CONCLUSION.
TROODITISSA MONASTERY, CYPRUS.
It is the 22nd August, and the manuscript of "Cyprus as I saw it in
1879" has already been forwarded to England. In another month we shall
be en route for the Euphrates via Alexandretta, and through Bagdad to
India by the Persian Gulf. I shall therefore be placed at the serious
disadvantage of an exclusion from the proofs, which may require
alterations and corrections; this will I trust excuse me should any
repetitions be apparent that would otherwise have been detected before
publication. There is little to add to the description I have given that
would be of public interest, therefore the few additional details are
consigned to a short Appendix.
The seclusion of the monastery has been an agreeable interval that has
formed a moral harbour from the uncertain seas of busy life, and we
shall leave the quiet spot and the good old monks with some regret. A
great change has been effected since our arrival in early May. The heaps
of filth have given place to extreme cleanliness; the monks wash their
hands and faces; even the monastery yard is swept. No atom of impurity
is allowed to deface the walk from the cold spring to the great
walnut-tree. My little garden has flourished and produced largely; the
melons were of excellent flavour; the tomatoes and other vegetables were
good, including a species of esculent amaranthus which is a substitute
for spinach. I employed a man and his son to open the path for 2.75
miles, from the monastery to the military route to Troodos, which much
improved the communication, and somewhat relieved our solitude by
increasing the visits of our friends. If any stranger should now arrive
from England at Trooditissa he would appreciate the calm and cool asylum
contrasting with the heat of the lower country; but should he arrive
even one short month after our departure, I fear the picture will have
changed. Throngs of mules will have defiled our clean courtyard, and
will be stabled within our shady retreat beneath the walnut-tree, which
will remain unswept. The filthy habits of the people, now restrained
only by strong remonstrance, will be too apparent. The old monks,
Neophitos and Woomonos, (who are dear old people when clean) will cease
to wash, and the place and people will certainly relapse into the
primeval state of dirt and holiness in which we first discovered it.
We leave in friendship with all, and during our sojourn at Trooditissa
of more than three months, no quarrels, or even trifling disagreements,
have occurred between the servants or the people. The temporary storm
occasioned by the abrupt departure of Christina was quickly lulled by
the arrival of the middle-aged-maid of all work of seventy-five, who
has performed all her arduous duties with admirable patience. Our own
servants have been most satisfactory since their first engagement upon
our arrival in Cyprus in January last; Georgi the "prodigal son," has
been of much service as interpreter, and is an honest and willing young
man, but there is a peculiarity in his physical constitution exhibited
in the mutual want of attachment between his person and his buttons.
These small but necessary friends continually desert him; and his shoes
appear to walk a few inches faster than his feet, leaving him in a
chronic state of down-at-heel. Collars will not assimilate with his
neck; whether they are tied with strings, or fastened with buttons, the
result is the same, and Georgi's exterior when all or three parts of his
buttons have deserted him, exhibits a looseness which I am glad to say
by no means applies to his character. The cook Christo is an excellent
fellow, always willing to please, and good in his profession; added to
which, he assumes a demeanour of importance which is irresistible, and
makes all paths smooth. My Abyssinian, Amarn, is always the same quiet,
steady character, who performs his daily work with the calm regularity
of the stream that turns a mill-wheel, and can always be depended on. It
is a pleasure to me that our party does not dissolve upon leaving
Cyprus, but the servants accompany us on the Asiatic shore.
In conclusion, I must acknowledge with due thanks the valuable
assistance that I have received in statistical information afforded by
the kindness of the High Commissioner, His Excellency General Biddulph,
R. A, C. B., and the various chief commissioners of districts, including
Lieutenant-Colonel White, First Royal Scots, of Lefkosia;
Lieutenant-Colonel Warren, R. A., of Limasol (now promoted to Chief of
the Staff); Claude Delaval Cobham, Esq., M. A., of Larnaca; Captain
Inglis, of Famagousta; and Captain A. Wauchope, 42nd Highlanders, of
Baffo.
In taking leave of Cyprus I must express my share in the general regret
at the departure of Sir Garnet and Lady Wolseley, from whom we received
much kindness. His successor, General Biddulph, R. A., is well known as
a most able and painstaking officer, who is admirably suited for the
responsible position he now occupies, but all will remember with due
appreciation the vigorous administration of Sir Garnet Wolseley, who was
selected for the command of Cyprus in the difficult period of the first
British occupation.
THE END.
APPENDIX.
METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER THROUGHOUT JOURNEYS IN CYPRUS.
FROM 1ST FEBRUARY TO 21ST AUGUST, 1879.
It will be remarked that August at Trooditissa is considerably lower in
temperature than July.
The following data, from 1st to 17th August, kindly supplied me by
Lieut.-Colonel White, Chief Commissioner of Lefkosia, will exhibit the
difference between that station, 442 feet above the sea level, and
Trooditissa Monastery, 4,340 feet.
The following official estimate of revenue and expenditure must be
accepted as only approximate. As the taxes are at present collected by
dimes, or tenths, the amount must depend upon the agricultural
prosperity of the island, which is liable to considerable fluctuations,
and during the present year of semi-famine will result in a serious
diminution. There will probably be a sensible decrease in the Customs
receipts, as the import of European goods has been checked by the
collapse of many European traders who had arrived in Cyprus at the first
announcement of the British occupation, and discovered that their goods
were unsuited to the requirements of the extremely poor and frugal
population. The greater portion of the English traders have already
retired from the island; the Greek merchants who have been long
established are satisfied with small profits, and their expenses are
upon a proportionate scale, which renders British competition quite
impossible. The Cypriotes decline to purchase from the English stores,
as they are ignorant of the language, and the goods are ill-adapted to
their wants. The first rush of commercial activity due to the political
movement in 1878 has subsided, and the trade will be represented chiefly
by the agricultural exports from the island until some more favourable
conditions of our occupation may induce a new impulse, and capitalists
may venture upon investments in Cyprus.
The mines of umber near Larnaca have been let, and it is by no means
improbable that an extension may in a few years be apparent in
enterprises of this description. Copper mines near Khrysokhus are being
opened, but the preliminary operations can afford no clue to the value
of the result. The umber is shipped exclusively to Holland for the
manufacture of paint, and the produce of Cyprus is considered to be the
finest quality. Although asbestos is reported to exist of a remarkably
long fibre and soft texture, I have never met with it except in the
coarse form which is common in many portions of the island, especially
on the Troodos range, where the base of this stone is a shining greenish
substance of a horny texture, which gradually terminates in bristles of
asbestos. I have also seen it in thin veins of metamorphic rocks,
glittering like silver, and when scratched with a knife, it resolves
into a downy condition like scraped cotton. All these mineral resources
require a special and minute investigation.
