ROUTE TO NICOSIA.
Having proved that any further progress west was quite impracticable by
vans, I returned to the new main road from Larnaca, and carefully
avoiding it, we kept upon the natural surface by the side drain, and
travelled towards Dali, the ancient Idalium.
The thermometer at 8 A.M. showed 37 degrees, and the wind was keen. The
road lay through a most desolate country of chalk hills completely
barren, diversified occasionally by the ice-like crystals of gypsum
cropping out in huge masses. In one of the most dreary spots that can be
imagined the eye was relieved by a little flat-topped hut on the right
hand, which exhibited a sign, "The Dewdrop Inn." The name was hardly
appropriate, as the earth appeared as though neither dew nor rain had
blessed the surface; but I believe that whisky was represented by the
"Dewdrop," and that the word was intended to imply an invitation,
"Do-drop-in." Of course we dropped in, being about an hour in advance of
our vans, and I found the landlord most obliging, and a bottle of Bass's
pale ale most refreshing in this horrible-looking desert of chalk and
thistles that had become a quasi-British colony. This unfortunate man
and one or two partners were among those deluded victims who had
sacrificed themselves to the impulse of our first occupation, upon the
principle that "the early bird gets the worm." Instead of getting on,
the partners went off, and left the representative of the "Dewdrop" in a
physical state of weakness from attacks of fever, and the good
industrious man with little hope of a golden future.
Passing on after a conversation with our landlord, which did not cheer
me so much as the pale ale, we continued through the same desolate
country for about two miles, and then turned off on the left hand
towards Dali. We passed through a narrow valley of several hundred acres
planted in vineyards, and we counted four olive-trees, the first green
objects or signs of trees that we had seen since Larnaca! We then
continued through white barren hills for another two miles, and
descended a steep hill, halting for the night upon hard flat gypsum rock
opposite a village named "Lauranchina," above the dry bed of a torrent,
twelve miles from Larnaca.
On the following morning, after a slight shower, we started for Dali.
The narrow valleys were more or less cultivated with vines, and about
three miles from the halting-place we entered the fertile plain of Dali.
This is about six miles long, by one in width, highly cultivated, with
the river flowing through the midst. As far as we could see in a direct
line groves of olives, vineyards, and ploughed land, diversified by
villages, exhibited the power of water in converting sterility into
wealth.
I always make a rule that the halting-place shall be at a considerable
distance from a village or town for sanitary reasons, as the environs
are generally unclean. All travellers are well aware that their servants
and general entourage delight in towns or villages, as they discover
friends, or make acquaintances, and relieve the tedium of the journey;
therefore an antagonistic influence invariably exists upon the question
of a camping-ground. It is accordingly most difficult to believe the
statements of your interpreter: he may have old friends in a town to
which you believe him to be a stranger; he may have the remains of an
old love, and a wish to meet again; or he may have a still more powerful
attraction in the remembrance of an agreeable cafe where he can refresh
himself with liquor, revel in cigarettes, and play at dominoes. It is
therefore necessary to be upon your guard when approaching a town, which
should be looked upon as the enemy's camp.
My amiable bullock-driver, the big Georgi, had always assured me that
"game abounded in the immediate neighbourhood of Dali;" of course I knew
that the happy hunting-ground contained some special interest for
himself. Upon arrival on the outskirts I ordered the vans to pass on the
outside of the town, and I would seek a camping-place up-stream. Instead
of this I was assured that we should pass through the town, and find a
lovely grove of olive-trees by the river-side, the perfection of a
halting-place. For the first time I now discovered that Georgi's wife
and family lived in Dali, and that he was not such a fool as he looked.
In a few minutes we were descending a lane so narrow that the gipsy van
only cleared the walls of the houses on either side by three or four
inches. This lane had been paved centuries ago with stones of all sizes,
from a moderate grindstone to that of a football. When people had wished
to build a new house, they had taken up a few stones to make a
foundation; the street was a series of pitfalls filled with mud and
filth, including miniature ponds of manure-coloured water. The surface
appeared impassable; the projecting water-spouts from the low roofs
stuck out like the gnarled boughs of trees. Here was a pretty mess!--all
because Georgi's wife was in town. It was impossible for anything larger
than a perambulator to turn, and as the springs yielded to the uneven
ground, the van bumped against the walls of the houses and threatened
destruction. "Halt!" was the only word, and as the drag-shoe was on the
wheel, we stopped. At this moment of difficulty a priest and some old
women appeared with earthen vessels smoking with burning olive leaves;
they immediately passed the smoke beneath the nostrils of the oxen, then
around the van, and lastly ourselves. At the same time some good young
women threw orange-flower water over my wife and myself from pretty
glass vases with narrow necks as a sign of welcome. The incense of the
priests was supposed to avert the "evil-eye" from the gipsy van and our
party. I felt much obliged for the good intention, but I did not mind
the "evil eye" so much as the water-spouts. In my experience of
travelling I never met with such kind and courteous people as the
inhabitants of Cyprus. The Dali population had already blocked the
narrow streets from curiosity at our arrival, and soon understanding the
cause of our dilemma, they mounted the housetops and tore off the
obstructing water-spouts; where these projections were too strong, they
sawed them off close to the eaves. A crowd of men pushed the van from
behind, and guided the oxen, while others assisted by digging up the
large paving-stones that would have tilted it against the house-walls.
