[1] This name appears in a great variety of forms--Kwi, Ekwi, Okwi,
Oji, Odschi, Otsui, Tyi, Twi, Tschi, Chwee or Chee.
[2] Blue Book on _Africa_ (_Western Coast_) (1865), p. 233.
GOLDEN, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, Colorado,
U.S.A., on Clear Creek (formerly called the Vasquez fork of the South
Platte), about 14 m. W. by N. of Denver. Pop. (1900) 2152; (1910) 2477.
Golden is a residential suburb of Denver, served by the Colorado &
Southern, the Denver & Intermountain (electric), and the Denver &
North-Western Electric railways. It is about 5700 ft. above sea-level.
About 600 ft. above the city is Castle Rock, with an amusement park, and
W. of Golden is Lookout Mountain, a natural park of 3400 acres. About 1
m. S. of the city is a state industrial school for boys, and in Golden
is the Colorado State School of Mines (opened 1874), which offers
courses in mining engineering and metallurgical engineering. The
Independent Pyritic Smelter is at Golden, and among the city's
manufactures are pottery, firebrick and tile, made from clays found near
by, and flour. There are deposits of coal, copper and gold in the
vicinity. Truck-farming and the growing of fruit are important
industries in the neighbourhood. The first settlement here was a gold
mining camp, established in 1859, and named in honour of Tom Golden, one
of the pioneer prospectors. The village was laid out in 1860, and Golden
was incorporated as a town in 1865 and was chartered as a city in 1870.
Golden was made the capital of Colorado Territory in 1862, and several
sessions (or parts of sessions) of the Assembly were held here between
1864 and 1868, when the seat of government was formally established at
Denver; the territorial offices of Colorado, however, were at Golden
only in 1866-1867.
GOLDEN BULL (Lat. _Bulla Aurea_), the general designation of any charter
decorated with a golden seal or _bulla_, either owing to the intrinsic
importance of its contents, or to the rank and dignity of the bestower
or the recipient. The custom of thus giving distinction to certain
documents is said to be of Byzantine origin, though if this be the case
it is somewhat strange that the word employed as an equivalent for
golden bull in Byzantine Greek should be the hybrid [Greek:
chrysoboullon] (cf. Codinus Curopalates, [Greek: ho megas logothetes
diatattei ta para tou basileos apostellomena prostagmata kai
chrysoboulla pros te Hregas, Soultanas, kai toparchous]; and Anna
Comnena, Alexiad, lib. iii. [Greek: dia Xpusobouliou logou]; lib. viii.,
[Greek: chrysoboulon logon]). In Germany a Golden Bull is mentioned
under the reign of Henry I. the Fowler in Chronica Cassin. ii. 31, and
the oldest German example, if it be genuine, dates from 983. At first
the golden seal was formed after the type of a solid coin, but at a
later date, while the golden surface presented to the eye was greatly
increased, the seal was really composed of two thin metal plates filled
in with wax. The number of golden bulls issued by the imperial chancery
must have been very large; the city of Frankfort, for example, preserves
no fewer than eight.
The name, however, has become practically restricted to a few documents
of unusual political importance, the golden bull of the Empire, the
golden bull of Brabant, the golden bull of Hungary and the golden bull
of Milan--and of these the first is undoubtedly _the_ Golden Bull _par
excellence_. The main object of the Golden Bull was to provide a set of
rules for the election of the German kings, or kings of the Romans, as
they are called in this document. Since the informal establishment of
the electoral college about a century before (see ELECTORS), various
disputes had taken place about the right of certain princes to vote at
the elections, these and other difficulties having arisen owing to the
absence of any authoritative ruling. The spiritual electors, it is true,
had exercised their votes without challenge, but far different was the
case of the temporal electors. The families ruling in Saxony and in
Bavaria had been divided into two main branches and, as the German
states had not yet accepted the principles of primogeniture, it was
uncertain which member of the divided family should vote. Thus, both the
prince ruling in Saxe-Lauenburg and the prince ruling in Saxe-Wittenberg
claimed the vote, and the two branches of the family of Wittelsbach, one
settled in Bavaria and the other in the Rhenish palatinate, were
similarly at variance, while the duke of Bavaria also claimed the vote
at the expense of the king of Bohemia. Moreover, there had been several
disputed and double elections to the German crown during the past
century. In more than one instance a prince, chosen by a minority of the
electors, had claimed to exercise the functions of king, and as often
civil war had been the result. Under these circumstances the emperor
Charles IV. determined by an authoritative pronouncement to make such
proceedings impossible in the future, and at the same time to add to his
own power and prestige, especially in his capacity as king of Bohemia.