ESTIMATES OF REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE IN CYPRUS FOR 1878-79.
Memorandum on the Revenue and Charges of the Island of Cyprus for the
Five Years from 1873-4 to 1877-8, under Turkish Administration, with an
Estimate for the Year 1878-9, including the Charges of British
Administration of the Island.
In submitting the enclosed statement of the accounts of Cyprus for the
past five years, with the estimate of revenue and expenditure for the
current official year, 1878-79, I propose to describe briefly the
character and operation of the several taxes of the island in the past,
and the considerations that have guided me in framing the estimate for
the present year.
Dimes, or Tithes on Produce of the Land.
This is the Government share of the produce of the land, and constitutes
by far the largest item in the revenue of the island. In the, year 1874
the tithe was raised to an eighth part, or 12 1/2 per cent on the
produce, but that was abandoned in 1876, and the tithe is all that has
been since levied with the sanction of the Turkish Government.
The unit of the Turkish revenue system is the village; then the nahie,
or group of villages; then the caza (canton); then the sandjak
(arrondissement); and, lastly, the vilayet, or province, under a
Governor-General, Director of Finance, and Council of Administration.
Throughout these several stages-from the village to the nahie, caza,
sandjak, and chief place of the vilayet-there are excellent rules for
the check and disposition of the revenues, but they are not observed.
Indeed, in the judicial, as in the revenue and financial administration
of the island, the organisation of establishments and rules of procedure
are commendable in every way, but the rules are unknown to, or ignored
by, the officials employed to administer them.
The tithes are farmed by the Turkish Government to merchants and
speculators in the spring of each year, when the ripening crops enable
all concerned to estimate the extent and quality of the year's produce.
The sale of the tithes (by villages, nahies, or cazas, as may be
preferred) commences in March and ends on the 15th June, and whatever
tithes then remain unsold the Government undertakes to recover through
its own agents.
When the sales are effected the tithe-farmer signs a bond for the
amount, payable in six monthly instalments, commencing from the 1st
August, with interest on instalments not paid at due date. Each
tithe-farmer is required to have a sufficient surety, who also signs the
bond and is jointly and equally responsible with the principal. After
conclusion of the agreement, the tithe-farmer proceeds at once to watch
the fields in which he is interested and to estimate the yield. He sees
the grain cut, threshed, heaped, and insists upon its remaining upon the
threshing-floor until his claim is satisfied-the claim always exceeding
the stipulated tenth. For wheat, barley, and other grains, arrangements
have to be made by the cultivators for transit to the nearest port of
embarkation, on terms more or less unfavourable to themselves. Their
cattle are taken away for transport when most required in their own
fields, and they have to bear all the expenses of transit, except the
expense of the first mile, which is paid by the tithe-farmers. For
fruit, vegetables, and other perishable articles, the tithe is commuted
in a money payment, respecting which there are usually disputes,
determinable by the local Kaimakam or head Government official of each
caza. The awards of these officials are always in favour of the
tithe-farmers, who are members of the Administrative Councils, or
otherwise persons of influence in the cazas comprised in their
respective engagements. Later in the year, or about the 15th August, the
vineyards are similarly visited by the tithe-farmers or their
representatives, and estimates of the produce are made by them and by
the cultivators. These estimates always differ, and are the subject of
constant disputes, which are referred to the Kaimakam, whose award is
generally in favour of the tithe-farmer. As the grape cannot be removed
until the claim is settled, the cultivator submits to the exactions of
the tithe-farmers rather than risk the deterioration or loss of his
stock, and is thus practically mulcted in proportions far exceeding a
tenth of the entire produce. The effect of these illegal exactions has
been to reduce the cultivation of the grape throughout the island.
But, though keen in their dealings with the peasantry, the tithe-
farmers are slow in their own payments to the Government Treasury.
These payments are required, under their bonds, in six monthly
instalments from the 1st August; grace is allowed for forty days, and
the instalments are required to commence on the 10th September. They are
delayed, however, on various pretexts, and reclamations and remissions
of revenue are often unjustly obtained through collusion with the local
Kaimakams and Malmudirs. Thus, the tithe-farmer makes his bargain with
the Government when the crops are ripening, recovers his claim directly
they are gathered, indefinitely postpones his own obligations to the
Government and often evades them altogether. Although, under his bond,
interest is payable on overdue instalments, it is never enforced. An
examination of the accounts revealed the existence of considerable
arrear claims extending over several years, and for the most part
irrecoverable now. Practically, the tithe-farmer's obligations have
never been discharged in the year to which they belonged. Of the
collections credited in the year 1876-77, nearly one-half was on
account of the claims of prior years.
These facts clearly show that the operation of the tithe system has
resulted in a loss of revenue to the State. It has impoverished the
peasant, involving him in the toils of the money-lender as well as of
the tithe-farmer. It has checked the productiveness of the island, the
area now under cultivation being less than a third of all the culturable
lands of Cyprus. Some modification of the tax, or of the machinery for
its collection, would therefore seem to be imperatively required.
There are not wanting points of analogy, as of difference, between
Cyprus and some of the British provinces of India, and a suggestion has
been made to substitute the Indian system of a fixed money payment for
the tenth of the produce in kind. Curiously enough, the converse
proposition has lately found favour in India in connection with the
agrarian riots in the Dekkan, and what is there regarded as the bane of
the Indian system is now proposed here as the antidote of the Turkish
system. Like the Cypriote, but in a greater degree, the Dekkan peasant
is poor, indebted, and indifferent to the improvement of his land, and
both are constantly liable to the effects of drought and famine. But
whilst the State requires from the former only a tenth part of his
actual crops, the Indian peasant is liable for the full money rate fixed
without regard to the rainfall and the crops. As between the State and
the peasant, the elastic tithe tax would seem to be preferable-its evil
working in Cyprus being due mainly to the irresponsible and unscrupulous
agencies entrusted with the collection of the tithes. In attempting any
reform, therefore, care should be taken at the outset to avoid
principles or methods that have contributed in India to evils similar to
those that have to be rectified here. The direction and scope of the
reform must necessarily depend upon more complete information than is at
present available respecting the land tenures and local agricultural
customs of this island, the varieties of soil, the means of irrigation
actual and possible, and the conditions and habits of the agricultural
classes generally.
