[1] From an enactment of James VI. (then James I. of England),
bearing date 1618, we find that a considerable importation of golf
balls at that time took place from Holland, and as thereby "na small
quantitie of gold and silver is transported zierly out of his Hienes'
kingdome of Scoteland" (see letter of His Majesty from Salisbury, the
5th of August 1618), he issues a royal prohibition, at once as a wise
economy of the national moneys, and a protection to native industry
in the article. From this it might almost seem that the game was at
that date still known and practised in Holland.
[2] _Records of the City of Edinburgh_.
[3] _Inventories of Mary Queen of Scots_, preface, p. lxx. (1863).
[4] Anonymous author of MS. in the Harleian Library.
[5] See _History of Leith_, by A. Campbell (1827).
[6] _Local Records of Northumberland_, by John Sykes (Newcastle,
1833).
[7] Robertson's _Historical Notices of Leith_.
GOLIAD, an unincorporated village and the county-seat of Goliad county,
Texas, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the San Antonio river, 85 m. S.E. of
San Antonio. Pop. (1900) about 1700. It is served by the Galveston,
Harrisburg & San Antonio railway (Southern Pacific System). Situated in
the midst of a rich farming and stock-raising country, Goliad has flour
mills, cotton gins and cotton-seed oil mills. Here are the interesting
ruins of the old Spanish mission of La Bahia, which was removed to this
point from the Guadaloupe river in 1747. During the struggle between
Mexico and Spain the Mexican leader Bernardo Gutierrez (1778-1814) was
besieged here. The name Goliad, probably an anagram of the name of the
Mexican patriot Hidalgo (1753-1811), was first used about 1829. On the
outbreak of the Texan War of Liberation Goliad was garrisoned by a small
force of Mexicans, who surrendered to the Texans in October 1835, and on
the 20th of December a preliminary "declaration of independence" was
published here, antedating by several months the official Declaration
issued at Old Washington, Texas, on the 2nd of March 1836. In 1836, when
Santa Anna began his advance against the Texan posts, Goliad was
occupied by a force of about 350 Americans under Colonel James W. Fannin
(c. 1800-1836), who was overtaken on the Coletta Creek while attempting
to carry out orders to withdraw from Goliad and to unite with General
Houston; he surrendered after a sharp fight (March 19-20) in which he
inflicted a heavy loss on the Mexicans, and was marched back with his
force to Goliad, where on the morning of the 27th of March they were
shot down by Santa Anna's orders. Goliad was nearly destroyed by a
tornado on the 19th of May 1903.
GOLIARD, a name applied to those wandering students (_vagantes_) and
clerks in England, France and Germany, during the 12th and 13th
centuries, who were better known for their rioting, gambling and
intemperance than for their scholarship. The derivation of the word is
uncertain. It may come from the Lat. _gula_, gluttony (Wright), but was
connected by them with a mythical "Bishop Golias," also called
"_archipoeta_" and "_primas_"--especially in Germany--in whose name
their satirical poems were mostly written. Many scholars have accepted
Budinger's suggestion (_Uber einige Reste der Vagantenpoesie in
Osterreich_, Vienna, 1854) that the title of Golias goes back to the
letter of St Bernard to Innocent II., in which he referred to Abelard as
Goliath, thus connecting the goliards with the keen-witted student
adherents of that great medieval critic. Giesebrecht and others,
however, support the derivation of goliard from _gailliard_, a gay
fellow, leaving "Golias" as the imaginary "patron" of their fraternity.