Having arranged various disputes in Germany, and having in April 1355
secured his coronation in Rome, Charles gave instructions for the bull
to be drawn up. It is uncertain who is responsible for its actual
composition. The honour has been assigned to Bartolo of Sassoferrato,
professor of law at Pisa and Perugia, to the imperial secretary, Rudolph
of Friedberg, and even to the emperor himself, but there is no valid
authority for giving it to any one of the three in preference to the
others. In its first form the bull was promulgated at the diet of
Nuremberg on the 10th of January 1356, but it was not accepted by the
princes until some modifications had been introduced, and in its final
form it was issued at the diet of Metz on the 25th of December
following.
The text of the Golden Bull consists of a prologue and of thirty-one
chapters. Some lines of verse invoking the aid of Almighty God are
followed by a rhetorical statement of the evils which arise from discord
and division, illustrations being taken from Adam, who was divided from
obedience and thus fell, and from Helen of Troy who was divided from her
husband. The early chapters are mainly concerned with details of the
elaborate ceremonies which are to be observed on the occasion of an
election. The number of electors is fixed at seven, the duke of
Saxe-Wittenberg, not the duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, receiving the Saxon
vote, and the count palatine, not the duke of Bavaria, obtaining the
vote of the Wittelsbachs. The electors were arranged in order of
precedence thus: the archbishops of Mainz, of Trier and of Cologne, the
king of Bohemia, _qui inter electores laicos ex regiae dignitatis
fastigio jure et merito obtinet primatiam_, the count palatine of the
Rhine, the duke of Saxony and the margrave of Brandenburg. The three
archbishops were respectively arch-chancellors of the three principal
divisions of the Empire, Germany, Arles and Italy, and the four secular
electors each held an office in the imperial household, the functions of
which they were expected to discharge on great occasions. The king of
Bohemia was the arch-cupbearer, the count palatine was the arch-steward
(_dapifer_), the duke of Saxony was arch-marshal, and the margrave of
Brandenburg was arch-chamberlain. The work of summoning the electors and
of presiding over their deliberations fell to the archbishop of Mainz,
but if he failed to discharge this duty the electors were to assemble
without summons within three months of the death of a king. Elections
were to be held at Frankfort; they were to be decided by a majority of
votes, and the subsequent coronation at Aix-la-Chapelle was to be
performed by the archbishop of Cologne. During a vacancy in the Empire
the work of administering the greater part of Germany was entrusted to
the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony being responsible,
however, for the government of Saxony, or rather for the districts _ubi
Saxonica jura servantur_.
The chief result of the bull was to add greatly to the power of the
electors; for, to quote Bryce (_Holy Roman Empire_), it "confessed and
legalized the independence of the electors and the powerlessness of the
crown." To these princes were given sovereign rights in their dominions,
which were declared indivisible and were to pass according to the rule
of primogeniture. Except in extreme cases, there was to be no appeal
from the sentences of their tribunals, and they were confirmed in the
right of coining money, of taking tolls, and in other privileges, while
conspirators against their lives were to suffer the penalties of
treason. One clause gave special rights and immunities to the king of
Bohemia, who, it must be remembered, at this time was Charles himself,
and others enjoined the observance of the public peace. Provision was
made for an annual meeting of the electors, to be held at Metz four
weeks after Easter, when matters _pro bono et salute communi_ were to be
discussed. This arrangement, however, was not carried out, although the
electors met occasionally. Another clause forbade the cities to receive
_Pfahlburger_, i.e. forbade them to take men dwelling outside their
walls under their protection. It may be noted that there is no admission
whatever that the election of a king needs confirmation from the pope.