Information on these essential points may, however, be obtained
before the termination of the present engagements with the tithe-
farmers in March 1879. A rough field survey would prepare the
ground for a systematic inquiry into rights and interests in each
estate and village throughout the several districts of the island.
The inquiry, conducted by the respective commissioners of districts
in the next few months of favourable weather, may be made to
embrace the following points
1. The extent of the several holdings, and whether held under
proprietary, sub-proprietary, or occupancy rights.
2. The average produce of each estate or holding, and its value,
say for the last three or four years.
3. The areas respectively (1) under cultivation, (2) not under
cultivation but culturable, (3) unculturable and barren waste.
4. In the case of culturable lands not under cultivation, inquiry
should be made whether this is the result of the oppressive way of
collecting tithes, or the want of money or cultivators, or whether
the land is required for grazing or other purposes.
5. The character of the soil in various parts of the island, and
the respective producing capabilities.
6. The arrangements, existing and possible, for irrigation by wells,
aqueducts, and tanks.
7. The proportion of the people occupied in agriculture, and
the proportion in other pursuits than husbandry.
8. The personal condition of the agricultural classes, whether well
housed, well clad, with good cattle, ploughs, and gear, or the reverse.
9. The standard for measuring land. The area of each estate
or holding, after measurement, should be reduced to English
standard acres.
The result of these inquiries, accurately and clearly recorded, would
afford valuable data for determining the extent to which the present
tithe arrangement may be modified for the ensuing financial year.
Whatever modification may be adopted in substance, the tax will at least
be collected without injustice or oppression, and the cost of collection
will be covered by the increased revenue which must result from an
improved administration. The proportion of the produce heretofore taken
in Cyprus, as the share of the Sovereign power, is considerably below
that taken in other Eastern countries. In India, this share under the
ancient Hindoo Rajahs was one-sixth. Under the Mohammedan rule, a third
of the average produce of average land was held to be the Government
share. Under British rule, from one-third to one-half of the rental is
the standard of assessment at the present day, representing a much
larger proportion than a tenth of the produce of the land. And in Cyprus
(as has been shown in the preceding remarks), although the declared
share of the State was only one-tenth, the peasantry have contributed a
very much larger proportion, the difference forming the perquisites of
the collectors of the revenue. Hence it may fairly be assumed that the
British administration may take a larger share than one-tenth of the
produce, without imposing any additional burden whatever on the people.
It may rather be hoped that any increased State demand upon the
cultivator will still leave him a larger proportion of the fruit of his
labours than he has heretofore enjoyed, with absolute freedom in
disposing of it to the best advantage.
A further increase of the revenue from land may be anticipated from the
extension of cultivation. With light assessments, improved
communications, and occasional State aid, a large proportion of the
culturable lands, now lying neglected, may be gradually brought under
cultivation, stimulating the industry of the people, and increasing the
productiveness and wealth of the island.
For the current year, however, the existing arrangement with the
tithe-farmers must be accepted, and the revenue estimated accordingly.
The year's tithes were sold for 82,088 Turkish liras, or nearly 74,000
pounds sterling, and the whole amount has yet to be collected. Already,
the tithe-farmers plead inability to recover their dues from the
cultivators. The truth probably is that, whilst the British
administration has somewhat checked their habitual exactions, it has
emboldened the peasantry to resistance which would never have been
attempted under the Turkish rule. Due justice will be done between the
parties, but, in any case, the Government claim of 82,088 liras is
covered by sufficient security, and will be realised for the most part.
During the earlier months of the current year, before the British
occupation, the sum of 1,306,321 piastres was recovered on account of
silk tithes and tithes of prior years. Adding this sum to the unrealised
claims, and leaving a margin for default, the receipts for the year may
be taken at 8,352,000 piastres, or 72,000 pounds sterling. The average
of the previous five years was 8,584,786 piastres, and they included
three years of scarcity. The account rendered by the Ottoman Government
for the past year, 1877-78, exhibits the dimes or tithes at 12,500,595
piastres, but that was the amount of the year's demand, and the actual
realisations amounted only to 5,072,872 piastres. Looking to the
favourable conditions of the present year as compared with the past
year, the estimate of 72,000 pounds sterling may be accepted.
Tithes on Vakouf Lands.
The tenth part of the produce of vakouf lands, fields, and gardens is
appropriated for the maintenance of mosques, monasteries, tombs, and
other religious foundations. The tithes on vakouf lands are paid to the
Mutavelli, or local administrators of the vakoufs, who remit 20 per cent
to the Minister of the Evkaf at Constantinople, and retain the balance.
The Mutavelli are not required to account to any Government functionary
for the revenue of vakouf lands beyond the annual subsidy of 20 per cent
to the Evkaf. It is understood, however, that in many cases the objects
and purposes for which these vakouf lands were assigned have long since
ceased to exist, and thus not only are the pious intentions of the
founders frustrated, but a considerable public revenue is diverted into
private channels. The legal conditions attached to these vakouf lands,
and to the lands and other property in Cyprus claimed for the Ottoman
Crown and State (under Article IV of the Convention between Great
Britain and Turkey) are at present the subject of a special inquiry, and
the result will have an important bearing on the revenue to be hereafter
administered by the British Government. For the present year, the tithes
on vakouf lands have been farmed for 1,676 Turkish liras in the
districts of Famagousta, Kyrenia, Papho, and Limasol. No tithes have
been sold in the other divisions. As the tithes on vakouf lands do not
belong to the general revenues of the island, they are not included in
the estimate now submitted.
Verghis.
This tax is divided into three classes:--
1. Emlak verghisi, or impost on houses or immovable property,
at 4 per thousand on the purchasing value.
2. Impost of 4 per cent on the rent of immovable property, or
houses not occupied by their owners. The rent is assumed at io
per cent of the value.
3. Verghi temetu, or impost on professions and trades, at 3 per
cent on profits and salaries.
Before the beginning of each financial year, the district authorities
prepare statements designating the contributions required from each
village and town, according to the number of houses, the number and
means of the population. The assessment is made roughly, and the tax is
recovered by Moukhtars of villages, selected by the inhabitants and
confirmed by the district authorities. All collections are forwarded, as
recovered, to the Treasury of the sandjak.