In this manner we arrived without serious accident upon the bank of the
river which ran through the town. There was an open space here which was
crowded with women and girls, who, with feminine curiosity, had
assembled to see the English lady. Among these was the prettiest young
woman I have seen in Cyprus, with a child in her arms. Her large blue
eyes and perfect Grecian features were enhanced by a sweet gentle
expression of countenance. She seemed more than others delighted at our
arrival. This was Georgi's wife!--and I at once forgave him for
deceiving us and yielding to the natural attraction of his home.
We were not quite out of our difficulty. Several hundred people had
assembled, and all spoke at once, raising their voices in the hope that
we should understand their Greek better than if spoken in a moderate
tone: (why people will speak loud if you do not know their language I
cannot understand:) but as we were utterly ignorant of their meaning we
were not confused by their differences of opinion respecting our
direction. It ended in our crossing the stony bed of the river, through
which a reduced stream only a few inches deep flowed in the centre, and
having with difficulty gained the opposite bank a hundred yards distant,
we soon arrived in a sort of natural eel-trap formed by a narrow avenue
of gigantic olive-trees, the branches of which effectually barred our
progress and prevented the vans from turning.
A temporary loss of temper was a natural consequence, and having ridden
in advance for about half a mile, I returned and ordered a retreat. We
took the bullocks out, and by hand backed the wheels, until by shovels
and picks we could clear a space for turning. We then re-crossed the
river, and disregarding all native advice, struck into the country, and
halted near a small grove of olives close to the new English road to the
military station "Mattiati."
It was the 4th of February, and the temperature in the morning and
evening was too cold (43 degrees) for pleasant camping. In spite of a
chilly wind, crowds of women and children surrounded our vans and sat
for hours indulging their curiosity, and shivering in light clothes of
home-made cotton-stuffs. The children were generally pretty, and some of
the younger women were good-looking; but there was a total neglect of
personal appearance which is a striking characteristic of the Cypriote
females. In most countries, whether savage or civilised, the women yield
to a natural instinct, and to a certain extent adorn their persons and
endeavour to render themselves attractive; but in Cyprus there is a
distressing absence of the wholesome vanity that should induce attention
to dress and cleanliness. The inelegance of costume gives an unpleasant
peculiarity to their figures--the whole crowd of girls and women looked
as though they were about to become mothers. The coarse and
roughly-tanned, uncared-for high boots with huge hobnails were
overlapped by great baggy trousers. Above these were a considerable
number of petticoats loosely hanging and tied carelessly at the waist,
which was totally unsupported by any such assistance as stays. A sort of
short jacket that was of no particular cut, and possessed the advantage
of fitting any variety of size or figure, completed the attire. The
buttons that should have confined the dress in front were generally
absent, and the ladies were not bashful at their loss, but exposed their
bosoms without any consciousness of indelicacy. There was no peculiarity
in the arrangement of the hair, but each head was tied up in a cloth,
either white or some gaudy colour, which, once gay, had been sobered in
its hues by dirt. In spite of this neglected exterior, the women had
remarkably good manners; they seldom approached my wife without
presenting, with a graceful gesture, some wild flowers, or a little
bunch of sweet herbs, which they had purposely gathered, and we were
quickly made rich in quantities of double narcissus, marigolds, and
rosemary. Upon our arrival at a town or village the girls and boys would
frequently run to their gardens and provide themselves with either a
single flower, or rosemary, with which they would await us in the street
and offer them as we passed by. Throughout Cyprus we have received
similar well-meant attention, and the simplicity and delicacy of the
offering contrasts in an anomalous manner with the dirty habits and
appearance of the people. Even Georgi's pretty wife was untidy about the
hair, although she was in her best attire; and a close inspection of all
women and girls showed that their throats and breasts were literally
covered with ancient and modern fleabites. Their dwellings are extremely
filthy, and swarm with vermin, as the fowls, goats, or even a cow or
two, generally increase the domestic party. It is well known that Paphos
in Cyprus was the supposed birthplace of Venus, and that the island was
at one time celebrated for the beauty of women and immorality: the
change has been radical, as I believe no women are more chaste, and at
the same time less attractive, than the Cypriotes of the present time.
They are generally short and thickset; they are hardly treated by the
men, as they perform most of the rough work in cultivation of the
ground, and, from the extreme coarseness of their hands, they can seldom
be idle; the men, on the contrary, are usually good-looking, and are far
more attentive to their personal appearance.
Dali was an interesting spot to any agriculturist. The soil was
exceedingly rich, as it had been formed, like all valleys in Cyprus, by
the alluvium washed down from the surrounding hills; these were from
three to six hundred feet above the level of the plain, and were
composed of the usual hard species of chalk and gypsum; thus the deposit
from their denudation by rains supplied the chief constituents for the
growth of vines and cereals.