Spiegel has ingeniously disentangled something of a biography of an
_archipoeta_ who flourished mainly in Burgundy and at Salzburg from 1160
to beyond the middle of the 13th century; but the proof of the reality
of this individual is not convincing. It is doubtful, too, if the
jocular references to the rules of the "gild" of goliards should be
taken too seriously, though their aping of the "orders" of the church,
especially their contrasting them with the mendicants, was too bold for
church synods. Their satires were almost uniformly directed against the
church, attacking even the pope. In 1227 the council of Treves forbade
priests to permit the goliards to take part in chanting the service. In
1229 they played a conspicuous part in the disturbances at the
university of Paris, in connexion with the intrigues of the papal
legate. During the century which followed they formed a subject for the
deliberations of several church councils, notably in 1289 when it was
ordered that "no clerks shall be jongleurs, goliards or buffoons," and
in 1300 (at Cologne) when they were forbidden to preach or engage in the
indulgence traffic. This legislation was only effective when the
"privileges of clergy" were withdrawn from the goliards. Those
historians who regard the middle ages as completely dominated by ascetic
ideals, regard the goliard movement as a protest against the spirit of
the time. But it is rather indicative of the wide diversity in
temperament among those who crowded to the universities in the 13th
century, and who found in the privileges of the clerk some advantage and
attraction in the student life. The goliard poems are as truly
"medieval" as the monastic life which they despised; they merely voice
another section of humanity. Yet their criticism was most keenly
pointed, and marks a distinct step in the criticism of abuses in the
church.
Along with these satires went many poems in praise of wine and riotous
living. A remarkable collection of them, now at Munich, from the
monastery at Benedictbeuren in Bavaria, was published by Schmeller (3rd
ed., 1895) under the title _Carmina Burana_. Many of these, which form
the main part of song-books of German students to-day, have been
delicately translated by John Addington Symonds in a small volume,
_Wine, Women and Song_ (1884). As Symonds has said, they form a prelude
to the Renaissance. The poems of "Bishop Golias" were later attributed
to Walter Mapes, and have been published by Thomas Wright in _The Latin
Poems commonly attributed to Walter Mapes_ (London, 1841).
The word "goliard" itself outlived these turbulent bands which had given
it birth, and passed over into French and English literature of the 14th
century in the general meaning of jongleur or minstrel, quite apart from
any clerical association. It is thus used in _Piers Plowman_, where,
however, the _goliard_ still rhymes in Latin, and in Chaucer.
See, besides the works quoted above, M. Haezner, _Goliardendichtung
und die Satire im 13ten Jahrhundert in England_ (Leipzig, 1905);
Spiegel, _Die Vaganten und ihr "Orden"_ (Spires, 1892); Hubatsch, _Die
lateinischen Vagantenlieder des Mittelalters_ (Gorlitz, 1870); and the
article in _La grande Encyclopedie_. All of these have bibliographical
apparatus. (J. T. S.*)
GOLIATH, the name of the giant by slaying whom David achieved renown (1
Sam. xvii.). The Philistines had come up to make war against Saul and,
as the rival camps lay opposite each other, this warrior came forth day
by day to challenge to single combat. Only David ventured to respond,
and armed with a sling and pebbles he overcame Goliath. The Philistines,
seeing their champion killed, lost heart and were easily put to flight.
The giant's arms were placed in the sanctuary, and it was his famous
sword which David took with him in his flight from Saul (1 Sam. xxi.
1-9). From another passage we learn that Goliath of Gath, "the shaft of
whose spear was like a weaver's beam," was slain by a certain Elhanan of
Bethlehem in one of David's conflicts with the Philistines (2 Sam. xxi.
18-22)--the parallel 1 Chron. xx. 5, avoids the contradiction by reading
the "brother of Goliath." But this old popular story has probably
preserved the more original tradition, and if Elhanan is the son of Dodo
in the list of David's mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 9, 24), the resemblance
between the two names may have led to the transference. The narratives
of David's early life point to some exploit by means of which he gained
the favour of Saul, Jonathan and Israel, but the absence of all
reference to his achievement in the subsequent chapters (1 Sam. xxi. 11,
xxix. 5) is evidence of the relatively late origin of a tradition which
in course of time became one of the best-known incidents in David's life
(Ps. cxliv., LXX. title, the apocryphal Ps. cli., Ecclus. xlvii. 4).