All sales and transfers of immovable property, with the title-deeds
thereto appertaining, have to be registered in the Registration Office,
and the means are thus partially afforded for assessing the owners of
property for the 4 per thousand on the value, and the 4 per cent. on the
rental.
But the 3 per cent. on professional profits and salaries is arbitrarily
fixed for each village, or group of villages, and the Moukhtars levy the
personal contributions of each tax-payer as they think fit.
In this process there is considerable oppression of the poorer
taxpayers, and also loss of revenue to the State. Both would be
obviated, or at all events mitigated, by entrusting the assessment to
Government officers, and by a more careful and exact registration of
property, and of profits from trades and professions. The revenue from
the licence tax in towns must largely increase in the future.
As a rule, the district officers endeavour to recover the verghis before
tax-payers are subjected to the exactions of the tithe-farmers for
payment of the dimes and other imposts. In some of the Turkish vilayets,
the Government have gone so far as to forbid the local tribunals from
condemning the tax-payers to pay the claims of third parties until they
have assurance that the verghis have been paid.
The average yield of the verghis tax in the last five years was
3,521,083 piastres, or 30,354 pounds per annum. The account of the last
year of the series (1877-78) showed a revenue of 3,193,850 piastres, or
27,535 pounds. The demand for the current year is 3,380,246 piastres, of
which only 518,545 piastres have been recovered up to the present time.
The slackness of the Turkish revenue officials in collecting this tax is
due partly to the change of administration and uncertainty as to future
taxation of the island, and partly to the war tax and other burdens
imposed upon the people during the past year. The needful measures have
now been adopted for effecting recovery, and as the tax affects property
and the well-to-do classes, it is hoped that about 2,000,000 piastres
will be recovered in the next six months. Adding this sum to the
recoveries already effected, the revenue of the entire year is estimated
at 2,552,000 piastres, or 22,000 pounds.
Tax on Exemption from Military Service.
This superseded the capitation tax formerly levied upon Christian
subjects, and other subjects of the Porte who were not Mohammedans, for
exemption from military service. It is a tax of 27 3/4 piastres for each
male inhabitant from twenty to forty years of age, but practically it is
levied upon males below and above the limits of age. Returns of the
numbers coming under this impost are settled between the heads of
villages and the Moukhtars. The latter are required to recover the money
and pay it in twelve monthly instalments into the chest of the sandjak.
The rate of 27 3/4 piastres is equivalent to 5s. per man per annum.
There is no apparent reason why it should not be paid at once and
credited in the Government Treasury immediately on payment.
This tax is unpopular and offensive to those whom it affects throughout
the Turkish dominions. The Greek, Armenian, Bulgarian subjects of the
Porte have protested against it from time to time, but without effect.
Were these declared eligible for military service on the same terms as
Mohammedan subjects, but with the option of providing substitutes, the
impost would be relieved of its invidious character, and perhaps yield a
larger revenue to the State than heretofore. This, however, equally with
the exoneration tax, would be inappropriate in Cyprus under a British
administration, which does not require any considerable proportion of
the population for military service. It is matter for consideration,
therefore, whether this light tax may be continued in some other form.
The average yield of this tax during the past five years was eqivalent
to 12,270 pounds a year. It increased last year, on account of the war,
to 15,110 pounds. But in the current year the recoveries have been
slack, for the reasons stated above in regard to the verghis, and the
estimate is therefore for 1,044,000 piastres, or 9,000 pounds.
Tax on Sheep.
There is a regular enumeration of the sheep and goats throughout every
village in the island during the month of March, and the tax is evied at
the rate of 2 1/2 piastres, or about 6d. per head. The tax is collected
by the Local Government officials, and with proper arrangements should
all be recovered in the month of April, but there are considerable
arrear claims, extending back to several years.
The average revenue derived from this tax in the last five years was
9,854 pounds per annum. The recoveries already made in the current year
amount to 1,187,364 Piastres, or 10,235 pounds. The estimate for the
entire year is taken at 1,276,000 piastres, or 11,000 pounds, and the
realisation of this sum may be expected.
Miscellaneous Revenue.
Under this head are comprised various small taxes, such as the tax on
sales and transfers of landed property, on contracts, on measurements,
on sale of cattle, on swine, stamps, judicial fees and fines, &c. The
average yield of these taxes in the last five years was 767,005
piastres, with an increasing tendency in the later years. The amount
recovered in the first six months of the current year was 743,775
piastres. The estimate for the entire year may therefore be safely taken
at 1,102,000 piastres, or 9,500 pounds.
Customs.
We now come to the indirect taxes. I hope on a future occasion to
describe, more fully than time will allow at present, the effect of the
existing customs tariff in the past, and the modifications that may be
made under British administration in this important branch of the public
revenue, and in the excise on tobacco and spirits. It is sufficient to
say at present that the customs revenue is derived from a duty of 8 per
cent. upon imports and 1 per cent. upon exports, and that the receipts
of the last five years give an average of 981,405 piastres, or 8,460
pounds. The increased population and trade consequent upon the British
occupation of the island have already had a sensible effect upon the
revenue. The collections in the first four months of the current
official year under Turkish rule amounted to 268, 718 piastres, or 2,316
pounds. In the next two months of British administration they amounted
to 305,386 piastres, or 2,632 pounds, being an increase of over 127 per
cent., and that without any change in the tariff or the customs
regulations. A continuance of this rate may safely be reckoned upon for
the next six months, and the revenue of the entire year is therefore
estimated at 1,554,400 piastres, or 13,400 pounds. This estimate takes
account of the probable early abolition of all export duties.
Excise on Tobacco and Spirits.
The receipts of the last five years give an average annual revenue of
6,475 pounds for tobacco and 4,546 pounds for spirits. The receipts for
the first six months of the current year amount to 4,400 pounds for
tobacco and 3,930 pounds for spirits. The estimate for the entire year
is 8,650 pounds for tobacco and 8,200 pounds for spirits, and it is
expected that the actual realisations will fully cover the estimate.
Revenue from Salt.
