo any harm the earlier novels may have
done, for Gomberville became a Jansenist and spent the last twenty-five
years of his life in pious retirement. He was one of the earliest and
most energetic members of the Academy. He died in Paris on the 14th of
June 1674.
GOMER, the biblical name of a race appearing in the table of nations
(Gen. x. 2), as the "eldest son" of Japheth and the "father" of
Ashkenaz, Riphath and Togarmah; and in Ezek. xxxviii. 6 as a companion
of "the house of Togarmah in the uttermost parts of the north," and an
ally of Gog; both Gomer and Togarmah being credited with "hordes,"[1]
E.V., i.e. "bands" or "armies." The "sons" of Gomer are probably tribes
of north-east Asia Minor and Armenia, and Gomer is identified with the
Cimmerians. These are referred to in cuneiform inscriptions under the
Assyrian name _gimmira_ (_gimirrai_) as raiding Asia Minor from the
north and north-east of the Black Sea, and overrunning Lydia in the 7th
century B.C. (see CIMMERII, SCYTHIA, LYDIA). They do not seem to have
made any permanent settlements, unless some such are indicated by the
fact that the Armenians called Cappadocia _Gamir_. It is, however,
suggested that this name is borrowed from the Old Testament.[2]
The name Gomer (Gomer bath Diblaim) was also borne by the unfaithful
wife of Hosea, whom he pardoned and took back (Hosea i. 3). Hosea uses
these incidents as symbolic of the sin, punishment and redemption of
Israel, but there is no need to regard Gomer as a purely imaginary
person. (W. H. Be.)