START FOR THE CARPAS.
I determined to leave my two vans in charge of the head-man of Kuklia,
as the drivers declared it would be impossible to proceed into the
roadless Carpas with any wheeled conveyance heavier than the native
two-wheeled cart. They had accordingly entered into a contract to supply
me with vehicles which the man of ability Theodori assured me could
travel to the extreme eastern limit of the island, Cape St. Andrea, "as
he had been there himself, and knew the way." Georgi, who knew nothing
of this portion of the country, believed all that Theodori said, and did
his bidding. Having lightened the loads by leaving all that was not
absolutely necessary safely locked within the vans, we started on 1st
March with camels, in addition to two native carts, taking the route
direct east, across the extensive flat which at this time was dry and
hard. There was nothing of interest in the day's march; the travelling
was easy along the hardened level surface; we had a clear view of the
cathedral and higher forts of Famagousta, and we passed near the ruins
of Salamis, easily distinguishing the solitary pillars that had
supported the ancient aqueduct which led the water from distant Kythrea.
Although everything was thoroughly dried up, it was easy to imagine the
effect of an inundation of the Pedias river, which had formed this delta
of alluvium, precisely as the Nile on a more extensive scale has
produced the Delta of Egypt. There were a few wretched villages upon the
flat, which were necessarily on the poorest scale, as they existed at
the mercy of a sudden inundation. The unhealthiness of this locality
must be extreme during wet weather, as it is only suitable to the
constitutions of frogs and ducks. Upon arrival at higher ground on the
opposite side of the plain I looked back upon the agueish area over
which we had passed, and I had little doubt of the great engineering
necessity that must be the first step to a sanitary reform in this
pestilential neighbourhood.
As the river Pedias is a mere wayward torrent that NEVER flows as a
permanent stream, but only comes down in impulsive rushes from the
mountains during heavy rains, it has no power to cleanse its original
bed, such as would result from a constant and clear current; but, on the
contrary, the heavy floods from the upper country, being the result of a
sudden rainfall, are surcharged with earth washed down from the higher
ground and thickly held in solution. This vast mass of soil, which adds
a corresponding weight to each gallon of water, is carried forward
according to the velocity of the stream, and is ready to deposit upon
the instant that the propelling power shall be withdrawn. So long as the
river is confined between narrow banks, the high rate of the current is
sufficient to force forward the thickened and heavy fluid; but the
instant that the banks are over-topped and the river expands over an
increased area, the rapidity is reduced, and the water, no longer able
to contain the earth in solution, deposits alluvium, and produces a
delta, which must necessarily increase upon every future inundation. The
result must end either in forming a bar at the mouth of the river, or
(as in the Pedias) in THE TOTAL SILTING OF THE EMBOUCHURE, which
extinguishes all traces of a broad channel, but leaves a series of deep
marshes scored by innumerable ditches, to be in their turn filled with
mud when the next flood shall extend over the wide surface and increase
the deposit.
This is the position of the Pedias, and until improved I cannot foresee
a good sanitary prospect for Famagousta, which is situated on the
borders of the swamp. There can be only one engineering method of
preventing the silt, by confining the river between artificial banks,
within a channel sufficiently narrow to ensure a current whose velocity
would carry the heavy fluid directly into the sea. Even should this be
accomplished, and the river be securely banked, the deposit of mud will
then take place within the sea, and will assuredly form a bar; which
will probably affect by silt the neighbouring harbour of Famagousta in
the same manner that the ancient port of Salamis has been completely
obliterated. In any case the engineering difficulty will be costly and
uncertain; but if Famagousta is to be restored to its former importance
as a first-rate harbour, arsenal, and military station, the management
of the Pedias river must be seriously considered.
We arrived at Trichomo at about 3 P.M. The town is built upon the sides
and summit of high ground within a mile of the sea. The sight of a
narrow iron chimney emitting puffs of steam showed that some progress
was exhibited by the presence of an engine--this was employed in working
cotton-gins.
The houses were the usual sun-baked bricks of clay and chopped straw,
and although the town was large, there was no building of sufficient
importance to attract attention. We rode through the streets determined
as usual to avoid the smells of a close proximity and to seek a
camping-place some distance upon the opposite side. After passing
through the town and descending a hill, we then ascended a steep slope
which opened upon a wild country of rocky ground covered with the usual
prickly plants and scrub cypress, which had evidently been cut for fuel
until it had become mere brushwood. There was a square mud hut on the
left hand standing in an extensive orchard of fruit-trees watered by a
cattle-wheel, and as this was the last habitation within view, we
halted, and awaited the arrival of the carts and camels. From the summit
of the hill, about two hundred yards beyond this spot, the view was
exceedingly good; the sea lay about half a mile distant, with several
houses and gardens near the shore. The town was in our rear, and to the
east was a fine extent of wild country covered with bush and
dwarf-cypress, which formed a marked contrast to the naked surface we
had left behind. The rugged wall of the Carpas range was now only ten
miles distant on our left, and continued parallel to our route. . . . .
It was late when the carts arrived, and we now missed the usual luxury
of the gipsy-van. I determined to save the servants the trouble of
erecting our tent, therefore for the first time in Cyprus we occupied
the native dwelling. This was a square hut built of stone and mud, with
the usual hard mud roof. From its large size it was evident that animals
shared the room with the proprietors. An old man and a corresponding old
woman gave us a welcome, and immediately commenced sweeping out the
floor for our accommodation; this might have been thirty feet by
eighteen in width. After a cloud of dust had risen, and by degrees
subsided, we took possession; the carts and camels arrived; beds had to
be unpacked and set up, and the servants began to reflect upon the
advantages of the van which saved them the present trouble. It was
already dusk, but the beds were made, and Christo the cook (who was a
capital fellow for speed in preparing a dinner) was enveloped in savoury
steam, when the usual inmates of the hut quietly invaded us. Cocks and
hens marched in, and went to roost upon some sticks within a corner; two
or three dogs arrived, evidently with the intention of staying through
the night; a donkey at length walked composedly through the entrance
door and steered for his accustomed corner. We had caused serious
inconvenience to an unknown quantity of animals, all of whom had to be
turned out, except the poultry. What a good thing is dinner! The neat
tiny table was spread and the candles lighted; the dishes were simple
but excellent; we were thoroughly comfortable in this rude dwelling;
but--it might have been fancy--I thought something tickled my legs.