A considerable revenue was derived from the Government monopoly of the
salt lakes in the neighbourhood of Larnaca and Limasol. The salt was
sold for local consumption and for exportation to the coast of Syria,
but an injudicious increase to the selling price, with short weights and
increased cost of shipment, diverted the supply of the Syrian demand
from Cyprus to the salt lakes of Tunis, and gradually reduced the
revenue from this source. Owing to the excessive rains of last year, and
the influx of more fresh water into the lakes than could be evaporated
by the sun's rays during the summer, the lakes are at present
unproductive. But in the earlier months of the current year, under
Turkish administration, the sum of 1,756,840 piastres was recovered and
credited in the Treasury on account of previous salt dues, and that
amount is accordingly entered on the estimate with its English
equivalent of 15,145 pounds. No other receipts are expected in the
current year, and the revenue from salt has practically ceased. A
considerable outlay will be required to repair and secure the salt lakes
against the irruption of the drainage of the surrounding country.
The past revenue from salt should be excluded from the computation of
the payment to be made to the Porte from the surplus revenues of Cyprus,
under Article III of the Convention of 4th June, 1878.
To sum up. Having regard to the revenue arrangements concluded before
arrival of the British in Cyprus, to the realisations in the first four
months of the current year under Turkish administration, and to the
altered conditions under which the finance of the remainder of the year
has to be administered, I am of opinion that the revenue may be safely
estimated at 170,000 pounds, as below:--
Pounds
Tithes on land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72,000
Tax on property, professions, and trades . . . . . . . . 22,000
Tax on sheep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,000
Tax for exemption from military service. . . . . . . . . 9,000
Customs duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,400
Excise on tobacco and spirits . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,850
Salt monopoly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,145
Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,605
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170,000
In future years even though the revenue from the salt monopoly be
entirely lost, we may confidently hope for such an expansion of the
revenue from land*, (*footnote: The island of Cyprus is 140 miles bang
from east to West, with an average breadth of 30 miles. This gives an
area of 4,200 square miles, or 2,688,000 acres. Assuming even 1,500,000
acres to be culturable, with an average rental of 2 shillings an acre,
the should have a revenue from this source alone of 150,000 pounds a
year.) from houses, from customs and excise duties, as will ensure a
total income of more than 200,000 pounds a year.
Expenditure of Cyprus.
The estimate of expenditure is based upon the actual cost of the Turkish
and native establishments now maintained, and the cost of the new
agencies created by the change of administration. The account of
expenditure rendered by the Ottoman Government for the past five years
gives an annual average of about 24,000 pounds a year. Deducting from
this rate the pay of officials and subordinate establishments no longer
retained, also pensions and charitable allowances, and the cost for six
months of the old Zaphtieh or police force (the corresponding charge for
the reformed police force being added to the estimated cost of British
establishments), the balance of 1,972,000 piastres, or 17,000 pounds,
may be accepted as a fair estimate of the charges for native
establishments in the island during the current official year. The
charges for British establishments are estimated at 35,000 pounds, and
they include expenses, incidental to the occupation of a new country,
that are not likely to recur. It will be possible, in the future, to
reduce the scale of charges for British and native establishments, as
further experience is gained, and the entire machinery of the executive
administration is brought under effective control.
The estimated expenditure for Native and British establishments may be
broadly divided under the following heads:--
Central Administration-
Including pay of the Turkish Governor for part
of the year, and of the British High
Commissioner, Financial and Judicial
Commissioners, and High Court for remainder
of the year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,400
District Administration--
Including British Commissioners of District,
Native and British Establishments . . . . . . . 13,500
Military Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,500
Customs and Excise Establishment . . . . . . . 5,000
Prisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,000
Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,600
--------
52,000
The expenditure of the current year being estimated at 52,000 Pounds,
and the revenue at 170,000 Pounds, the resulting surplus will be 118,000
pounds. An examination of the accounts of Cyprus, for the five years
preceding the British occupation, enables me to affirm that the average
surplus of revenue over expenditure in that period was less than 100,000
Pounds per annum. The future yearly contribution to the Ottoman
Government from the surplus revenues of Cyprus, under the Convention of
the 4th June, 1878, will not, therefore, exceed, and may fall short of,
the sum of 100,000 Pounds. Nearly one half of this claim for the current
year was taken by the Turks from surplus revenue before our arrival. We
shall easily make up the balance from the revenue now in course of
collection. And, under ordinary conditions, the current revenue will not
only cover the annual payment to the Porte and the expenses of
administration, but also provide a fair outlay for roads and sanitary
improvements.
(Signed)
GEO. W. KELLNER,
Financial Commissioner of Cyprus.
NICOSIA, CYPRUS, September 25, 1878.
ESTIMATE OF REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE FOR THE YEAR
1878-79
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
|No| Revenue | Amount|No| Expenditure |Amount |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
| | | _L_ | | | _L_ |
| 1| Dimes or tithes on pro-| |1 |Pay of the Turkish Go-| |
| | duce of land . . . . | 72,000| |vernor of Cyprus for | |
| | | | |part of the year, and | |
| | | | |of the British High | |
| | | | |Commisioner for | |
| | | | |remainder of the year;| |
| | | | |also Secretarial | |
| | | | |Establishments for the| |
| | | | |entire year. | 9,000|
| | | | | | |
| 2| Verghis, or tax upon | |2 |Finance and Accounts | |
| | property, professions | | |Establishments . . . | 1,400|
| | and trades . . . . . . | 22,000| | | |
| | | | | | |
| 3|Tax for exemption from | | | | |
| |Military Service. . . . | 9,000 |3 |Law and Justice, | |
| | | | |including Insular High| |
| | | | |Court . . . . . . . . | 2,000|
| | | | | | |
| 4|Sheep tax . . . . . . . | 11,000|4 |Administrative Estab- | |
| | | | |lishments of the six | |
| | | | |districts of Cyprus, | |
| | | | |including cost of col-| |
| | | | |lection of district | |
| | | | |revenues, establish- | |
| | | | |ments of district | |
| | | | |Judicial Courts, &c. .| 13,500|
| | | | | | |
| 5|customs Duties . . . . .| 13,400|5 |Cost of Prisons . . . | 3,000|
| | | | | | |
| 6|Excise on Tobacco and | |6 |Cost of Military | |
| |Spirits . . . . . . . . | 16,850| |Police Force . . . . .| 16,500|
| | | | | | |
| 7|Salt Monopoly . . . . . | 15,145|7 |Customs and Excise | |
| | | | |Establishments . . . .| 5,000|
| | | | | | |
| 8|Miscellaneous, including| |8 |Miscellaneous, | |
| |tax on sale and transfer| | |including Educational | |
| |of landed property, on | | |Establishments . . . .| 1,600|
| |measurements, on con- | | | |_______|
| |tracts, judicial fees | | | | |
| |and fines, &c . . . . . | 10,605| | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | Total of Estimated| |
| | | | | Expenditure . . . | 52,000|
| | | | | | |
| | | | | Surplus . . . . . |118,000|
| | Grand total Estimated|_______| | | |
| | Revenue . . . . . . .|170,000| | Grand total . . . |170,000|
|__|________________________|_______|__|______________________|_______|
DETAIL ESTIMATE OF EXPENDITURE FOR BRITISH AND
NATIVE ESTABLISHMENTS IN CYPRUS FOR 1878-79,
British Establishments.