The Golden Bull was thus a great victory for the electors, but it
weakened the position of the German king and was a distinct humiliation
for the other princes and for the cities. The status of those rulers who
did not obtain the electoral privilege was lowered by this very fact,
and the regulations about the _Pfahlburger_, together with the
prohibition of new leagues and associations, struck a severe blow at the
cities. The German kings were elected according to the conditions laid
down in the bull until the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. At first
the document was known simply as the Lex Carolina; but gradually the
name of the Book with the Golden Bull came into use, and the present
elliptical title was sufficiently established by 1417 to be officially
employed in a charter by King Sigismund. The original autograph was
committed to the care of the elector of Mainz, and it was preserved in
the archives at Mainz till 1789. Official transcripts were probably
furnished to each of the seven electors at the time of the promulgation,
and before long many of the other members of the Empire secured copies
for themselves. The transcript which belonged to the elector of Trier is
preserved in the state archives at Stuttgart, that of the elector of
Cologne in the court library at Darmstadt, and that of the king of
Bohemia in the imperial archives at Vienna. Berlin, Munich and Dresden
also boast the possession of an electoral transcript; and the town of
Kitzingen has a contemporary copy in its municipal archives. There
appears, however, to be good reason to doubt the genuineness of most of
these so-called original transcripts. But perhaps the best known example
is that of Frankfort-on-Main, which was procured from the imperial
chancery in 1366, and is adorned with a golden seal like the original.
Not only was it regularly quoted as the indubitable authority in regard
to the election of the emperors in Frankfort itself, but it was from
time to time officially consulted by members of the Empire.
The manuscript consists of 43 leaves of parchment of medium quality,
each measuring about 10-1/8 in. in height by 7-1/8 in breadth. The
seal is of the plate and wax type. On the obverse appears a figure of
the emperor seated on his throne, with the sceptre in his right hand
and the globe in his left; a shield, with the crowned imperial eagle,
occupies the space on the one side of the throne, and a corresponding
shield, with the crowned Bohemian lion with two tails, occupies the
space on the other side; and round the margin runs the legend,
_Karolus quartus divina favente clementia, Romanorum imperator semper
Augustus et Boemiae rex_. On the reverse is a castle, with the words
_Aurea Roma_ on the gate, and the circumscription reads, _Roma caput
mundi regit orbis frena rotundi_. The original Latin text of the bull
was printed at Nuremberg by Friedrich Creussner in 1474, and a second
edition by Anthonius Koburger (d. 1532) appeared at the same place in
1477. Since that time it has been frequently reprinted from various
manuscripts and collections. M. Goldast gave the Palatine text,
compared with those of Bohemia and Frankfort, in his _Collectio
constitutionum et legum imperialium_ (Frankfort, 1613). Another is to
be found in _De comitiis imperii_ of O. Panvinius, and a third, of
unknown history, is prefixed to the _Codex recessuum Imperii_ (Mainz,
1599, and again 1615). The Frankfort text appeared in 1742 as _Aurea
Bulla secundum exemplar originale Frankfurtense_, edited by W. C.