There is a depressing absence of all recent improvements in journeying
through Cyprus; even at Dali, where the water from the river was used
for irrigation, and large farms in the occupation of the wealthy
landowner, M. Richard Mattei, were successfully cultivated, I could not
help remarking the total neglect of tree-planting. The ancient
olive-groves still exist by the river's side, and, could they speak,
those grand old trees would be historians of the glorious days of
Cyprus; but there are no recent plantations, and the natives explained
the cause in the usual manner by attributing all wretchedness and
popular apathy to the oppression of the Turkish rule. This wholesale
accusation must be received with caution; there can be no doubt of the
pre-existing misrule, but at the same time it is impossible to travel
through Cyprus without the painful conviction that the modern Cypriote
is a reckless tree-destroyer, and that destruction is more natural to
his character than the propagation of timber. There is no reason for the
neglect of olive-planting, but I observed an absence of such cultivation
which must have prevailed during several centuries, even during the
Venetian rule. It is difficult to determine the age of an olive-tree,
which is almost imperishable; it is one of those remarkable examples of
vegetation that illustrates the eternal, and explains the first
instincts of adoration which tree-worship exhibited in the distant past.
I spent some hours with the olive trees of Dali; they were grand old
specimens of the everlasting. One healthy trunk in full vigour measured
twenty-nine feet in circumference; another, twenty-eight feet two
inches. Very many were upwards of twenty feet by my measuring-tape; and
had I accepted the hollow or split trees, there were some that would
have exceeded forty feet. There can be little doubt, that these olives
throve at the period when Idalium was the great city in Cyprus; they may
have exceeded two thousand years in age, but any surmise would be the
wildest conjecture. It may not be generally known that the olive, which
is of slow growth and a wood of exceeding hardness, remains always a
dwarf tree; a tall olive is unknown, and it somewhat resembles a pollard
ilex. When by extreme age the tree has become hollow it possesses the
peculiar power of reproduction, not by throwing up root-shoots, but by
splitting the old hollowed trunk into separate divisions, which by
degrees attain an individuality, and eventually thrive as new and
independent trees, forming a group or "family-tree," nourished by the
same root which anchored the original ancestor.
The gnarled, weird appearance of these ancient groves of such gigantic
dimensions contrasted sadly with the treeless expanse beyond, and proved
that Cyprus had for very many centuries been the victim of neglect. The
olive is indigenous to the island, and the low scrub jungles of Baffo,
the Carpas district, and other portions abound with the wild species,
which can be rendered fruitful by grafting. In selecting trees for the
extension of forests, there is a common-sense rule to guide us by
observing those varieties which are indigenous to the country; these can
be obtained at the lowest cost, and their success is almost assured, as
no time need be lost from the day of their removal to the new
plantation. Such trees as are rendered fruitful by grafting offer
peculiar advantages, as the stocks already exist upon which superior
varieties may be connected. The principal food of the Cypriotes consists
of olives, beans, bread, and onions; they seldom eat what we should call
"cooked food;" whether this is owing to the scarcity of fuel, or whether
it is natural in this climate to avoid flesh, I cannot determine: some
say the people are too poor, and cannot afford mutton at twopence a
pound, while at the same time they will not kill the oxen that are
required for purposes of draught; they refuse the milk of cows, and only
use that of sheep or goats. The fact remains that the country people
seldom eat butcher's meat, but subsist upon olives, oil, bread, cheese,
and vegetables.
Under these circumstances it would be natural to suppose that the
accepted articles of consumption would be highly cultivated and superior
in quality; but the reverse is the fact. The olive-oil is so inferior
that foreign oil is imported from France for the use of the upper
classes; the olives are of a poor description, and, as a rule, few
vegetables are cultivated except in the immediate vicinity of town
markets, the agricultural population or country people being too
careless to excel in horticulture, and depending mainly upon the wild
vegetables which the soil produces in abundance. If the people are too
inert to improve the qualities and to extend the cultivation of
vegetables, it is easy to comprehend their neglect of the tree-planting
so necessary to the climatic requirements of this island.
The oil-press is similar to the old-fashioned cider-mill of England. The
fruit, having been dried in the sun, is placed in a circular trough in
which the stone wheel revolves, driven by a mule and pole. When
sufficiently crushed, and reduced to a paste, it is divided into
basketfuls; these are subjected to pressure by the common vertical
screw, and the oil is expressed, but is not clarified. It is generally
rancid and unfit for European consumption. In travelling through Cyprus
the medicine-chest may dispense with castor-oil, as the olive-oil of the
country is a good substitute. By the government report, the yield of oil
in 1877 was estimated at 250,000 okes (of 2 3/4 lbs.) valued at about
nine piastres per oke, but during the same year foreign olive-oil to the
value of 1,706 pounds sterling was imported. There can be little doubt
that special attention should be bestowed upon the improvement of the
olive cultivation in Cyprus, and grafts of the best varieties should be
introduced from France and Spain; in a few years an important
improvement would result, and the superabundant oil of a propitious
season would form an article of export, instead of (as at present) being
converted into soap, as otherwise unsaleable.