L. s. d.
Cost of the Nicosia Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,844 12 0
Cost of other five divisions of Cyprus, viz.,
Larnaca, Famagousta, Limasol, Papho, and Kyrenia . . . 7,000 0 0
Financial Commissioner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666 0 0
Judicial ditto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 0 0
Judicial Clerk, and contingencies . . . . . . . . . . 200 0 0
Interpreter of High Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 0 0
Director of Customs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 0 0
Customs and Excise Establishments . . . . . . . . . . 5,000 0 0
High Commissioner and office establishments,
travelling expenses, including furniture, 400L. . . . 5,700 0 0
Travelling allowances for High Commissioner . . . . . 300 0 0
Re-organised Police Force for the Island of Cyprus,
including pay, rations, and clothing . . . . . . . . . 11,000 0 0
Temporary translators to be hereafter absorbed in
Civil Establishments and contingencies in
connection therewith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,340 0 0
Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 0 0
------------
35,000 0 0
Native Establishments.
Add. Piastres.
Expenses of Turkish Establishment 2,609,549
Deduct.
Pay of Mutessarif for six months,
60,000 piastres; Zaphtiehs for six
months, 500,000 piastres; Pensioners
and correspondence &c. . . . . . . . . 637,549
-------------
1,972,000 17,000 0 0
Total cost of British and Native Civil Establishments
in Cyprus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52,000 0 0
ESTIMATES OF REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE IN
CYPRUS FOR 1879-80.
ESTIMATE OF REVENUE, 1879-80
Nature of Revenue. Estimate, 1879-80.
Piastres L
Tithes 8,640,000
Verghis 3,400,000
Military exemption 1,080,000
Sheep tax 1,220,000
Miscellaneous 2,000,000
Customs 2,800,000
Excise 2,128,000
---------------------------
Total 21,268,000 == 177,233
ESTIMATE OF EXPENDITURE, 1879-80.
Designation. Annual Cost
L s. d. L s. d.
ESTABLISHMENTS OF THE CENTRAL
ADMINISTRATION.
The High Commissioner, Executive and
Legislative Councils 11,106 17 0
The Department of Finance and Accounts 2,127 0 0
The Department of Law and Justice 4,985 12 0
DISTRICT ESTABLISHMENTS.
The District of Nicosia 4,453 8 0
" Larnaca 4,585 3 0
" Famagousta 3,035 8 0
" Limasol 3,306 4 0
" Papho 2,959 0 0
" Kyrenia 2,131 0 0
Customs and Excise 4,636 18 0
Police 23,241 14 0
Prisons 2,583 17 0
Miscellaneous 1,000 0 0
Expenses of collection of taxes hitherto
sold to tax-farmers 5,000 0 0
--------------
Total of Establishments. 75,152 1 0
Payment under agreement with the Porte (about) 96,000 0 0
Interest on money borrowed for Public Works,
shown in the annexed Schedule, say 1,200 0 0
Expenses of the Survey 1,990 0 0
----------------
Total Expenditure 174,342 1 0
APPENDIX.
SCHEDULES.
ROUGH DETAIL OF THE ROADS TO BE CONSTRUCTED IN THE
FINANCIAL YEAR 1879-80.
£
From Nicosia to cut through the fortifications at the Papho Gate,
making a raised causeway over ditch and a road connecting it
with the Government Office at the High Commissioner's residence,
and with the main road from Nicosia to Larnaca, about
2 1/2 miles 800
From Nicosia to Kyrenia, about 16 miles 1,100*
From Vassilia to Hai Grosch (Kyrenia district), about 22 miles 1,600*
From Larnaca to Limasol, about 40 miles 6,000*
From Limasol to Papho, about 39 miles 5,000&
Chrysokou to Levka, about 32 miles 5,000&
Nicosia to Famagousta, about 35 miles 4,000^
Famagousta to Trichomo, about 15 miles 1,000^
To improve the tracks between Trichomo and Carpas, 35 miles 2,700^
Rebuild culverts on Larnaca-Famagousta road 200^
Improving country roads in Larnaca district 900^
Gap in Mountain road from Larnaca to Messaria, to make it
practicable for carts 100^
-------
Total 28,400
*Not finished for carts. &Not commenced.
^Most of these have not been commenced, August 1879.
ROUGH DETAIL OF NEW BUILDINGS TO BE CONSTRUCTED IN
THE FINANCIAL YEAR 1879-80.
Estimated cost.
£
Rebuild the Konak of Nicosia 3,000
" Konak and prison at Papho. 600
" Mudirate at Chrysokou 70
" Custom-house, Police barracks,
and Konak at Limasol 1,500
The Mudirate of Kilani to be rebuilt at Platraes 500
Repairs to various buildings 330
-----------
Total 6,000
APPENDIX.
ESTIMATE OF REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE FOR THE FINANCIAL YEAR ENDING 31st
MARCH, 1880, FOR THE DISTRICT OF BAFFO.
Kindly supplied by the Chief Commissioner, Captain A. G. Wauchope,
42nd Highlanders.
Revenue
No. 1--Tithes of Kuklia £1,100
" Ballo 2,800
" Khrysokus 3,400
" 2-- " Silk Production 760
" Caroub Production 333
" 3 Sheep tax £1,760
Swine tax 250 2,010
" 4--Weighing and Measuring tax 100
" 5--Court Fees 226
Registration of Property 120
Inland Revenue Stamps 80
" 6--Customs and Excise 1,000
" 7--Verghi 3,747
Askeria (freedom from military service) 708
" 8--Miscellaneous 100
-------
£16,484
-------
EXPENDITURE.