See DAVID; SAMUEL (BOOKS) and especially Cheyne, _Aids and Devout
Study of Criticism_, pp. 80 sqq., 125 sqq. In the old Egyptian romance
of _Sinuhit_ (ascribed to about 2000 B.C.), the story of the slaying
of the Bedouin hero has several points of resemblance with that of
David and Goliath. See L. B. Paton, _Hist. of Syr. and Pal._, p. 60;
A. Jeremias, _Das A. T. im Lichte d. alten Orients_, 2nd ed. pp. 299,
491; A. R. S. Kennedy, _Century Bible: Samuel_, p. 122, argues that
David's Philistine adversary was originally nameless, in 1 Sam. xvii.
he is named only in v. 4.
GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH (1654-1714), Russian statesman, came of a
princely family, claiming descent from Prince Gedimin of Lithuania.
Earlier members of the family were Mikhail (d. c. 1552), a famous
soldier, and his great-grandson Vasily Vasilevich (d. 1619), who was
sent as ambassador to Poland to offer the Russian crown to Prince
Ladislaus. Boris became court chamberlain in 1676. He was the young tsar
Peter's chief supporter when, in 1689, Peter resisted the usurpations of
his elder sister Sophia, and the head of the loyal council which
assembled at the Troitsa monastery during the crisis of the struggle.
Golitsuin it was who suggested taking refuge in that strong fortress and
won over the boyars of the opposite party. In 1690 he was created a
boyar and shared with Lev Naruishkin, Peter's uncle, the conduct of home
affairs. After the death of the tsaritsa Natalia, Peter's mother, in
1694, his influence increased still further. He accompanied Peter to the
White Sea (1694-1695); took part in the Azov campaign (1695); and was
one of the triumvirate who ruled Russia during Peter's first foreign
tour (1697-1698). The Astrakhan rebellion (1706), which affected all the
districts under his government, shook Peter's confidence in him, and
seriously impaired his position. In 1707 he was superseded in the Volgan
provinces by Andrei Matvyeev. A year before his death he entered a
monastery. Golitsuin was a typical representative of Russian society of
the end of the 17th century in its transition from barbarism to
civilization. In many respects he was far in advance of his age. He was
highly educated, spoke Latin with graceful fluency, frequented the
society of scholars and had his children carefully educated according to
the best European models. Yet this eminent, this superior personage was
an habitual drunkard, an uncouth savage who intruded upon the
hospitality of wealthy foreigners, and was not ashamed to seize upon any
dish he took a fancy to, and send it home to his wife. It was his
reckless drunkenness which ultimately ruined him in the estimation of
Peter the Great, despite his previous inestimable services.
See S. Solovev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.), vol. xiv. (Moscow, 1858);
R. N. Bain, _The First Romanovs_ (London, 1905). (R. N. B.)
GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH (1665-1737), Russian statesman, was sent
in 1697 to Italy to learn "military affairs"; in 1704 he was appointed
to the command of an auxiliary corps in Poland against Charles XII.;
from 1711 to 1718 he was governor of Byelogorod. In 1718 he was
appointed president of the newly erected _Kammer Kollegium_ and a
senator. In May 1723 he was implicated in the disgrace of the
vice-chancellor Shafirov and was deprived of all his offices and
dignities, which he only recovered through the mediation of the empress
Catherine I. After the death of Peter the Great, Golitsuin became the
recognized head of the old Conservative party which had never forgiven
Peter for putting away Eudoxia and marrying the plebeian Martha
Skavronskaya. But the reformers, as represented by Alexander Menshikov
and Peter Tolstoi, prevailed; and Golitsuin remained in the background
till the fall of Menshikov, 1727. During the last years of Peter II.
(1728-1730), Golitsuin was the most prominent statesman in Russia and
his high aristocratic theories had full play. On the death of Peter II.
he conceived the idea of limiting the autocracy by subordinating it to
the authority of the supreme privy council, of which he was president.