Multz, and the text is also found in J. J. Schmauss, Corpus juris
publici, edited by R. von Hommel (Leipzig, 1794), and in the
_Ausgewahlte Urkunden zur Erlauterung der Verfassungsgeschichte
Deutschlands im Mittelalter_, edited by W. Altmann and E. Bernheim
(Berlin, 1891, and again 1895). German translations, none of which,
however, had any official authority, were published at Nuremberg about
1474, at Venice in 1476, and at Strassburg in 1485. Among the earlier
commentators on the document are H. Canisius and J. Limnaeus who wrote
_In Auream Bullam_ (Strassburg, 1662). The student will find a good
account of the older literature on the subject in C. G. Biener's
_Commentarii de origine et progressu legum juriumque Germaniae_
(1787-1795). See also J. D. von Olenschlager, _Neue Erlauterungen der
Guldenen Bulle_ (Frankfort and Leipzig, 1766); H. G. von Thulemeyer,
_De Bulla Aurea, Argentea_, &c. (Heidelberg, 1682); J. St Putter,
_Historische Entwickelung der heutigen Staatsverfassung des teutschen
Reichs_ (Gottingen, 1786-1787), and O. Stobbe, _Geschichte der
deutschen Rechtsquellen_ (Brunswick, 1860-1864). Among the more modern
works may be mentioned: E. Nerger, _Die Goldne Bulle nach ihrem
Ursprung_ (Gottingen, 1877), O. Hahn, _Ursprung und Bedeutung der
Goldnen Bulle_ (Breslau, 1903); and M. G. Schmidt, _Die
staatsrechtliche Anwendung der Goldnen Bulle_ (Halle, 1894). There is
a valuable contribution to the subject in the _Quellensammlung zur
Geschichte der deutschen Reichsverfassung_, edited by K. Zeumer
(Leipzig, 1904), and another by O. Harnack in his _Das Kurfursten
Kollegium bis zur Mitte des 14ten Jahrhunderts_ (Giessen, 1883). There
is an English translation of the bull in E. F. Henderson's _Select
Historical Documents of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1903).
(A. W. H.*)
GOLDEN-EYE, a name indiscriminately given in many parts of Britain to
two very distinct species of ducks, from the rich yellow colour of their
irides. The commonest of them--the _Anas fuligula_ of Linnaeus and
_Fuligula cristata_ of most modern ornithologists--is, however, usually
called by English writers the tufted duck, while "golden-eye" is
reserved in books for the _A. clangula_ and _A. glaucion_ of Linnaeus,
who did not know that the birds he so named were but examples of the
same species, differing only in age or sex; and to this day many fowlers
perpetuate a like mistake, deeming the "Morillon," which is the female
or young male, distinct from the "Golden-eye" or "Rattle-wings" (as from
its noisy flight they oftener call it), which is the adult male. This
species belongs to the group known as diving ducks, and is the type of
the very well-marked genus _Clangula_ of later systematists, which,
among other differences, has the posterior end of the sternum prolonged
so as to extend considerably over, and, we may not unreasonably suppose,
protect the belly--a character possessed in a still greater degree by
the mergansers (_Merginae_), while the males also exhibit in the
extraordinarily developed bony labyrinth of their trachea and its midway
enlargement another resemblance to the members of the same subfamily.
The golden-eye, _C. glaucion_ of modern writers, has its home in the
northern parts of both hemispheres, whence in winter it migrates
southward; but as it is one of the ducks that constantly resorts to
hollow trees for the purpose of breeding it hardly transcends the limit
of the Arctic forests on either continent. So well known is this habit
to the people of the northern districts of Scandinavia, that they very
commonly devise artificial nest-boxes for its accommodation and their
own profit. Hollow logs of wood are prepared, the top and bottom closed,
and a hole cut in the side. These are affixed to the trunks of living
trees in suitable places, at a convenient distance from the ground, and,
being readily occupied by the birds in the breeding season, are
regularly robbed, first of the numerous eggs, and finally of the down
they contain, by those who have set them up.