Our crowd of female admirers was happily dispersed by a slight shower of
rain, and by clouds which threatened a downpour; the men remained, and a
swarthy-looking thoroughbred Turk promised to accompany me on the morrow
and show me the neighbourhood. I was informed in a mysterious whisper by
a Cypriote "that this man was a notorious robber, whose occupation was
gone since the arrival of the British;" he had formed one of a gang that
had infested the mountains, and his brother had murdered a friend of
Georgi (the van-driver), and was now in gaol at Rhodes for the capital
offence. The Turk was very intelligent, and thoroughly conversant with
the various methods of breech-loading firearms; he examined several
rifles and guns belonging to me, and at once comprehended the mechanism,
and explained it to the admiring crowd. When this individual left our
camp in the evening, the story that I had heard in outline was
corroborated by the driver Georgi, who asked me to exert my influence to
procure the hanging of the murderer now at Rhodes, as the Turkish
authorities would never execute a Turk for the murder of a Greek unless
influenced by foreign pressure. It appeared that the Cypriote had
informed against one of the gang for cattle-stealing, accordingly
several members of the fraternity picked a quarrel with him at a
drinking-shop one evening at Dali, and stabbed him fatally. My new
acquaintance, the Turk, was not present during the fray, and I could not
promise Georgi the intervention he desired.
On the following morning seven natives of Dali appeared--all
Greeks--accompanied by the ex-robber, whom I regarded as "a wicked man
who had turned away from his wickedness," with whose antecedents I had
no concern. They had brought their guns, which were at once submitted to
me for an opinion of their merits, with a vain expectation that I should
pronounce them to be "English." I was to be guided to a spot about an
hour's march distant, where partridges and hares were said to abound,
and it appeared that an impromptu shooting-party had been arranged
especially for my amusement.
I am not very fond of such sporting meetings, as the common guns of the
people, which are constantly missing fire when required to shoot, have
an awkward knack of going off when least expected; my mind was somewhat
relieved when the tactics were explained, that we (nine guns) were to
form a line of skirmishers about two hundred yards apart, commanding a
mile of country.
There is a great advantage in sport, as the search for game leads a
traveller into all kinds of places which he would otherwise leave
unseen. It is a great enjoyment to stroll over a new country accompanied
by good dogs, and combine at the same time sport and exploration.
Upon arrival at the summit of the hill range which we had passed on our
left when we had arrived at Dali, I was well repaid, and the necessity
of judging a country from a hill-top instead of from a highroad was well
exemplified. I looked down upon the highly-cultivated and fertile valley
of Lymbia, surpassing in extent the plain of Dali, and although the
successive ranges of hills and mountains were bleak and barren in their
whiteness, the intervening valleys were all occupied either by vineyards
or by fields in tillage. Even the ravines upon the steep hill-sides
which had been scored out by the rainfall of ages were artificially
arranged to catch the melted earth in its descent during heavy storms,
and to form terraces of rich alluvium.
A succession of rough walls composed of the large rocks which strewed
the surface, were built at convenient intervals across the ravines,
forming a series of dams or weirs. The soil of Cyprus is peculiar in
dissolving very quickly during a shower, and the water rolls down the
steep inclines carrying so much earth in solution, that, should its
course be checked, it deposits an important quantity, sufficient in a
few seasons to form a surface for a considerable area. The walls of the
dams are continually raised as the earth attains a higher level, and the
ground thus saved is a complete gain to the proprietor.
The few partridges were very wild, and saved my dogs the trouble of
hunting by showing themselves at a couple of hundred yards; the only
chance of shooting them depended upon stray birds passing within shot
when disturbed by the long line of guns. I only bagged one partridge and
a hare, and the rest of the party had the miserable total of two birds.
This was a fair example of the sport on the bare hill-sides of Messaria.
The new road to Mattiati was unfit for vans; I therefore rode over to
visit the camp of the 20th Regiment, eight miles distant, and after
luncheon with the officers of that regiment I accompanied their party to
Lithrodondo, the Colonel having kindly lent me a fresh horse. My aneroid
showed an increased elevation of 330 feet in the eight miles from Dali
to Mattiati. After leaving the Dali plain the road passes through the
usual hills of hard chalk, but about two miles from the entrance an
important change was exhibited in the geological structure. Eruptive
rocks had burst through the chalk, producing interesting metamorphic
phenomena. The hills no longer fatigued the eye by the desolate glare,
but the earth was a rich brown diversified with patches of bright
chocolate colour.
The greenstone cropped out through the surface in large masses,
accompanied by a peculiar dun-stone precisely similar to that of Knowles
Hill in South Devon. In a cutting through a hill-side by the government
new road veins of bright yellow ochre were exposed, also red ochre in
considerable quantities. I took samples of the yellow, which appeared to
be of a good quality; but I believe the commercial value is too
insignificant to support the charges of land-transport and the
subsequent freight from Larnaca.
Mattiati is about 1300 feet above the sea-level. The troops were camped
in wooden huts on low hills about forty feet above a flat valley, where
olive-trees throve in considerable numbers. I should not have selected
Mattiati as a sanitary station; the plain showed evident signs of bad
drainage, and the rich deep soil would become a swamp after heavy rains.
Upon the low hills within a mile of the station were vast quantities of
scoriae or slag from ancient smelting-furnaces, and the remains of
broken pottery, mingled with stones that had been used in building,
proved that important mining operations had been carried on in former
ages.
From Mattiati to Lithrodondo the country is broken and little
cultivated; there was no longer a sign of cretaceous rock, but the bold
range of mountains rose before us crowned by Makheras, 4730 feet,
apparently close above us, dark in plutonic rocks and sparsely covered
with myrtles and other evergreens. As we neared the base of the
mountains, the vegetation increased, and passing the dirty village of
Lithrodondo, we entered upon a succession of hills divided by numerous
small torrent-beds, the steep banks of which were thickly fringed with
oleanders, mastic, myrtles, and other shrubs, which formed an
inspiriting change from the weary treeless country we had left behind.