He drew up a form of constitution which Anne of Courland, the newly
elected Russian empress, was forced to sign at Mittau before being
permitted to proceed to St Petersburg. Anne lost no time in repudiating
this constitution, and never forgave its authors. Golitsuin was left in
peace, however, and lived for the most part in retirement, till 1736,
when he was arrested on suspicion of being concerned in the conspiracy
of his son-in-law Prince Constantine Cantimir. This, however, was a mere
pretext, it was for his anti-monarchical sentiments that he was really
prosecuted. A court, largely composed of his antagonists, condemned him
to death, but the empress reduced the sentence to lifelong imprisonment
in Schlusselburg and confiscation of all his estates. He died in his
prison on the 14th of April 1737, after three months of confinement.
See R. N. Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897).
(R. N. B.)
GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH (1643-1714), Russian statesman, spent his
early days at the court of Tsar Alexius where he gradually rose to the
rank of boyar. In 1676 he was sent to the Ukraine to keep in order the
Crimean Tatars and took part in the Chigirin campaign. Personal
experience of the inconveniences and dangers of the prevailing system of
preferment, the so-called _myestnichestvo_, or rank priority, which had
paralysed the Russian armies for centuries, induced him to propose its
abolition, which was accomplished by Tsar Theodore III. (1678). The May
revolution of 1682 placed Golitsuin at the head of the _Posolsky
Prikaz_, or ministry of foreign affairs, and during the regency of
Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, whose lover he became, he was the
principal minister of state (1682-1689) and "keeper of the great seal,"
a title bestowed upon only two Russians before him, Athonasy
Orduin-Nashchokin and Artamon Matvyeev. In home affairs his influence
was insignificant, but his foreign policy was distinguished by the peace
with Poland in 1683, whereby Russia at last recovered Kiev. By the terms
of the same treaty, he acceded to the grand league against the Porte,
but his two expeditions against the Crimea (1687 and 1689), "the First
Crimean War," were unsuccessful and made him extremely unpopular. Only
with the utmost difficulty could Sophia get the young tsar Peter to
decorate the defeated commander-in-chief as if he had returned a victor.
In the civil war between Sophia and Peter (August-September 1689),
Golitsuin half-heartedly supported his mistress and shared her ruin. His
life was spared owing to the supplications of his cousin Boris, but he
was deprived of his boyardom, his estates were confiscated and he was
banished successively to Kargopol, Mezen and Kologora, where he died on
the 21st of April 1714. Golitsuin was unusually well educated. He
understood German and Greek as well as his mother-tongue, and could
express himself fluently in Latin. He was a great friend of foreigners,
who generally alluded to him as "the great Golitsuin."
His brother MIKHAIL (1674-1730) was a celebrated soldier, who is best
known for his governorship of Finland (1714-1721), where his admirable
qualities earned the remembrance of the people whom he had conquered.
And Mikhail's son Alexander (1718-1783) was a diplomat and soldier, who
rose to be field-marshal and governor of St Petersburg.
See R. N. Bain, _The First Romanovs_ (London, 1905); A. Bruckner,
_Furst Golizin_ (Leipzig, 1887); S. Solovev, _History of Russia_
(Rus.), vols. xiii.-xiv. (Moscow, 1858, &c.). (R. N. B.)
GOLIUS or (GOHL), JACOBUS (1596-1667), Dutch Orientalist, was born at
the Hague in 1596, and studied at the university of Leiden, where in
Arabic and other Eastern languages he was the most distinguished pupil
of Erpenius. In 1622 he accompanied the Dutch embassy to Morocco, and on
his return he was chosen to succeed Erpenius (1624). In the following
year he set out on a Syrian and Arabian tour from which he did not
return until 1629. The remainder of his life was spent at Leiden where
he held the chair of mathematics as well as that of Arabic. He died on
the 28th of September 1667.