The adult male golden-eye is a very beautiful bird, mostly black above,
but with the head, which is slightly crested, reflecting rich green
lights, a large oval white patch under each eye and elongated white
scapulars; the lower parts are wholly white and the feet bright orange,
except the webs, which are dusky. In the female and young male, dark
brown replaces the black, the cheek-spots are indistinct and the
elongated white scapulars wanting. The golden-eye of North America has
been by some authors deemed to differ, and has been named _C.
americana_, but apparently on insufficient grounds. North America,
however, has, in common with Iceland, a very distinct species, _C.
islandica_, often called Barrow's duck, which is but a rare straggler to
the continent of Europe, and never, so far as known, to Britain. In
Iceland and Greenland it is the only habitual representative of the
genus, and it occurs from thence to the Rocky Mountains. In
breeding-habits it differs from the commoner species, not placing its
eggs in tree-holes; but how far this difference is voluntary may be
doubted, for in the countries it frequents trees are wanting. It is a
larger and stouter bird, and in the male the white cheek-patches take a
more crescentic form, while the head is glossed with purple rather than
green, and the white scapulars are not elongated. The New World also
possesses a third and still more beautiful species of the genus in _C.
albeola_, known in books as the buffel-headed duck, and to American
fowlers as the "spirit-duck" and "butter-ball"--the former name being
applied from its rapidity in diving, and the latter from its exceeding
fatness in autumn. This is of small size, but the lustre of the feathers
in the male is most brilliant, exhibiting a deep plum-coloured gloss on
the head. It breeds in trees, and is supposed to have occurred more than
once in Britain. (A. N.)
GOLDEN FLEECE, in Greek mythology, the fleece of the ram on which
Phrixus and Helle escaped, for which see ARGONAUTS. For the modern
order of the Golden Fleece, see KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY, section _Orders
of Knighthood_.
GOLDEN HORDE, the name of a body of Tatars who in the middle of the 13th
century overran a great portion of eastern Europe and founded in Russia
the Tatar empire of khanate known as the Empire of the Golden Horde or
Western Kipchaks. They invaded Europe about 1237 under the leadership of
Batu Khan, a younger son of Juji, eldest son of Jenghiz Khan, passed
over Russia with slaughter and destruction, and penetrated into Silesia,
Poland and Hungary, finally defeating Henry II., duke of Silesia, at
Liegnitz in the battle known as the Wahlstatt on the 9th of April 1241.
So costly was this victory, however, that Batu, finding he could not
reduce Neustadt, retraced his steps and established himself in his
magnificent tent (whence the name "golden") on the Volga. The new
settlement was known as _Sir Orda_ ("Golden Camp," whence "Golden
_Horde_"). Very rapidly the powers of Batu extended over the Russian
princes, and so long as the khanate remained in the direct descent from
Batu nothing occurred to check the growth of the empire. The names of
Batu's successors are Sartak (1256), Bereke (Baraka) (1256-1266),
Mangu-Timur (1266-1280), Tuda Mangu (1280-1287). (?) Tula Bugha
(1287-1290), Toktu (1290-1312), Uzbeg (1312-1340), Tin-Beg (1340),
Jani-Beg (1340-1357). The death of Jani-Beg, however, threw the empire
into confusion. Birdi-Beg (Berdi-Beg) only reigned for two years, after
which two rulers, calling themselves sons of Jani-Beg occupied the
throne during one year. From that time (1359) till 1378 no single ruler
held the whole empire under control, various members of the other
branches of the old house of Juji assuming the title. At last in 1378
Toktamish, of the Eastern Kipchaks, succeeded in ousting all rivals, and
establishing himself as ruler of eastern and western Kipchak. For a
short time the glory of the Golden Horde was renewed, until it was
finally crushed by Timur in 1395.
See further MONGOLS and RUSSIA; Sir Henry Howorth's _History of the
Mongols_; S. Lane-Poole's _Mohammadan Dynasties_ (1894), pp. 222-231;
for the relations of the various descendants of Jenghiz, see Stockvis,
_Manuel d'histoire_, vol. i. chap. ix. table 7.