No. 1--British Establishment, including Interpreters £1,330
" Native do. do. 540
" 2--Houses for Commissioner and Assistant do. £90
Stationery 47
Travelling Expenses of all officers 140 277
" 3--Petty repairs £100, Public works £120 220
" 4--Military Police 3,200
Prison £114, Daavi Court £171 285
" 5--Customs and Excise 280
" 6--Tithing Expenses 880
" 7--Expenses of Sheep tax £57, Pig tax £15, Weighing
and Measuring £48 120
" 8--Collecting Locust Eggs 120
--------
7,252
Balance of surplus Revenue 9,232
--------
£16,484
--------
SILK CULTIVATION OF BAFFO.
"This year the peasants brought to the market 34,000 okes of Silk
(93,500 lbs.) cocoons, which realised to them about 6,800L. These
cocoons were bought by three merchants excepting about 2,500 okes of
silk wound by the people here." . . . "You are aware that the cocoon
before being in a fit state to export must be dried, and during the
process a great shrinkage takes place, which varies considerably
according to the original quality of the cocoon. This year the cocoon
was excellent and the shrinkage small; 3 1/2 wet cocoons equalling 1
dry, while last year 5 wet equalled 1 dry.
"It is upon the dried cocoon that the tithe is fixed. When the cocoon is
good and the price likewise, there is very little winding done here."
"It is computed that the Caroub trees in the Baffo district number about
40,000. Of Olive trees I cannot give you anything like a guess; I should
only be misleading you."
(Signed),"A. G. WAUCHOPE."
It will be remarked that no outlay is contemplated for road-making or
repairs of bridges, nor for any of the necessary public works, as the
general revenue of the island cannot afford the local expenditure. This
otherwise prosperous little province would be self-sustaining, as
sufficient income would be realised for the annual outlay required for
road-making and other improvements. There cannot be a truer example of
the error in our Convention with the Porte by which we have agreed to
the surplus revenue exhibited by the Turkish system of accounts in an
average of five years. The Baffo estimates show a surplus of 9232L. upon
the financial year, but there is the forced neglect of all necessary
improvements owing to the terms of our occupation, which rob the country
of about 100,000L. annually. According to the figures of the Baffo
forecast of revenue and expenditure, Cyprus can afford to pay the amount
of rental to the Porte, but this is to the detriment of all public
works, which will render material progress impossible, at the same time
that the incubus of Turkish taxation will be permanent.
JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION.
By an Order in Council on 14 September, 1878, powers were given for the
administration of Cyprus by a High Commissioner appointed by Her
Majesty, together with a Legislative Council constituted according to
Clause VI. :-
"The Legislative Council for the said island shall consist of the High
Commissioner for the time being, and of such other public officers and
persons within the same, not being less than four or more than eight in
number, as shall be named or designated for that purpose by her
Majesty."
In Clause XXI. :-
"The High Commissioner may constitute and appoint all such Judges,
Justices of the Peace, and other necessary officers in the said island
as may lawfully be appointed by her Majesty, all of whom shall hold
their offices during her Majesty's pleasure."
It was agreed with the Porte :-
"I. That a Mussulman religious tribunal (Mehkemei Sheri) shall continue
to exist in the island, which will take exclusive cognizance of
religious matters, and of no others, concerning the Mussulman population
of the island.
"II. That a Mussulman resident in the island shall be named by the Board
of Pious Foundations in Turkey (Evkaf) to superintend, in conjunction
with a delegate to be appointed by the British authorities, the
administration of the property, funds, and lands belonging to mosques,
cemeteries, Mussulman schools, and other religious establishments
existing in Cyprus."
The Turkish law courts were preserved in their original construction
under the supervision of the Commissioners of the six districts:--
Lefkosia, Larnaca, Famagousta, Baffo, Limasol, Kyrenia. These courts are
the Idari and Daavi, the Temiz or supreme court sitting in Lefkosia. The
Idari and Daavi courts exist independently in each district. The Cadi is
judge in the Idari, which is composed of three Mussulmans and two
Christians elected by the population, and this court is specially
presided over by the British Commissioner, and all cases in detail are
translated and entered in the register. The Daavi Medjlis or court
consists of five members--the Cadi, two Mussulmans, and two Christians.
An appeal from the decisions of these courts can be made to the High
Court of Temiz at Lefkosia, the decision of which is final, only subject
to the influence of Clauses XXII. and XXIII. in powers granted to the
High Commissioner by Order in Council of 14 September, 1878 :-
"XXII. The High.Commissioner may, as he shall see occasion, in her
Majesty's name and on her behalf, grant to any offender convicted of any
crime, in any court, or before any Judge, Justice, or Magistrate within
the said island, a free and unconditional pardon, or a pardon subject to
such conditions as may at any time be awfully thereunto annexed, or any
respite of the execution of the sentence of any such offender for such
period as to him may seem fit."
"XXIII. The High Commissioner may, as he shall see occasion, in her
Majesty's name and on her behalf, remit any fines, penalties, or
forfeitures which may accrue or become payable to her, provided the same
do not exceed the sum of fifty pounds sterling in any one case, and may
suspend the payment of any such fine, penalty, or forfeiture exceeding
the sum of fifty pounds until her Majesty's pleasure thereon shall be
made known and signified to him."
MIGRATORY BIRDS.
The birds of passage that visit Cyprus (excepting swallows), exhibit a
peculiarity in their insignificant numbers compared with their
migrations upon the mainlands of Asia, Southern Europe, and Africa. The
bustards that are so common in Turkey and Asia Minor are seldom seen.
The grey crane frequently passes over Cyprus without resting upon its
long flight, and in the month of March its loud cry may be heard so far
in the blue sky that it is difficult to distinguish the flocks of these
large birds at the stupendous height of their airy road towards the
north. Even should the cranes condescend to rest for a short interval
during an unfavourable wind, they leave on the first opportunity. I have
frequently heard them high in air travelling throughout the night--thus
during night and day they have been sailing northwards to make the most
of fair wind and weather.
The sand-grouse is to be seen occasionally on the plains of Messaria,
but never in the quantities that are met with in other neighbouring
countries. Woodcocks are scarce, and those which are shot must have
halted in the island during their passage en route for other shores.
Snipe are very numerous in the marshes of Limasol salt lakes, Morphu,
Famagousta, Kuklia, and Larnaca. Quails are never plentiful, and are
inferior in condition to those of Egypt and Southern Europe. Wild ducks
are to be seen on the lake near Famagousta and at Limasol. The
wood-pigeons, and doves, together with fly-catchers, arrive in April,
but never in large numbers.