There was no mistake, something did actually not only tickle, but bite.
Something? It was everything and everybody in the shape of fleas! The
hut was hopping with countless swarms of these detestable vermin, from
which in our impregnable van we had hitherto been free, owing to its
great height from the ground. Whether the unusual sweeping of the floor
had created a temporary aberration of intellect or stupefaction among
these crowds, I cannot determine, but whatever the nervous shock might
have been that had caused a short suspension of activity, they had now
completely recovered, and I shall never forget the night passed in
Trichomo. It was the first and the last venture upon native hospitality
throughout our sojourn in Cyprus, and we in future adhered either to the
tent or the gipsy-van.
On the following morning we started at 8.30. The sky was overcast, and
in any country but this we should have expected rain. We had now fairly
emerged upon a district entirely different from the hateful Messaria,
which has given Cyprus an unfortunate reputation. We were quickly among
thickets of scrub and low brushwood which should have teemed with game.
My spaniels delighted in the change, and worked the bush thoroughly as
we proceeded along the route, occasionally flushing two or three
red-legged partridges. Passing over the higher ground with the sea in
view upon our right, we descended after a march of about three miles to
the shore, where the path skirted the sea along broken rocks, against
which in bad weather the waves would dash with sufficient violence to
bar the road. The white cliffs and hill-tops to our left were covered
with dwarf-cypress, and formed a lovely foreground above the sea,
perfectly calm beneath. The ride was apparently short, although we had
been in the saddle three hours, as the eye had been gratified by a
constant change of scenery;--from rocks washed by the blue water to
hills covered with a dense foliage of evergreens, and deep sequestered
valleys, with occasional gaps in the range of heights through which
glimpses of the sea in rocky coves burst suddenly into view. Some of
these inlets were exceedingly picturesque, as reefs extended from the
shore, overhanging cliffs having from time to time fallen in huge crags
and formed natural breakwaters to the beach. These narrow gaps between
the hills were generally occupied by a streamlet in the centre, which
had cut its way far below the level of the ground, the steep banks of
which were fringed with oleanders, myrtles, mastic, and other
evergreens, down to within a few yards of the breaking waves. Nothing
could be prettier, and upon arrival within sight of Volokalida, about a
mile and a half distant in the extreme end of a narrow valley, I
directed my wife to a camping-place near the village, beneath some large
and prominent caroub-trees, while I dismounted, and with my delighted
dogs commenced a ramble over the low woods which covered the sides and
hill-tops to our right and left. The walk was enjoyable; we had made
fourteen miles from Trichomo, and upon reaching the perfectly flat
tableland which formed the summit of the hills I had a splendid sea-view
extending for many miles along the coast. The first object that
attracted my attention was a large steamer stranded in a cove about a
mile distant. She looked perfectly snug, but as only her lower masts
were standing, and funnel gone, there could be no doubt of her
misadventure. My binocular glass quickly showed that a portion of her
bulwarks was carried away, and as no chain was visible to an anchor, she
was in fact a wreck. As I made my way through the thick bushes Merry
presently opened upon a scent, and Wise running in among the rocks,
flushed a fine francolin partridge, which I shot. I then got a quail and
a hare, and had no other chances, although the appearance of the country
would have suggested an abundance of game. Upon nearing the seashore I
saw that extensive sand-dunes had invaded the heights for many hundred
yards, completely choking the vegetation and forming clumps or mounds of
sand, topped by tufts of the shrubs that lay buried deep beneath. I
walked along the fatiguing ground until I reached the shore exactly
opposite the abandoned wreck, which lay within a cove, into which she
had evidently been run for security.
My dogs found several hares among the clumps upon the sand-dunes, which
gave them some exercise and amusement, but I did not obtain a shot.
Upon my arrival at the camping-place I found my wife surrounded by a
large crowd of women and children beneath a shady tree, all of whom had
brought presents of eggs and bouquets of wild flowers. It was difficult
to persuade these good simple people that we did not require presents as
an etiquette of introduction; they would insist upon placing their
little offerings upon the ground, and leaving them if we declined to
accept them. The principal wild flowers were cyclamen, narcissus, and
anemone. The cyclamen completely covered the ground throughout all the
low woods and thickets. I could only find two varieties, the snow-white,
with claret-coloured centre, and the rose-colour; but the blossoms were
quite equal in size to those usually grown in our glass-houses in
England. We had passed through several hundred acres of open ground that
were as white from the abundance of narcissus as an English meadow might
be yellow from the presence of buttercups.
Our camp was pitched upon a small level plateau of rock, in the centre
of which was a well, cut completely through the stone from top to
bottom. It appeared to be about twenty-five feet deep, but was devoid of
water and contained a considerable amount of rubbish. The people assured
me that a dead Greek lay beneath, as a few years ago some Turks had
killed one of their people and thrown him into the well; they had
concealed the body by stones and rubbish, and no further steps had been
taken in the matter. As a large crowd of children of both sexes were
sitting round us doing nothing but stare, I set them to work to clear
the surface ground from loose stones and to sweep the plateau clean with
boughs from the wild cypress. When this was finished I gave them a
scramble for several handfuls of copper coins upon the cleared area, to
impress them pleasantly upon their work of cleanliness; this new game
became very popular, and might be introduced by the British government
with a certainty of gaining the admiration of the Cypriotes, especially
during the collection of taxes; the latter being an Anglo-Turkish game
which is not yet sufficiently appreciated.