GOLDEN ROD, in botany, the popular name for _Solidago virgaurea_
(natural order Compositae), a native of Britain and widely distributed
in the north temperate region. It is an old-fashioned border-plant
flowering from July to September, with an erect, sparingly-branched stem
and small bright-yellow clustered heads of flowers. It grows well in
common soil and is readily propagated by division in the spring or
autumn.
GOLDEN ROSE (_rosa aurea_), an ornament made of wrought gold and set
with gems, generally sapphires, which is blessed by the pope on the
fourth (_Laetare_) Sunday of Lent, and usually afterwards sent as a mark
of special favour to some distinguished individual, to a church, or a
civil community. Formerly it was a single rose of wrought gold, coloured
red, but the form finally adopted is a thorny branch with leaves and
flowers, the petals of which are decked with gems, surmounted by one
principal rose. The origin of the custom is obscure. From very early
times popes have given away a rose on the fourth Sunday of Lent, whence
the name Dominica Rosa, sometimes given to this feast. The practice of
blessing and sending some such symbol (e.g. _eulogiae_) goes back to the
earliest Christian antiquity, but the use of the rose itself does not
seem to go farther back than the 11th century. According to some
authorities it was used by Leo IX. (1049-1054), but in any case Pope
Urban II. sent one to Fulk of Anjou during the preparations for the
first crusade. Pope Urban V., who sent a golden rose to Joanna of Naples
in 1366, is alleged to have been the first to determine that one should
be consecrated annually. Beginning with the 16th century there went
regularly with the rose a letter relating the reasons why it was sent,
and reciting the merits and virtues of the receiver. When the change was
made from the form of the simple rose to the branch is uncertain. The
rose sent by Innocent IV. in 1244 to Count Raymond Berengar IV. of
Provence was a simple flower without any accessory ornamentation, while
the one given by Benedict XI. in 1303 or 1304 to the church of St
Stephen at Perugia consisted of a branch garnished with five open and
two closed roses enriched with a sapphire, the whole having a value of
seventy ducats. The value of the gift varied according to the character
or rank of the recipient. John XXII. gave away some weighing 12 oz., and
worth from L250 to L325. Among the recipients of this honour have been
Henry VI. of England, 1446; James III. of Scotland, on whom the rose
(made by Jacopo Magnolio) was conferred by Innocent VIII., James IV. of
Scotland; Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, who received a rose
from Leo X. in 1518; Henry VIII. of England, who received three, the
last from Clement VII. in 1524 (each had nine branches, and rested on
different forms of feet, one on oxen, the second on acorns, and the
third on lions); Queen Mary, who received one in 1555 from Julius III.;
the republic of Lucca, so favoured by Pius IV., in 1564; the Lateran
Basilica by Pius V. three years later; the sanctuary of Loreto by
Gregory XIII. in 1584; Maria Theresa, queen of France, who received it
from Clement IX. in 1668; Mary Casimir, queen of Poland, from Innocent
XI. in 1684 in recognition of the deliverance of Vienna by her husband,
John Sobieski; Benedict XIII. (1726) presented one to the cathedral of
Capua, and in 1833 it was sent by Gregory XVI. to the church of St
Mark's, Venice. In more recent times it was sent to Napoleon III. of
France, the empress Eugenie, and the queens Isabella II., Christina
(1886) and Victoria (1906) of Spain. The gift of the golden rose used
almost invariably to accompany the coronation of the king of the Romans.
If in any particular year no one is considered worthy of the rose, it is
laid up in the Vatican.
Some of the most famous Italian goldsmiths have been employed in making
the earlier roses; and such intrinsically valuable objects have, in
common with other priceless historical examples of the goldsmiths' art,
found their way to the melting-pot. It is, therefore, not surprising
that the number of existing historic specimens is very small. These
include one of the 14th century in the Cluny Museum, Paris, believed to
have been sent by Clement V. to the prince-bishop of Basel; another
conferred in 1458 on his native city of Siena by Pope Pius II.; and the
rose bestowed upon Siena by Alexander VII., a son of that city, which is
depicted in a procession in a fresco in the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena.