Return of Villages, Population, etc., of Famagousta District.
Villages Churches Mosques Turks Christians Total
Naleieh of Famasousta 9* 20 6 685 3,978 4,663
" Carpas 36 46 13 3,470 7,168 10,638
" Messaria 68 66 29 4,861 12,434 17,295
113 132 48 9,016 23,580 32,596
* Includes Famagousta town.
Piastres L s. d.
The taxes for the year 1878 amounted to 1,370,221 = 11,418 10 4
(This being paid in Coime at a very
variable rate, it is scarcely correct
to reduce the amounts to sterling.)
The tithes of this district were farmed
out in 1878 for ... ... ... 25,000 0 0
Revenue therefore was 36,418 10 4
The taxes for the year 1879 amount to... 10,379 90
This does not include indirect taxes such as
Customs, say... 1,000 00
11,379 90
It is impossible to calculate the tithes yet for this year (1879). From
Famagousta the chief exports are corn, from Messaria, donkeys, fruit,
and pottery, the two latter chiefly from Varoshia.
Cyprus: Trooditissa Monastery,
4400 feet above the sea
21 September, 1879.
Messrs. Macmillan & Co.
MY DEAR SIRS,
If I am in time to secure the last efforts of the printer perhaps this
letter in its integrity may convey the information which the autumnal
season has afforded. The difficulty of all writers upon strange
countries lies in their short experience. Each month exhibits the
changes of nature in seasons, meteorological phenomena, and vegetation;
thus the full twelve months should form the data for a detailed
description. I closed my account of Cyprus in August; since which fruits
have ripened and various changes have developed--all have afforded
information.
Taxation in kind, and Government valuation of produce while growing, has
been a crying evil that I have endeavoured to bring before the public as
one of those instances of injustice which stamps the oppressive system
of the Turkish administration; this unfortunately has not yet been
abolished by the British Government. I have already described the
arbitrary and unjust laws that fetter the all-important wine trade,
which is the principal industry of Limasol; but since I forwarded the
manuscript to England I have myself witnessed the miserable effects of
the present laws during the advance of the season in ripening the
produce of the vineyards.
Three weeks ago I walked for some hours through the boundless extent of
grape cultivation at the foot of the mountains below the village of
Phyni; at that time the crop was ripe, and should have been gathered.
The bunches of dark red were equal to the finest hot-house grapes of
England, both in weight and in size of berries; the black were about the
average of the Black Hamburg; the white were smaller and about the size
of the common "sweet-water." A day or two ago I again visited the same
vineyards; the grapes had not been gathered, and I computed that at
least one-third of the crop was destroyed by the delay. The magnificent
bunches of dark red were for the most part shrivelled, one-half the
berries upon each cluster being reduced to the appearance of raisins,
and utterly devoid of juice, while many of the other varieties were
completely withered. The explanation given by the people was simple
enough--"The official valuer had not appeared, and without his
certificate no grapes could be gathered." There are only three valuers
to an extensive district, and it is physically impossible that they can
perform their duties, even were they inclined to attend when summoned to
each village, in the absence of some special inducement. The actual
labour of walking up the abrupt inclines upon the mountain sides which
constitute the vineyards is most formidable, and at least four times the
staff is necessary, of young and capable men, if the valuation of the
crop is to be taken with due consideration to the interests of the
grower. The distressing result that I have myself witnessed in the
partial destruction of the crops can admit of no excuse, but it exhibits
a painful example of mal-administration in the ruin attendant upon a
Turkish system of taxation.
Some persons may suggest that the dried and withered grapes would be
saleable as raisins: this is not the case. Raisins are not merely dried
grapes, as is generally supposed, but the bunch of well-ripened berries
is dipped in a strong solution of potash, and is then either suspended
or is more generally laid upon a mat to dry. In Cyprus the growers
seldom purchase potash, but they dip their grapes in a ley produced from
the ashes of certain woods.
The vineyards at this season are swarming with a species of beccaficos,
and the population are busy in catching these delicious birds with
sticks smeared with bird-lime. It is a species of finch, a little larger
than the chaffinch, the plumage a brownish grey; when plucked the body
is much larger than the common beccaficos, but resembles it in
extraordinary fatness and delicacy of flavour. The natives preserve them
by boiling in commanderia wine, and they are highly appreciated. These
must be added to the migratory birds of Cyprus.
The acorns are nearly ripe, and I am assured by the monks that even
these insignificant productions pay a tax of 6d. per kilo (about 32
lbs.), and the crop is valued accordingly by the special authority.
There are three varieties of large timber oaks in addition to the ilex
and the prickly holly-leaved oak. The acorns of the ilex and holly-
leaved species are small, but those of the three superior species vary
in size, all being much larger than those of England, while one variety
measures nearly three inches in length. This is used as food, with no
other preparation than simple roasting, and is considered to be superior
to chestnuts. The Ancient Britons used the acorn as an article of food,
and probably it was ground into flour after the bitter principle had
been extracted by soaking in running water, in the same manner that many
varieties of wild yams are treated by the natives in Africa. In addition
to the use of the acorn as a substitute for chestnuts by the Cypriotes,
the large species when roasted black makes excellent coffee without any
admixture of the real berry. All the varieties can be used for this
purpose, but that already named is preferred as superior in flavour. The
English poor are not clever in adaptation, and are known to be strong in
prejudices respecting articles of diet, but it appears strange that the
use of the acorn has been entirely neglected as an aid to the bulk of
pure coffee, which would effect a considerable saving in the household,
if the adulteration took place at home.
A few days ago I was conversing with the old monk upon the question of
"Chittim wood," and I suggested my own theory, "that Solomon required
the highly-scented cypress of this island" (for the Temple.) My
venerable informant declared "that a wood exists to this day in Cyprus
which is supposed to be the original species referred to in Scripture;
this is a pine which is only found upon the mountains between Kyku and
Khrysokhus. The grain and surface when planed are exceedingly close and
smooth, and the timber is strong and durable, far exceeding in quality
all other varieties." The native name for this tree is Kandro. I have
sent a monk to gather the cones of this tree, which I shall send to
England for seed, together with a sample of the foliage.
Sincerely yours,
Samuel W. Baker.
Sept. 24, 1879.
P.S. My messenger has just returned with a branch and cones of the tree,
which is only found upon the mountains between Kyku and Khrysokhus.
There is no longer a doubt. It is a beautiful species of Cedar.
S. W. B.