Beyond Lithrodondo are extensive vineyards; but it was late, and I was
obliged to turn back towards Dali, fifteen miles distant.
Wherever I had been since my departure from Larnaca the natives had
complained of the effects of fever to which they are subjected during
the summer months; but they were unanimous in declaring that "the
general sickness of the last year was exceptional, and that the fevers
were not of a dangerous nature." It is well known that upon our first
occupation of the island in July, 1878, all troops, both English and
Indian, suffered to a degree that would have rendered them unfit for
active service. It is true that the actual mortality was not excessive;
but the strength of an army must be reckoned by the EFFECTIVE force, and
not by numbers. There can be no doubt that, owing to a season declared
by the inhabitants to be exceptionally unhealthy, and the unfortunate
necessity for a military occupation during the extreme heat of July and
August, the troops being overworked, badly fed, and unprotected from the
sun, the newly-acquired island was stamped with a pestilential
character, and Cyprus became a byeword as a fever-smitten failure. I
shall give my personal experiences, untinged by any prejudice. The
natural features of the country produced a sad impression upon my first
arrival in a scene where the depressing influence of a barren aspect
must to a certain extent affect the nervous system; but a careful
examination of the entire surface of the island subsequently modified my
first impressions, with results which these pages will describe.
There was no object in prolonging my visit to Dali; the tombs of ancient
Idalium had already been ransacked by the consuls of various nations;
and had I felt disposed to disturb the repose of the dead, nominally in
the interests of science, but at the same time to turn an honest penny
by the sale of their remains, I should have been unable to follow the
example of the burrowing antiquarians who had preceded me; a prohibition
having been placed upon all such enterprises by the English government.
It is supposed that Idalium is one of the largest and richest treasuries
of the dead in Cyprus. For several centuries the tombs had been
excavated and pillaged in the hopes of discovering objects of value. The
first robbers were those who were simply influenced by the gold and
other precious ornaments which were accompaniments of the corpse; the
modern despoilers were resurrectionists who worked with the object of
supplying any museums that would purchase the funeral spoil.
It is a curious contradiction in our ideas of propriety, which are
measured apparently by uncertain intervals of time, that we regard as
felonious a man who disinters a body and steals a ring from the fingers
of the corpse a few days after burial in an English churchyard, but we
honour and admire an individual who upon a wholesale scale digs up old
cemeteries and scatters the bones of ancient kings and queens, princes,
priests, and warriors, and having collected the jewellery, arms, and
objects of vanity that were buried with them, neglects the once honoured
bones, but sells the gold and pottery to the highest bidder. Sentiment
is measured and weighed by periods, and as grief is mitigated by time,
so also is our respect for the dead, even until we barter their ashes
for gold as an honourable transaction.
The most important object of antiquity that has been recently discovered
by excavations at Dali is the statue of Sargon, king of Assyria, 707
B.C., to whom the Cypriote kings paid tribute. This was sent to the
Berlin Museum by Mr. Hamilton Lang, and is described in his interesting
work upon Cyprus during the term of several years' consulship.
The ruins of ancient cities offer no attraction to the traveller in this
island, as nothing is to be seen upon the surface except disjointed
stones and a few fallen columns of the commonest description. The
destruction has been complete, and if we wish to make discoveries, it is
necessary to excavate to a considerable depth; but as all such
explorations are prohibited, the subject remains fruitless. General di
Cesnola, whose work upon the antiquities of Cyprus must remain
unrivalled, describes the tombs as from forty to fifty-five feet beneath
the present surface, and even those great depths had not secured them
from disturbance, as many that he opened had already been ransacked by
former explorers.
On the 7th of February the thermometer at eight A.M. was only 40
degrees. The oxen were put into their yokes, and after a discussion
concerning the best route to Lefkosia, it was agreed that Georgi should
be the responsible guide, as he was a native of the country.
When travelling on horseback through the district of Messaria there is
no difficulty of roads, provided you know the country thoroughly, as you
may canter, in the absence of enclosures, in any direction you may
please; but the Cypriotes have an awkward habit of leading their
watercourses straight through any route that may exist for wheeled
conveyances, and you suddenly arrive at a deep ditch and high bank,
which block the thoroughfare. Georgi had assured us that no difficulty
would delay us between Dali and the high road from Larnaca to Lefkosia,
which we should intersect about half-way between the two termini.
Instead of this, after travelling for a couple of miles along a good
hardened track, we arrived at a series of trenches which effectually
stopped all progress. Each van had a pickaxe and shovel, therefore we
all set to work in rapid relief of each other to level the obstructions,
and by this hard exercise the thermometer appeared to rise quickly from
the low temperature of the morning. The oxen were good, and by dint of
our united exertions in heaving the wheels and pushing behind, we
dragged the vans through the soft ground that had filled the ditches,
and then slowly travelled across ploughed fields and alternate plains of
a hard surface covered with abominable thistles.