The women were of the same type that we had seen in other districts, but
they appeared sickly, and many of the children were extremely delicate.
There was the usual protuberance of the abdomen to which I have before
alluded; and I found upon examination of the children that an
enlargement of the spleen was a chronic complaint. This is due to
repeated attacks of ague. I drew the attention of the people to the so
general mistake in this island of selecting a site for their villages in
the most unhealthy localities. We were now camped upon a height about
eighty feet above the valley, which resembled a basin beneath our feet;
the village was on the lower level of this basin, and as near the level
of the sea as possible. In heavy rains the valley became a temporary
swamp, and it seemed unaccountable that human beings endowed with common
sense should have selected the low ground instead of the immediate
heights. The explanation was "that as the village was built of
mud-bricks, the houses had been erected as near as possible to the
source of the material, MUD!" to avoid the difficulty of carriage in the
absence of carts.
The people were as usual dressed in cotton stuffs of home manufacture,
and were ignorant of such a material as flannel; the children were only
half-clad, and shivering; their food was generally raw, comprising
olives, oil, onions, and wild vegetables, such as artichokes, wild
mustard, and a variety of trash that in England would only be regarded
as "weeds." There were some pretty intelligent little girls and boys;
some of these were chewing mastic gum, a white leathery substance which
they gathered from incisions in the bark of this common shrub. My wife
found fault with the neglect of cleanliness, as their teeth, although
even, were totally uncared for. On the following morning they all
assembled and exhibited a show of nice white teeth, as they had followed
her advice and cleaned them with wood-ashes and their forefingers, in
lieu of a toothbrush. We saw these children again a month afterwards
upon our return, and they ran across the fields to meet us, at once
opening their mouths to show that they had not forgotten the lesson, and
that their teeth were properly attended to. I pitied all these poor
people: they are downtrodden and miserable in mind and body. Instead of
squeezing them for taxes they should be supported and encouraged by
government assistance in every manner possible. Centuries of oppression
and neglect in addition to a deceptive climate have rendered them the
mere slaves of circumstances, but they exhibit a patience and stolid
endurance which is beyond all praise; and when Cyprus shall belong
absolutely to Great Britain, so that the Cypriotes shall feel that they
are British subjects, they will become the most amenable and contented
people in the Empire.
The usual difficulty exists in passing through this island which is felt
by most English travellers in wild countries. The sick invariably
assemble, believing that your medical knowledge will produce miraculous
cures; and the lame, halt, and blind besiege you even cripples from
their birth are brought by their hopeful mothers to receive something
from your medicine-chest that will restore them to strength. It was in
vain that I explained to these afflicted people that spleen-disease
required a long course of medicine, and could not be cured in a day. It
was equally in vain that I assured them that raw vegetables were
unwholesome for children, and that sea-bathing was invigorating to the
system: they hated bathing; so did the children; and they liked raw
vegetables. I was obliged to give them some trifle which could neither
do harm nor good; and they went away contented.
I now discovered from the head-men of the village the cause of the wreck
which was lying in the bay. An Austrian steamer was conveying 1200
Circassians from Constantinople to some port on the coast of Asia Minor,
when the wild horde of emigrants mutinied and threatened to murder the
chief officers. The captain accordingly ran the vessel ashore upon this
coast, having ordered the engineer to blow up the boilers.
A great number of the mutineers perished in the attempt to land, but the
captain and officers were hospitably received by the people of
Volokalida and forwarded to Famagousta. The vessel was pierced amidships
by a rock that had completely impaled her, otherwise she might have been
saved and repaired.
We left this village on March 4th, a heavy but welcome shower on the
preceding day having laid the dust and freshened the vegetation. The
route lay through a hilly and rocky country covered with the usual
evergreens. We quickly lost our way and arrived at a complete cul-de-sac
in the corner of a narrow swampy valley. Retracing our steps we met two
men mounted on donkeys, who with extreme civility turned from their own
direction and became our guides. We passed over a hill of solid
crystallised gypsum, which sparkled in the sun like glass, and after a
march of about ten miles through a lovely country we ascended to the
plateau of Lithrankomi and halted at the monastery. The priest was an
agreeable, well-mannered man, and as rain had begun to fall he insisted
upon our accepting his invitation to await the arrival of our luggage
under his roof. We visited his curious old church, which is sadly out of
repair, and the mosaic, of a coarse description, which covered an arched
ceiling, has mostly disappeared.
This was the most agreeable position that I had seen in Cyprus. A very
extensive plateau about 400 feet above the sea formed a natural terrace
for seven or eight miles, backed by the equally flat hill-tops which
rose only half a mile behind the monastery. These were covered with the
Pinus Maritima, none of which exceeded twenty feet in height, and
resembled a thriving young plantation in England. From the flat
pine-covered tableland I had a very beautiful view of the sea on either
side this narrow portion of the island, and of the richly-wooded slopes
both north and south, cut by deep and dark water-riven gorges, with
white cliffs which descended to the shore. Villages and snow-white
churches lay beneath in all directions, and the crops had a far more
favourable appearance than those of the Messaria, as this portion of the
country had experienced a superior rainfall.
It is much to be regretted that the total absence of roads excludes this
district from general communication. We were struck by the fantastic
scenery of deep ravines, rocks covered with evergreens of varying
colours, and handsome caroub-trees which would have ornamented an
English park; mulberry-trees were very numerous, but at this season they
were barren of leaves; the only want lay in the absence of oranges and
lemons, which the priest assured me would not thrive in this locality.