His most important work is the _Lexicon Arabico-Latinum_, fol.,
Leiden, 1653, which, based on the _Sihah_ of Al-Jauhari, was only
superseded by the corresponding work of Freytag. Among his earlier
publications may be mentioned editions of various Arabic texts
(_Proverbia quaedam Alis, imperatoris Muslemici, et Carmen
Tograipoetae doctissimi, necnon dissertatio quaedam Aben Synae_, 1629;
and _Ahmedis Arabsiadae vitae et rerum gestarum Timuri, qui vulgo
Tamer, lanes dicitur, historia_, 1636). In 1656 he published a new
edition, with considerable additions, of the _Grammatica Arabica_ of
Erpenius. After his death, there was found among his papers a
_Dictionarium Persico-Latinum_ which was published, with additions, by
Edmund Castell in his _Lexicon heptaglotton_ (1669). Golius also
edited, translated and annotated the astronomical treatise of Alfragan
(_Muhammedis, filii Ketiri Ferganensis, qui vulgo Alfraganus dicitur,
elementa astronomica Arabice et Latine_, 1669).
GOLLNOW, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, on
the right bank of the Ihna, 14 m. N.N.E. of Stettin, with which it has
communication by rail and steamer. Pop. (1905) 8539. It possesses two
Evangelical churches, a synagogue and some small manufactures. Gollnow
was founded in 1190, and was raised to the rank of a town in 1268. It
was for a time a Hanse town, and came into the possession of Prussia in
1720, having belonged to Sweden since 1648.
GOLOSH, or GALOSH (from the Fr. _galoche_, Low Lat. _calopedes_, a
wooden shoe or clog; an adaptation of the Gr. [Greek: kalopodion], a
diminutive formed of [Greek: kalon], wood, and [Greek: pous], foot),
originally a wooden shoe or patten, or merely a wooden sole fastened to
the foot by a strap or cord. In the middle ages "galosh" was a general
term for a boot or shoe, particularly one with a wooden sole. In modern
usage, it is an outer shoe worn in bad weather to protect the inner one,
and keep the feet dry. Goloshes are now almost universally made of
rubber, and in the United States they are known as "rubbers" simply, the
word golosh being rarely if ever used. In the bootmakers' trade, a
"golosh" is the piece of leather, of a make stronger than, or different
from that of the "uppers," which runs around the bottom part of a boot
or shoe, just above the sole.
GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH, COUNT (d. 1706), Russian statesman, learnt,
like so many of his countrymen in later times, the business of a ruler
in the Far East. During the regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the
Great, he was sent to the Amur to defend the new Muscovite fortress of
Albazin against the Chinese. In 1689 he concluded with the Celestial
empire the treaty of Nerchinsk, by which the line of the Amur, as far as
its tributary the Gorbitsa, was retroceded to China because of the
impossibility of seriously defending it. In Peter's grand embassy to the
West in 1697 Golovin occupied the second place immediately after Lefort.
It was his chief duty to hire foreign sailors and obtain everything
necessary for the construction and complete equipment of a fleet. On
Lefort's death, in March 1699, he succeeded him as admiral-general. The
same year he was created the first Russian count, and was also the first
to be decorated with the newly-instituted Russian order of St Andrew.
The conduct of foreign affairs was at the same time entrusted to him,
and from 1699 to his death he was "the premier minister of the tsar."
Golovin's first achievement as foreign minister was to supplement the
treaty of Carlowitz, by which peace with Turkey had only been secured
for three years, by concluding with the Porte a new treaty at
Constantinople (June 13, 1700), by which the term of the peace was
extended to thirty years and, besides other concessions, the Azov
district and a strip of territory extending thence to Kuban were ceded
to Russia. He also controlled, with consummate ability, the operations
of the brand-new Russian diplomatists at the various foreign courts. His
superiority over all his Muscovite contemporaries was due to the fact
that he was already a statesman, in the modern sense, while they were
still learning the elements of statesmanship. His death was an
irreparable loss to the tsar, who wrote upon the despatch announcing it,
the words "Peter filled with grief."