We passed on our left a large farm that exhibited a wonderful contrast
to the general barrenness of the country. The fields were green with
young wheat and barley, and numerous sakyeeahs or cattle-wheels for
raising water supplied the means of unfailing irrigation. I believe this
property belonged to Mr. Mattei, and there could be no stronger example
of the power that should be developed throughout this island to render
it independent of precarious seasons. It is a simple question of a first
outlay that is absolutely necessary to ensure the crops. Throughout the
barren plain of Messaria water exists in unfailing quantity within a few
yards of the parched surface--thus at the same time that the crops are
perishing from the want of rain, the roots are actually within a few
feet of the desired supply. The cattle-wheels of Cyprus are very
inferior to the sakyeeah of Egypt, but are arranged upon a similar
principle, by a chain of earthenware pots or jars upon a rope and wheel,
which, revolving above a deep cistern, ascend from the depth below, and
deliver the water into a trough or reservoir upon the surface. From the
general reservoir small watercourses conduct the stream to any spot
desired. This is the most ancient system of artificial irrigation by
machinery, and it is better adapted for the requirements of this country
than any expensive European inventions. As I shall devote a chapter
specially to the all-important question of irrigation, I shall postpone
further remarks upon the cattle-wheel; but the farm in question which
formed a solitary green oasis in the vast expanse of withered surface
was a sufficient example of the necessity, and of the fruitful result of
this simple and inexpensive method. It is a mere question of outlay, and
the government must assist the cultivators by loans for the special
erection of water-wheels. But of this more hereafter.
At about six miles from Dali we struck the road between Larnaca and
Lefkosia (or Nicosia). The newly-established mail-coach with four horses
passed us, with only one passenger. We met it again on the following
day, with a solitary unit; and it appeared that the four horses on many
occasions had no other weight behind them than the driver and the
letters. With this instance of inertia before their eyes, certain
lunatics (or WISE CONTRACTORS) suggested the necessity of a railway for
twenty-eight miles to connect the two capitals! The mail had an
ephemeral existence, and after running fruitlessly to and fro for a few
months, it withdrew altogether, leaving an abundant space in Cyprus for
my two vans, without the slightest chance of a collision upon the new
highway, as there were no other carriages on the roads, excepting the
few native two-wheeled carts.
We halted five miles from Lefkosia, where a new stone bridge was in
process of construction and was nearly completed. We had already passed
a long and extremely narrow Turkish bridge across the river about four
miles in our rear. By pacing I made the new bridge twenty-nine feet, the
same width as the road, and I could not help thinking that a much less
expensive commencement would have been sufficient to meet the
requirements of the country. In Cyprus the rainfall is generally slight
and the earth is tenacious, and in dry weather exceedingly hard; if half
the width of the road had been carefully metalled in the first instance,
a great expense would have been saved at a time when the island was
sadly in want of money; the natural surface of the firm soil would have
been preferred by all vehicles except during rain, when they would have
adopted the metalled parallel way. It is easy to criticise after the
event, and there can be no doubt that upon our first occupation of the
island a much greater traffic was expected, and the road between the two
capitals was arranged accordingly. We halted for the night at the new
stone bridge, which, as usual in Cyprus, spanned a channel perfectly
devoid of water. On the following morning we marched to Lefkosia, and
passing to the left of the walled town, we reached the newly-erected
Government House, about a mile and a half distant, where we received a
kind and hospitable welcome from the High Commissioner, Sir Garnet, and
Lady Wolseley.
The position of the new Government House was well chosen. The character
of the dreary plain of Messaria is the same throughout; flat
table-topped hills of sedimentary calcareous limestone, abounding with
fossil shells, represent the ancient sea-bottom, which has been
upheaved. The surface of these table-heights is hard for a depth of
about six feet, forming an upper stratum of rock which can be used for
building; beneath this are marls and friable cretaceous stone, which
during rains are washed away. The continual process of undermining by
the decay of the lower strata has caused periodical disruption of the
hard upper stratum, which has fallen off in huge blocks and rolled down
the rough inclines that form the sides. As the water during heavy rains
percolates through the crevices of the upper stratum, it dissolves the
softer material beneath, and oozing through the steep inclination,
carries large quantities in solution to the lower level and deposits
this fertilising marl upon the plain below. In this manner the low
ground of the rich but dreary Messaria has been formed through the decay
and denudation of the higher levels, and the process will continue until
the present table-topped hills shall be entirely washed away. The stone
of the upper surface, which forms a hard crust to the friable strata
beneath, is in many places merely the roof of caverns which have been
hollowed out by the action of water as described.
The Government House was erected upon one of these flat-topped hills in
a direct line about 1900 yards from the nearest portion of Lefkosia. It
was a wooden construction forming three sides of a quadrangle. The
quarters for the military staff were wooden huts, and the line of
heights thus occupied could not fail to attract the eye of a soldier as
a splendid strategical position, completely commanding Lefkosia and the
surrounding country. From this point an admirable view was presented
upon all sides. The river Pedias (the largest in Cyprus), when it
possessed water, would flow for about 270 degrees of a circle around the
base of the position, the sides of the hill rising abruptly from the
stream. The dry shingly bed was about 120 yards in width, and although
destitute of water at this point, sufficient was obtained some miles
higher up the river to irrigate a portion of the magnificent plain which
bordered either side. Sir Garnet Wolseley was endeavouring to put a new
face on the treeless surface, and had already planted several acres of
the Eucalyptus globulus and other varieties on the lower ground, while
date-palms of full growth had been conveyed bodily to the natural
terrace around the Government House and carefully transplanted into
pits. This change was a considerable relief to the eye, and the trees,
if well supplied with water, will in a few years create a grove where
all was barrenness.