For the last two months I had cordially detested Cyprus, but I was now
converted to a belief that some portions of the country were thoroughly
enjoyable, provided that a traveller could be contented with rough fare
and be accustomed to the happy independence of a camp-life with a good
tent and hardy servants. The temperature was a little too low for
out-door existence, as it averaged 48 degrees at 7 A.M. and 54 degrees
at 3 P.M., which is the hottest hour of the day; but we were all well,
and free from colds; the servants had plenty of warm blankets, and the
false floor that I had arranged added greatly to their comfort when
camping upon the sodden ground.
I had become convinced that "the man of ability" Theodori had deceived
me, and that it would be impossible for the two-wheeled carts, or any
other conveyance, to travel through this country. Our last two marches
had proved that not only would the delay be serious, but the luggage
would be destroyed by the extreme jolting over rocks and ruts, which had
already injured several of our boxes and broken some useful articles.
Every package seemed to assume an individual vitality and to attack its
neighbour; the sharp-cornered metal boxes endeavoured to tunnel through
the cases of wine and liquors, which in retaliation bumped against and
bruised their antagonists, and a few marches had already caused more
mischief than a twelvemonth's journey by camels. The priest assured me
that it would be madness to attempt a march beyond Gallibornu, about
eleven miles in advance, and that he doubted the possibility of the
carts reaching that point, which certainly had never been visited by any
wheeled conveyances. The honest, strong, but unintelligent driver Georgi
was innocent, and he was at the time as ignorant as myself that the true
object of the "man of ability" Theodori was to deal in cattle, which was
his reason for persisting in accompanying me into the Carpas country and
declaring that the route was practicable for carts. We left Lithrankomi
on 5th March after a shower which made the earth slippery and the
dangerous portions of the route rather exciting for the carts. The first
two or three miles lay along the level terrace commanding a splendid
view of the sea about four miles distant. We passed through several
villages, and the crops looked well. At length we emerged upon a wild
portion of the plateau which resembled a park, the surface being green
and diversified by ornamental clumps of evergreens; upon our left was
the cliff-like higher terrace which formed the table-top from which the
usual huge blocks had been detached and fallen like inverted cottages to
the lower level. The view on our right was exceedingly interesting, as
we had now arrived upon the extreme verge of the terrace, which broke
down suddenly into a horseshoe-shaped amphitheatre, the steep sides
covered with bushes and trees, to the bottom of a valley some 300 feet
below, which drained through a narrow and richly-wooded gorge into the
neighbouring sea.
This scooping-out of the country was due to the action of water, and the
same process was gradually wearing away the upper plateaux, which by
absorbing rain became undermined as it percolated through and dissolved
the marly substratum. The foundation of the rock surface being softened
by the water, oozed in the form of mud, and was washed down the steep
declivities, followed by the breaking-down of the unsupported upper
stratum. This district was an admirable illustration of the decay and
denudation of surface which has produced the plain of Messaria, to which
I have already alluded, but as no sufficient area exists at a lower
level the deposit of soil is carried to the sea. We now arrived at a
dangerous pass that defied all attempts to descend by carts. A
succession of zigzags at an inclination of about one foot in two and a
half led down the soil of a cliff into a succession of exceedingly
narrow valleys about three hundred feet below. In many places this
narrow path had been washed away by the same natural process that was
gradually reducing the upper level, and in the sharp angles of the
zigzags there were awkward gaps with only a few inches of slippery soil
rendered soapy by the morning's rain, a slip of the original path having
crumbled down the precipice below. The animals were wonderfully careful,
and although a nervous person might have shuddered at some awkward
points, both mule and ponies were thoroughly self-confident and safely
carried us to the bottom. But the carts? These were making a circuit of
some miles across country in the endeavour to discover a practicable
route.
Although the way was difficult, it was the more agreeable as the scenery
was extremely picturesque. The narrow valleys were without exception
cultivated, which formed a striking contrast to the exceedingly wild
heights by which they were surrounded, and I remarked that not a yard of
available land was neglected, but that small and precipitous hollows
were banked by rough stone walls, to retain the soil that would
otherwise be washed away, and to form terraces of insignificant extent
for the sake of cultivation. Our animals could amble at five or six
miles an hour along these narrow bottoms, which made up for the delay in
descending the bad places. My dogs were in the best spirits, as they had
moved a considerable number of partridges during this morning's march,
and they heard the peculiar loud "chuck-a-chuck, chuck-a-chuck," of the
red-legs in all directions. As we advanced the hills increased in
height, and we passed through a valley, bordered on the right by abrupt
cliffs, forming a wall-like summit to the exceedingly steep slope
beneath, which had been created by the debris from the wasting face of
rock. This flat-topped height may have been about 500 feet above the
valley, and the white cliff, which was quite perpendicular from the
summit for about one hundred feet to the commencement of the steep green
slope beneath, was in one place artificially scarped, and had been cut
perfectly smooth like the wall of a stone building. In the centre of
this smooth face we could plainly distinguish a square-cut entrance, to
which an exceedingly narrow ledge cut in the rock formed a most
dangerous approach, more adapted for wild cats than for human occupants.
I halted to examine this with a good glass, and I could perceive that
the greatest care had been taken in the formation of a smooth
perpendicular front, and that the narrow ledge which formed the approach
was a natural feature that had been artificially improved. There were
several similar lines observable at unequal distances nearly parallel
with each other: these were the natural limits of overlying strata in
the sedimentary rock, which, as the general surface had fallen through
decay, still preserved their character, and formed ledges. My guide
assured us that the entire cliff was honey-combed by internal
galleries, which had been constructed by the ancients as a place of
refuge that would contain several thousand persons, and that a well
existed in the interior, which from a great depth supplied the water. I
have never seen a notice of this work in any book upon Cyprus, and I
regret that I had no opportunity of making a close examination of the
artificial cave, which, from the accounts I received, remains in a
perfect state to the present moment.