The surviving roses of more recent date include that presented by
Benedict XIII. to Capua cathedral; the rose conferred on the empress
Caroline by Pius VII., 1819, at Vienna; one of 1833 (Gregory XVI.) at St
Mark's, Venice; and Pope Leo XIII.'s rose sent to Queen Christina of
Spain, which is at Madrid.
AUTHORITIES.--Angelo Rocca, _Aurea Rosa_, &c. (1719); Busenelli, _De
Rosa Aurea. Epistola_ (1759); Girbal, _La Rosa de oro_ (Madrid, 1820);
C. Joret, _La Rose d'or dans l'antiquite et au moyen age_ (Paris,
1892), pp. 432-435; Eugene Muntz in _Revue d'art chretien_ (1901),
series v. vol. 12 pp. 1-11; De F. Mely, _Le Tresor de Chartres_
(1886); Marquis de Mac Swiney Mashanaglass, _Le Portugal et le Saint
Siege: Les Roses d'or envoyees par les Papes aux rois de Portugal au
XVI^e siecle_ (1904); Sir C. Young, _Ornaments and Gift consecrated by
the Roman Pontiffs: the Golden Rose, the Cap and Swords presented to
Sovereigns of England and Scotland_ (1864). (J. T. S.*; E. A. J.)
GOLDEN RULE, the term applied in all European languages to the rule of
conduct laid down in the New Testament (Matthew vii. 12 and Luke vi.
31). "whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to
them, for this is the law and the prophets." This principle has often
been stated as the fundamental precept of social morality. It is
sometimes put negatively or passively, "do not that to another which
thou wouldst not have done to thyself" (cf. Hobbes, _Leviathan_, xv. 79,
xvii. 85), but it should be observed that in this form it implies merely
abstention from evil doing. In either form the precept in ordinary
application is part of a hedonistic system of ethics, the criterion of
action being strictly utilitarian in character.
See H. Sidgwick, _History of Ethics_ (5th ed., 1902), p. 167; James
Seth, _Ethical Principles_, p. 97 foll.
GOLDFIELD, a town and the county-seat of Esmeralda county, Nevada,
U.S.A., about 170 m. S.E. of Carson City. Pop. (1910, U.S. census) 4838.
It is served by the Tonopah & Groldfield, Las Vegas & Tonopah, and
Tonopah & Tidewater railways. The town lies in the midst of a desert
abounding in high-grade gold ores, and is essentially a mining camp. The
discovery of gold at Tonopah, about 28 m. N. of Goldfield, in 1900 was
followed by its discovery at Goldfield in 1902 and 1903; in 1904 the
Goldfield district produced about 800 tons of ore, which yielded
$2,300,000 worth of gold, or 30% of that of the State. This remarkable
production caused Goldfield to grow rapidly, and it soon became the
largest town in the state. In addition to the mines, there are large
reduction works. In 1907 Goldfield became the county-seat. The gold
output in 1907 was $8,408,396; in 1908, $4,880,251. Soon after mining on
an extensive scale began, the miners organized themselves as a local
branch of the Western Federation of Miners, and in this branch were
included many labourers in Goldfield other than miners. Between this
branch and the mine-owners there arose a series of more or less serious
differences, and there were several set strikes--in December 1906 and
January 1907, for higher wages; in March and April 1907, because the
mine-owners refused to discharge carpenters who were members of the
American Federation of Labour, but did not belong to the Western
Federation of Miners or to the Industrial Workers of the World
affiliated with it, this last organization being, as a result of the
strike, forced out of Goldfield; in August and September 1907, because a
rule was introduced at some of the mines requiring miners to change
their clothing before entering and after leaving the mines,--a rule made
necessary, according to the operators, by the wholesale stealing (in
miners' parlance, "high-grading") of the very valuable ore (some of it
valued at as high as $20 a pound); and in November and December 1907,
because some of the mine-owners, avowedly on account of the hard times,
adopted a system of paying in cashier's checks. Excepting occasional
attacks upon non-union workmen, or upon persons supposed not to be in
sympathy with the miners' union, there had been no serious disturbance
in Goldfield; but in December 1907, Governor Sparks, at the instance of