The view from each portion of the terrace is exceedingly interesting, as
it commands a panorama for a distance of nearly thirty miles. On the
north is the range of mountains, about twelve miles distant, which form
the backbone of Cyprus, and run from east to west, attaining the height
of 3400 feet. This is a peculiar geological feature in the island, as it
is the only instance of compact (or jurassic) limestone. Through my
powerful astronomical telescope I could plainly distinguish every rock,
and the Castle of Buffavento upon the summit of the perpendicular crags
afforded an interesting object, although invisible to the naked eye. The
south and east presented a miserable aspect in the brown desert-like
plain of Messaria, broken by the numerous flat-topped hills to which I
have already alluded. On the west the important mountain-range which
includes Troodos bounded the view by the snow-capped heights of the
ancient Mount Olympus, between which several chains of lower hills
formed a dark base of plutonic rocks, which contrasted with the painful
glare of the immediate foreground. The highest points of this range are
Troodos, 6590 feet, Adelphe, 5380 feet, Makhera, 4730 feet. These are
the measurements as they appear upon the maps; but the recent survey by
the Royal Engineers has reduced the height of Troodos by 250 feet. A
green patch at the foot of the Carpas range denoted the position of
Kythrea, about twelve miles distant east, watered by the extraordinary
spring which has rendered it famous both in ancient and modern times;
and almost at our feet, or a mile in a direct line, the fortified
capital, Lefkosia, presented the usual picturesque appearance of a
Turkish town. A combination of date-palms, green orange-gardens,
minarets, mosques, houses quaint in their irregularity and colouring,
and the grand old Venetian Cathedral, St. Sophia, towering above all
other buildings, were enclosed within the high masonry walls and
bastions, comprising a circuit of three statute miles.
The position of Lefkosia has been badly chosen, as it lies in the flat,
and must always have been exposed to a plunging fire from an enemy
posted upon the heights. It was fortified in the time of Constantine the
Great, but in 1570 the Venetians demolished the old works and
constructed the present elaborate fortifications. Although the walls are
in several places crumbling into ruins, they are still imposing in
appearance, and present a clean front of masonry flanked by eleven
bastions, and entered by three gates, those of Baffo, Famagousta, and
Kyrenia. The original ditch can be traced in various places, but the
counterscarp and glacis have been destroyed; therefore the soil has
washed in during the rainy seasons, and to an unpractised eye has
obliterated all traces of the former important work. On the other hand,
the disappearance of the glacis renders the height of the walls still
more imposing, as they rise for thirty or forty feet abruptly from the
level base, and at a distance maintain the appearance of good condition.
It is difficult to imagine the reason which induced the Venetians to
reproduce Lefkosia after they had demolished the original
fortifications; but it is probable that they had already erected the
cathedral before the expected Turkish invasion rendered the improved
defences necessary. Although in the early days of artillery shell-fire
was unknown, both the Turks and Venetians possessed guns of heavy
calibre far exceeding any that were used in Great Britain until recent
years. The marble shot which are still to be seen in Famagousta are the
same which served in the defence of that fortress in 1571. These are
nearly eleven inches in diameter, while in the fort of Kyrenia the stone
shot are still existing, nineteen inches in diameter, composed of an
exceedingly hard and heavy metamorphic rock. The long bronze guns which
threw the smaller stone shot of from six to eleven inches, would command
a far more extensive range than the interval of the heights which
dominate Lefkosia; and even should battering have been ineffective at
that distance against walls of masonry, the plunging fire would have
destroyed the town and rendered it untenable.
Traces are still visible of the Turkish approaches when the town was
successfully carried by storm on the 9th of September, 1570, after a
siege of only forty-five days. The short duration of the attack compared
to the length of time required in the siege of Famagousta, which at
length succumbed to famine, and not to direct assaults, is a proof of
the faulty strategical position of the fortress of Lefkosia.
Most Turkish towns are supplied with water by aqueducts from a
considerable distance, which would naturally be cut by an enemy as the
first operation. The water is brought to Lefkosia from the hills at some
miles' distance, and is of excellent quality; but the wells of the town
must be contaminated by sewage, as there is no means of effective
drainage upon the dead level of the town, unless the original ditch is
turned into a pestilential cesspool. The filth of centuries must have
been imbibed by the soil, and during the process of infiltration must in
successive rainy seasons have found its way to the wells. In case of
invasion, Lefkosia could never have resisted a prolonged siege, as in
the absence of the aqueduct a garrison would quickly have succumbed to
disease when dependent for a water-supply upon the wells alone. When the
Turks captured the city by assault, the population far exceeded that of
the present time (16,000), and the greater portion were massacred during
several days of sack and pillage. Some thousands of girls and boys were
transported to Constantinople. Richard I. of England occupied Lefkosia
without resistance, after his victory over Isaac Comnenus.