It was a wild route to Gallibornu, through a succession of small valleys
separated by wooded heights, and bounded by hills, either bare in white
cliffs, or with steep slopes thickly covered with evergreens. We passed
a few miserable villages, one of which was solely inhabited by gipsies,
who came out to meet us clad in rags and extremely filthy, but the faces
of the women were good-looking. We crossed numerous watercourses in the
narrow bottoms between the hills; their steep banks were fringed with
bushes which formed likely spots for woodcocks, but my dogs found
nothing upon the route except a few partridges and francolin, although,
as usual, they hunted throughout the march. After crossing a series of
steep hills, and observing a marked contrast in the habits of the
people, who constructed their dwellings upon the heights instead of in
the unhealthy glens, we arrived in the closely pent-in valley that forms
the approach to Gallibornu. This village is of considerable extent, and
is inhabited exclusively by Turks. We entered the valley through a
narrow gap between the hills, which on our left formed perpendicular
cliffs, with the usual steep slopes of debris near the base. The upper
cliffs, about 400 feet above the lower level, were marked with numerous
parallel ledges and were full of blue-rock pigeons, which built their
nests in the clefts and crevices; the summits of these heights were the
table-tops which characterise this formation.
It was difficult to select a camping-place, as the valley would become
mud in the event of heavy rains. We had experienced daily showers since
we left Volokalida, and the lower grounds were damp; I disliked the
immediate neighbourhood of a village, and the only available spot was
rather dangerous, as it was situated upon a flattish knoll, so near the
base of the cliff that enormous blocks of stone many tons in weight lay
in all directions, which had fallen from the impending heights. I
examined these, and found some that were comparatively recent; I had
also observed upon our entrance to the valley that a great portion of
the cliff face had lately fallen, forming an avalanche of rocks that
would have destroyed a village: this my guide informed me was the result
of last year's excessive rain. I examined the heights above us with my
glass, and observed some crags that Polyphemus would have delighted to
hurl upon Acis when courting his Galatea; but as no Cyclops existed in
this classical island I determined to risk the chances of a
rock-displacement and to pitch the tent upon a flat surface among the
fallen blocks. As a rule such localities should be avoided. It is
impossible to calculate the probable downfall of a crag, which, having
formed a portion of the cliff, has been undermined by the breaking away
of lower rocks, and, overhanging the perpendicular, may be secure during
dry weather, but may become dislodged in heavy rain, when the
cement-like surroundings are dissolved: the serious vibration caused by
thunder might in such conditions produce an avalanche. We dug a deep
trench round the tents, as the weather looked overcast and stormy.
The village of Gallibornu was about half a mile beyond our camp at the
extreme end of the valley, but situated on the heights. The people were
extremely civil, and it would be difficult to determine the maximum
degree of courtesy between the Turks and Greeks of Cyprus. I strolled
with my dogs up the steep hill-sides, and the Turks, seeing that I was
fond of shooting, promised to accompany me on the following morning to
some happy hunting-ground, which, from my Cyprian experience, I believed
was mythical.
On waking the next day I found the Turks, true to their promise, already
assembled by the servants' tent, and eight men were awaiting me with
their guns. They had a sporting dog to assist them, which they described
as "very useful for following a wounded hare; only it was necessary to
be quick in securing it, otherwise the dog would eat it before your
arrival."
I advised them to leave this "useful dog" behind, as hostilities might
be declared by my three English spaniels in the event of his swallowing
a wounded hare. This being agreed to, we all started, and, crossing the
valley, entered a gorge upon the other side. We now ascended naked hills
of pure crystallised gypsum; the strata were vertical, and the perfectly
transparent laminae were packed together like small sheets of glass only
a few inches in width. It was easy to walk up the steep slopes of this
material without slipping, as the exterior edges, having been exposed to
the weather, had become rough, and were exactly like coarse glass placed
edgeways. We spread out into a line of skirmishers extending up the
hills upon both sides of the gorge, and quickly arrived in very likely
ground covered with dwarf-cypress. Here the dogs immediately flushed
partridges, and a Turk having wounded one, a considerable delay took
place in searching for it at the bottom of a deep wooded hollow, but to
no purpose. We now arrived at lovely ground within a mile of the sea,
forming a long succession of undulations, covered, more or less, with
the usual evergreen brushwood as far as the eye could reach. This uneven
surface, broken by many watercourses, was about eighty feet above the
water-level, and descended in steep rocky ledges to within a few hundred
yards of the sea, where the lower ground was flat and alternated in open
glades and thick masses of mastic scrub; the beach being edged by drift
sand-dunes covered by the dense jungle of various matted bushes.
There was a fair amount of game in this locality, and had the Turks shot
well we should have made a tolerable bag; but they did not keep a good
line, and many birds went back without being shot at, while others were
missed, and altogether the shooting was extremely wild. The sun was hot
by the time we had concluded our beat; I had shot five brace and one
hare, including some francolins; and the rest of the party had
collectively bagged three brace. It was late in the season for shooting,
but the birds were not all paired, and I have no doubt that in the month
of September this portion of the island would afford fair sport,
although no great bags could be expected. I was surprised at the absence
of woodcocks; throughout my rambles in Cyprus I had only seen one,
although they were cheap in the market of Larnaca. The fact is that
every bird shot by the natives is sent straight for sale; therefore an
immense area is hunted for the small supply required by the Europeans in
the principal towns. Upon our return homewards we passed through a
considerable space occupied by ancient ruins. Among the masses of stones
and broken pottery were two stone sarcophagi, which appeared to have
been converted into drinking-troughs for cattle. As with all the ruins
of Cyprus, nothing of interest exists upon the surface, and the tombs
having been for many centuries excavated and despoiled, it is probable
that the sarcophagi had been brought to light by treasure-seekers many
years ago.