the mine-owners, appealed to President Roosevelt to send Federal troops
to Goldfield, on the ground that the situation there was ominous, that
destruction of life and property seemed probable, and that the state had
no militia and would be powerless to maintain order. President Roosevelt
thereupon (December 4th) ordered General Frederick Funston, commanding
the Division of California, at San Francisco, to proceed with 300
Federal troops to Goldfield. The troops arrived in Goldfield on the 6th
of December, and immediately afterwards the mine-owners reduced wages
and announced that no members of the Western Federation of Miners would
thereafter be employed in the mines. President Roosevelt, becoming
convinced that conditions had not warranted Governor Sparks's appeal for
Federal assistance, but that the immediate withdrawal of the troops
might nevertheless lead to serious disorders, consented that they should
remain for a short time on condition that the state should immediately
organize an adequate militia or police force. Accordingly, a special
meeting of the legislature was immediately called, a state police force
was organized, and on the 7th of March 1908 the troops were withdrawn.
Thereafter work was gradually resumed in the mines, the contest having
been won by the mine-owners.
GOLDFINCH (Ger. _Goldfink_[1]), the _Fringilla carduelis_ of Linnaeus
and the _Carduelis elegans_ of later authors, an extremely well-known
bird found over the greater parts of Europe and North Africa, and
eastwards to Persia and Turkestan. Its gay plumage is matched by its
sprightly nature; and together they make it one of the most favourite
cage-birds among all classes. As a songster it is indeed surpassed by
many other species, but its docility and ready attachment to its master
or mistress make up for any defect in its vocal powers. In some parts of
England the trade in goldfinches is very considerable. In 1860 Mr Hussey
reported (_Zool._, p. 7144) the average annual captures near Worthing to
exceed 11,000 dozens--nearly all being cock-birds; and a witness before
a committee of the House of Commons in 1873 stated that, when a boy, he
could take forty dozens in a morning near Brighton. In these districts
and others the number has become much reduced, owing doubtless in part
to the fatal practice of catching the birds just before or during the
breeding-season; but perhaps the strongest cause of their growing
scarcity is the constant breaking-up of waste lands, and the extirpation
of weeds (particularly of the order _Compositae_) essential to the
improved system of agriculture; for in many parts of Scotland, East
Lothian for instance, where goldfinches were once as plentiful as
sparrows, they are now only rare stragglers, and yet there they have not
been thinned by netting. Though goldfinches may occasionally be observed
in the coldest weather, incomparably the largest number leave Britain in
autumn, returning in spring, and resorting to gardens and orchards to
breed, when the lively song of the cock, and the bright yellow wings of
both sexes, quickly attract notice. The nest is a beautifully neat
structure, often placed at no great height from the ground, but
generally so well hidden by the leafy bough on which it is built as not
to be easily found, until, the young being hatched, the constant visits
of the parents reveal its site. When the broods leave the nest they move
into the more open country, and frequenting pastures, commons, heaths
and downs, assemble in large flocks towards the end of summer. Eastward
of the range of the present species its place is taken by its congener
_C. caniceps_, which is easily recognized by wanting the black hood and
white ear-coverts of the British bird. Its home seems to be in Central
Asia, but it moves southward in winter, being common at that season in
Cashmere, and is not unfrequently brought for sale to Calcutta. The
position of the genus _Carduelis_ in the family _Fringillidae_ is not
very clear. Structurally it would seem to have some relation to the
siskins (_Chrysomitris_), though the members of the two groups have very
different habits, and perhaps its nearest kinship lies with the
hawfinches (_Coccothraustes_). See FINCH. (A. N.)