Although experienced in the illusion of Turkish towns, I was more than
disappointed when I visited the interior of Lefkosia. The new Chief
Commissioner, Colonel Biddulph, R.A., C.B., had already improved certain
streets, and the eye was immediately attracted to points which bore the
unmistakable stamp of a British occupation; but nothing can be effected
in the arrangement of such a town without an unlimited purse and a
despotic power. It is almost as hopeless as London in the incongruity of
architecture, and the individual indulgence of independent taste, which
absolutely dismays a stranger. The beautiful Gothic cathedral of the
Venetians has been converted into a mosque by the conquerors, and two
exceedingly lofty and thin minarets have added an absurd embellishment,
resembling two gigantic candles capped by extinguishers, as though the
altar-tapers had been taken for the models. The neighbouring church of
St. Nicholas has been converted into a granary. In all Turkish towns the
bazaars are the most interesting portion, as they illustrate the
commercial and agricultural industries of the country. Those of Lefkosia
formed a labyrinth of the usual narrow streets, and resembled each other
so closely that it was difficult to find the way. The preparation of
leather from the first process of tanning is exhibited on an extensive
scale, which does not add to the natural sweetness of the air. Native
manufactures for which the town is celebrated, that are more agreeable,
may be purchased at a moderate price in the shape of silk stuffs; and a
variety of mule-harness, pack-saddles, and the capacious double bags of
hair and wool that, slung across the animal, are almost indispensable to
the traveller. There were a few shops devoted to European articles which
were hardly adapted to the country, and were expensive in a ridiculous
degree. The narrow streets were muddy from the recent rain, and the
temperature was at 55 degrees, but the inhabitants were sitting at the
various cafes in the open air smoking and drinking their steaming coffee
as though in summer. From natural politeness they invariably rose as we
passed by, and at one place I was immediately furnished with a string
that I might measure a large vine-stem which during summer must afford a
dense shade. I found the main stem of this unusual specimen was
twenty-two inches in circumference.
The only agreeable walk in Lefkosia is the circuit of the ramparts, as
the high elevation admits of fresh air and an extensive view. From this
we looked down upon numerous gardens well irrigated by the surplus water
of the aqueduct, and the remarkably healthy orange and lemon trees were
crowded with their loads of ripe fruit. There are many good and roomy
houses in the town, each furnished with a considerable garden, but as
they are surrounded with high walls, it is difficult to form an opinion
of their actual dimensions. The house occupied by the Chief Commissioner
is large and well constructed, the staircase and landing airy and
capacious, with an entrance-hall open at the extreme end and well
arranged for the burning climate during summer. All houses are paved
with slabs of gypsum, which abound in many parts of the island, and are
sold at a remarkably low price, as the blocks laminate, and are divided
into sheets of the required thickness with a minimum of labour.
The Turkish Pacha (Rifat) still remained at Lefkosia, as he was
responsible for the transfer of various movable property to
Constantinople. The interesting Venetian cannon of bronze that were
utterly valueless as modern weapons had been conveyed away both from
Lefkosia and Famagousta. One of these was a double octagon, or
sixteen-sided, and would have been a valuable specimen in the collection
at the Tower of London. Many of the curious old Venetian cannon had
recently been burst into fragments with dynamite, to save the trouble of
moving the heavy guns entire.
There can be little doubt that the prime object in selecting a central
position for the capital of Cyprus was a regard for safety from any
sudden attack; but upon any other grounds I cannot conceive a greater
absurdity. The capital should be Limasol, which will become the
Liverpool of Cyprus. Lefkosia is completely out of the commercial route;
it is valueless as a military position, and it offers no climatic
advantage, but, on the contrary, it is frightfully hot in the summer
months, and is secluded from the more active portions of the island. It
IS, simply because it WAS; but it should remain as a vestige of the
past, and no longer represent the capital. *
(The census of Nicosia, taken on 31st January, 1879, represents the
population as follows:--
No. of houses:-- 2,463
Population by sex:--
Males above 15 . . . . . . . . 3,773
Males under 15 . . . . . . . . 1,900
Females above 14 . . . . . . . 3,718
Females under 14 . . . . . . . 1,806
Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,197
Population by religion:--
English . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Greek Church. . . . . . . . . . 5,251
Catholics . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Mohammedans . . . . . . . . . . 5,628
Armenians . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Jews. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,197 )
There is no position throughout the plain of Messaria adapted for a
permanent government establishment as head-quarters. The depressing
effect of that horrible landscape, embracing the extensive area from
Trichomo and Famagousta to Larnaca, Lefkosia, and Morphu, is most
demoralising, and few Europeans would be able to resist the deleterious
climate of summer, and the general heart-sinking that results in a
nervous despondency when the dreary and treeless plain is ever present
to the view. There is no reason why officials should be condemned to the
purgatory of such a station when Cyprus possesses superior positions
where the great business of the future will be conducted. The new road
already completed from Larnaca to Lefkosia must be carried on to Morphu,
and thus connect the north and south extremities of the plain; Kyrenia,
sixteen miles distant, must be connected with Lefkosia; branches must
then be extended to Kythrea and to Famagousta; and subsequently, from
the latter town a direct road must be continued parallel with the south
coast to Larnaca. Such roads may be constructed for about 350 pounds per
mile at the low rate of labour in Cyprus, considering the presence of
stone throughout the district, and their completion will open the entire
plain of Messaria to wheeled communication with four ports, to north and
south.