As we approached Gallibornu by a mountain path the Turks assured me that
we should find good drinking-water; we were all thirsty, including the
dogs, who had drunk nothing for some hours. At length, at a considerable
elevation between two hills, we reached a spring, and I was shown a well
where the water was only a few feet from the surface. The Turks now
pointed to the perpendicular face of a cliff and desired me to follow
them; at the same time I could not understand their attempted
explanations either by word or pantomime. We kept on an extremely narrow
path which skirted the steep side of the slope, and presently arrived at
a ledge about sixteen inches wide upon the perpendicular face of the
cliff, which descended sheer for a considerable depth beneath. I was
requested to leave my gun against a rock and to follow. It was all very
well for these people, who knew exactly where they were going, but I had
not the slightest idea of my destination, unless it should be the bottom
of the cliff, which appeared to me most probable, if I, who was many
inches broader in the shoulders than my guides, should be expected to
join in the game of "follow the leader" upon a narrow ledge against the
face of the rock which afforded no hold whatever. I was not so fond of
climbing as I had been thirty years ago, and to my infinite disgust the
ledge, which was already horribly small, became narrower as we
proceeded. There was a nasty projecting corner to turn, and at this
point I saw my guides look down below, and I fancied they were
speculating upon the depth. Instead of this, the leader began to descend
the perpendicular face by small ladder-like steps hewn in the rock, and
in this manner gained another ledge not quite six feet below. We all
reached this precarious shelf, and the guide, having turned, continued
for some twenty or thirty yards in an exactly contrary direction to the
ledge above us, by which we had just arrived; we were thus retracing our
steps upon a similar ledge at a lower level. Suddenly the leader
stopped, and stooping low, crept into a square aperture that had been
carefully cut out of the rock face to form an entrance. This passage
inclined slightly inwards, and after a few paces forward, with the body
curved in the uncomfortable form of a capital C, we arrived in a
spacious gallery cut into a succession of arches, the centre of which
was six feet high. A small window, about three feet by two, was cut
through the rock to admit light and air, from which I could with a rifle
have completely commanded the glen below and the approach to the left.
There was no ledge beneath the window, but simply the sheer precipice of
the smooth cliff, and there was no other approach to this extraordinary
place of refuge except that by which we had arrived. The gallery was
neatly cut, and extended for an unknown distance: several other
galleries, arched in the same manner and of the same size, branched off
at right angles with that we had entered. I was led to a well, which was
represented as being deep, and I was informed that the hill was
perforated with similar galleries, all of which communicated with each
other. I much regretted that we were unprovided with candles; one of the
Turks lighted a match, but it only served to increase the uncertainty of
the surrounding darkness.
This must be a similar cave-refuge to that we had passed about four
miles distant when on our way from Lithrankomi to Gallibornu, and it
deserves a minute investigation. As I could see nothing beyond about
thirty feet from the window, owing to the darkness, I cannot give any
account of the actual dimensions, which may be much inferior to the
unlimited descriptions of my informants. Upon my return to camp I had
the benefit of my interpreter, and the story was repeated that no one
knew the extent of the excavations, either of these galleries or those
we had passed during our journey. I have never seen a very large natural
cave in Cyprus, although the caverns beneath the superficial stratum of
sedimentary rock are so general. The presence of these hollows, and the
soft nature of the calcareous stone, has suggested artificial caves to
the ancients, both for tombs and for places of refuge. Before the
invention of gunpowder it would have been impossible to reduce a fort
such as I have described, except by starvation. A mine sunk vertically
from above would in the present day destroy the subterranean stronghold
at the first explosion.
It rained more or less every day during our stay at Gallibornu, and
thunder rolled heavily in the neighbourhood; but in the narrow valley
between lofty hills the sky view was so limited that it was impossible
to judge of the impending weather. The earth was too slippery for
camels, which I had engaged with an excellent Turk, who for some years
had been a zaphtieh, therefore it was necessary to wait patiently until
the surface should become dry. I amused myself with wandering over the
hills with my dogs, examining the rocks, and shooting sufficient game
for our own use. I could generally bag enough for my lad to carry home
conveniently over this rugged country, and a hare or two in addition to
partridges were more appreciated when stewed than when carried up the
precipitous hills. I never tasted any game so delicious as the Cyprian
hares; they are not quite so red or curly as the European species, but
the flesh is exceedingly rich, and possesses a peculiarly gamey flavour,
owing to the aromatic food upon which they live. It is difficult to
obtain a shot in the thick coverts of mastic bush, and without dogs I do
not think I should have shot one, as they were generally in dense
thickets upon the mountain sides, through which beaters could have
hardly moved.
The high cliffs above us formed an excellent example of an old
sea-bottom, showing--the various strata of sedimentary deposits at
different periods. I made a collection of fossil shells, which were in
great numbers but in limited variety, and chiefly bivalves.
Although the village of Gallibornu was more important in size than many
we had passed, there was a total lack of supplies. It was impossible to
purchase bread, and we were obliged to send messengers to considerable
distances to procure flour, which we subsequently employed a woman to
bake. The people generally were very poor throughout the country, and
the cultivated area appeared insufficient for the support of the
population. Every yard of land was ploughed, but the entire valley of
Gallibornu was fallowed, and did not possess one blade of corn, as the
soil required rest after the yield of the previous season. None of these
people have an idea respecting a succession of crops in scientific
rotation, therefore a loss is sustained by the impoverishment of the
ground, which must occasionally lie inactive to recover its fertility.
There is absolutely no provision whatever for the cattle in the shape of
root-crops or hay, but they trust entirely to the bruised barley-straw
and such seeds as the cotton and lentil. At this season the Carpas
district possessed an important advantage in the variety of wild
vegetables which afforded nourishment for man and beast; the valleys
teemed with wild artichokes and with a variety of thistles, whose
succulent stems were a favourite food for both oxen and camels.
The leaf-stems of the artichokes were peeled and eaten raw by the
inhabitants, but as these people are accustomed to consume all kinds of
uncooked vegetables and unripe fruits few civilised persons would
indulge in the Cypriote tastes. We found the artichoke stems uneatable
in a raw state, but remarkably good when peeled and stewed, with a sauce
of yolk of egg beaten up with oil, salt, pepper, and lemon-juice; they
were then quite equal to sea-kale. There is a general neglect in the
cultivation of vegetables which I cannot understand, as agriculture is
the Cypriote's vocation; it can hardly be called laziness, as they are
most industrious in their fields, and expend an immense amount of labour
in erecting stone walls to retain a small amount of soil wherever the
water-wash from a higher elevation brings with it a deposit. The
insignificant terraces thus formed by earth caught in its descent while
in solution appear disproportioned to the labour of their construction,
and the laborious system would suggest an extreme scarcity of land
suitable for agricultural operations. I believe this to be the case, and
that a serious mistake has been made in assuming that the Crown
possesses large areas of land that may eventually become of great value.
There are government lands, doubtless, of considerable extent, but I
question their agricultural importance, and whenever the ordnance-map of
the island shall be completed a wild confusion will be discovered in the
discrepancy of title-deeds with the amount of land in possession of the
owners. I have, whilst shooting in the wild tracts of scrub-covered
hills and mountains, frequently emerged upon clearings of considerable
extent, where the natives have captured a fertile plot and cleared it
for cultivation, far away from the eyes of all authorities.
I believe that squatting has been carried on for many years, as during
the Turkish administration a trifling annual present would have closed
the eyes of the never-too-zealous official who by such an oversight
could annually improve his pay. Land suitable for cultivation cannot
possibly be in excess of the demand, when plots of only a few yards
square are carefully formed by the erection of stone walls to retain the
torrent-collected soil.
We were pestered with beggars throughout this district, and even the
blind saw their opportunity; their number was distressing, and they
could not account in any way for the prevalence of ophthalmia. Some
endeavoured to explain the cause by referring it to the bright
reflection from the sea, to which they were so frequently exposed; I
assured them that sailors were seldom blind, and they proved the rule.
Dirty habits, dwellings unwashed, heaps of filth lying around their
houses and rotting in their streets, all of which during the hot dry
summer is converted into poisonous dust, and, driven by the wind, fills
the eyes, which are seldom cleansed--these are the natural causes which
result in ophthalmia.
The new camels were ready, and with six of these animals we left
Gallibornu and felt relieved to have parted with the carts, as for
several marches they had caused great delay and inconvenience. Although
Theodori had deceived me by agreeing to conduct us direct to Cape St.
Andrea I did not like to discharge the thick-headed but innocent Georgi,
therefore I offered to pay them a certain sum which they themselves
named, per day, for the keep of their oxen, provided they should return
with their empty carts to Lithrankomi (one march) and await my return
there; after which, we would resume the original contract, and their
oxen would once more draw the vans from their station at Kuklia.
This was an extra expense, as the camels were now engaged in lieu of
carts, notwithstanding that I should have to pay for the oxen; on the
other hand, these animals were beautiful specimens of their kind, and
were thoroughly accustomed to the gipsy-van, therefore it was advisable
to retain them. The two owners were delighted with the arrangement, and
we started for Cape St. Andrea, while they were to return to
Lithrankomi.
The country was now thoroughly enjoyable; the recent daily showers had
freshened all vegetation, and the earth was a carpet of wild flowers,
including scarlet ranunculus, poppies, a very pretty dwarf yellow cistus
resembling bunches of primroses, cyclamen, narcissus, anemones--purple,
white, and a peculiarly bright yellow variety.
The route from Gallibornu was extremely wild and picturesque, combining
hills, glens, and occasional short glimpses of the sea between the
gorges which cleft the precipitous range upon our right. The rounded and
sparkling tops of gypsum hills were common for the first few miles;
emerging from these, we threaded a ravine, and arrived upon the sea
beach, and continued for a considerable distance upon the margin of the
shore; the animals scrambling over fallen rocks and alternately
struggling through the deep sand and banks of sea-weed piled by a
recent gale. We now entered upon the first pure sandstone that I had
seen; this was a coffee-brown, and formed the substratum of the usual
sedimentary limestone which capped the surface of the hill-tops. The
appearance was peculiar, as the cliffs of brown sandstone were crusted
for a depth of about eight or ten feet by the white rock abounding with
fossil shells, while the substratum of hard sand was perfectly devoid of
all traces of organic matter. The upheaval of a sea-bottom was clearly
demonstrated. As the sandstone had decayed, vast fragments of the
surface rock had broken down when undermined and had fallen to the base
of the steep inclines, from the interstices of which a dense growth of
evergreens produced an agreeable harmony of colouring, combining various
shades of green with brown cliffs and white masses of disjointed
limestone. The deep blue of the sea was a beautiful addition to this
wild scenery, and after threading our way sometimes between narrow
gorges, at other places along sequestered glens which exhibited young
crops of cereals and cultivated olive-trees, we at length arrived at a
halting-place upon the seashore, where a well of excellent water about
ten feet from the surface had been sunk upon the sea-beach within fifty
yards of the waves.
This was the best camping-ground we had had in Cyprus; for the first
time we stood upon real turf, green with recent showers, and firmly
rooted upon a rich sandy loam. A cultivated valley lay a few hundred
yards beyond us, completely walled in by high hills covered with wild
olives, arbutus, and dwarf-cypress, and fronted by the sea. Some fine
specimens of the broad-headed and shady caroub-trees gave a park-like
appearance to the valley, through which a running stream entered from a
ravine among the hills, and, winding through deep banks covered with
myrtles and oleanders, expended itself upon the shingly beach in the
centre of the bay. This sheltered cove, about 300 yards across the chord
of the arc, formed rather more than a semicircle by the natural
formation of the coast, and was further improved by a long reef of hard
sandstone, which extended from either point like an artificial
breakwater.
At first sight the little bay was a tempting refuge, but upon closer
examination I observed ominous dark patches in the clear water, which
betokened dangerous reefs, and other light green portions that denoted
sandy shallows. The cove is useful for the native small craft, but would
be unsuitable to vessels of more than seven feet draught of water. I had
observed that francolins were more numerous since we had arrived upon
the sandstone formation, and the cock birds were calling in all
directions; the locality was so inviting that we felt inclined to remain
for a few days in such a delightful spot; but the season was too far
advanced for shooting, and I therefore confined myself to killing only
what was absolutely necessary for our food, and I invariably selected
the cock-birds of francolins. I do not think these birds pair like the
partridge, but I believe the cock is polygamous, like the pheasant, as I
generally found that several hens were in his neighbourhood. It is a
beautiful game bird, the male possessing a striking plumage of deep
black and rich brown, with a dark ring round the neck. It is quite a
different variety to the mottle-breasted species that I have met with in
Mauritius, Ceylon, and the double-spur francolin that I have shot in
Africa. It is considerably larger than the common partridge, but not
quite so heavy as the red-legged birds of Cyprus, although when flying
it appears superior. The flesh is white and exceedingly delicate, and it
is to be regretted that so valuable a game bird is not introduced into
England. I generally found the francolin in the low scrub, although I
have often shot it either in the cultivated fields or in the wild
prickly low plants upon the open ground which have been misnamed
heather. The habits of this bird have nothing in common with those of
the red-legged partridge, as it is never found upon the bare rocky
hill-sides, which are the general resort of the latter annoying species,
and although the scrub bush may contain both, there is a marked
difference in their character. The red-leg is a determined runner, and
therefore a bad game bird for the shooter, as it will run ahead when
first disturbed and rise far beyond shot range, instead of squatting
like the grey partridge and permitting a sporting shot. The francolin is
never found upon the bare hill-sides, neither is it a runner in the
open, although it will occasionally trouble the dogs in the bush by
refusing to rise until they have followed it for some distance,
precisely as pheasants will run in covert until halted by the "stops" or
by a net. I am not sure of the power of resistance to cold possessed by
the francolins, as they are seldom met with upon the higher mountains in
Cyprus, but are generally found upon the inferior altitudes and low
grounds: still the hazel-huhn of Austria is a species of francolin which
resists the intense cold of a central-European winter.
Only one march remained to the extreme eastern limit of Cyprus, Cape St.
Andrea, distant fourteen miles. The country was exactly similar to that
which we had recently passed through, and although alike, it could
hardly be called monotonous, as the eye was never fatigued. The few
inhabitants were poor to the last degree; the dwellings were mere
hovels. We passed deep holes in the ground, the sides of which were
baked by fire, so as to resemble earthen jars about ten feet deep and
seven in diameter, with a small aperture; these were subterranean
granaries, the sure sign of insecurity before the British occupation.
The flat-topped hovels had the usual roofs of clay and chopped straw,
and projected two or three feet as eaves beyond the walls, which were of
stone and mud, exhibiting the crudest examples of masonry. The
projecting eaves were curiously arranged by hooks of cypress, like
single-fluked anchors laid horizontally, which retained beams, upon
which the mud and straw were laid; the heavy weight of the earthen roof
upon the long shanks of these anchors prevented the eaves from
overbalancing. Enormous heaps of manure and filth were deposited
opposite the entrance of each dwelling, and in the Christian villages
the most absurd pigs ran in and out of the hovels, or slept by the front
door, as though they were the actual proprietors. These creatures were
all heads and legs, and closely resembled the black and white
representative of the race well known to every child in the Noah's Ark.
It was rather disheartening to approach the extremity of the island, and
upon entering a long narrow valley our guide assured us that although no
apparent exit existed, we should ascend a precipitous path and
immediately see the point of Cape St. Andrea. The valley narrowed to a
point without any visible path. A few low hills covered with bush were
backed by cliff-like heights of about 300 feet also clothed by
evergreens. Upon our right, just below the steep ascent, were sand-dunes
and the sea. We now observed the narrow streak of white upon the
hillside, amidst the green which marked the path. We had left the brown
sandstone, and once again were upon the white calcareous rock. Our
animals could barely ascend the steep incline, and several times we
halted them to rest; at length we reached the summit, the flat rocky
table above the valley. The view was indeed lovely; we looked down upon
the white monastery of Cape St. Andrea, two miles distant, and upon the
thin eastern point of Cyprus about the same distance beyond, stretching
like a finger from a hand into the blue sea: the elevation from the high
point upon which we stood gradually inclining downwards to the end of
all things. A short distance from the cape were two or three small rocky
islands and reefs protruding from the sea, as though the force of the
original upheaval had originated from the west, and had expended itself
at the extreme east, where the heights above the sea-level had gradually
diminished until the continuation became disjointed, and the island
terminated in a sharp point, broken into dislocated vertebrae which
formed islets and reefs, the last hardly appearing above the waves. This
ended Cyprus on the east. The lofty coast of Asia Minor was distinctly
visible.