COOKERY
Cookery is the art of preparing food for the nourishment of the body.
Prehistoric man may have lived on uncooked foods, but there are no
savage races to-day who do not practise cookery in some way, however
crude. Progress in civilization has been accompanied by progress in
cookery.
Much time has been given in the last few years to the study of foods,
their necessary proportions, and manner of cooking them. Educators have
been shown by scientists that this knowledge should be disseminated; as
a result, “Cookery” is found in the curriculum of public schools of many
of our towns and cities.
Food is cooked to develop new flavors, to make it more palatable and
digestible, and to destroy micro-organisms. For cooking there are three
essentials (besides the material to be cooked),—heat, air, and moisture.
=Heat= is molecular motion, and is produced by combustion. Heat used for
cookery is obtained by the combustion of inflammable substances—wood,
coal, charcoal, coke, gas, gasoline, kerosene, and alcohol—called fuels.
Heat for cookery is applied by radiation, conduction, and convection.
=Air= is composed of oxygen, nitrogen, and argon, and surrounds
everything. Combustion cannot take place without it, the oxygen of the
air being the only supporter of combustion.
=Moisture=, in the form of water, either found in the food or added to
it.
The combined effect of heat and moisture swells and bursts
starch-grains; hardens albumen in eggs, fish, and meat; softens fibrous
portions of meat, and cellulose of vegetables.
Among fuels, kerosene oil is the cheapest; gas gives the greatest amount
of heat in the shortest time. _Soft wood_, like pine, on account of its
coarse fibre, burns quickly; therefore makes the best kindling. _Hard
wood_, like oak and ash, having the fibres closely packed, burns slowly,
and is used in addition to pine wood for kindling coal. Where only wood
is used as a fuel, it is principally hard wood.
_Charcoal_ for fuel is produced by the smothered combustion of wood. It
gives an intense, even heat, therefore makes a good broiling fire. Its
use for kindling is not infrequent.
There are two kinds of coal: _Anthracite_, or _hard coal_. Examples:
Hard and free-burning White Ash, Shamokin, and Franklin. Nut is any kind
of hard coal obtained from screenings. _Bituminous_, or _soft coal_.
Example: cannel coal.
_Coke_ is the solid product of carbonized coal, and bears the same
relation to coal that charcoal bears to wood.
_Alcohol_ is employed as fuel when the chafing-dish is used.
FIRE
Fire for cookery is confined in a stove or range, so that heat may be
utilized and regulated. Flame-heat is obtained from kerosene, gas, or
alcohol, as used in oil-stoves, gas-stoves or gas-ranges, and
chafing-dishes.
=A cooking-stove= is a large iron box set on legs. It has a fire-box in
the front, the sides of which are lined with fireproof material similar
to that of which bricks are made. The bottom is furnished with a movable
iron grate. Underneath the fire-box is a space which extends from the
grate to a pan for receiving ashes. At the back of fire-box is a
compartment called the oven, accessible on each side of the stove by a
door. Between the oven and the top of the stove is a space for the
circulation of air.
Stoves are connected with chimney-flues by means of a stovepipe, and
have dampers to regulate the supply of air and heat, and as an outlet
for smoke and gases.
The damper below the fire-box is known as the _front damper_, by means
of which the air supply is regulated, thus regulating the heat.
The oven is heated by a circulation of hot air. This is accomplished by
closing the _oven-damper_, which is situated near the oven. When this
damper is left open, the hot air rushes up the chimney. The damper near
the chimney is known as the _chimney-damper_. When open it gives a free
outlet for the escape of smoke and gas. When partially closed, as is
usually the case in most ranges, except when the fire is started, it
serves as a saver of heat. There is also a _check_, which, when open,
cools the fire and saves heat, but should always be closed except when
used for this purpose.
Stoves are but seldom used, portable ranges having taken their places.
=A portable range= is a cooking-stove with one oven door; it often has
an under oven, of use for warming dishes and keeping food hot.
=A set range= is built in a fireplace. It usually has two ovens, one on
each side of the fire-box, or two above it at the back. Set ranges, as
they consume so large an amount of fuel, are being replaced by portable
ones.
HOW TO BUILD A FIRE
Before starting to build a fire, free the grate from ashes. To do this,
put on covers, close front and back dampers, and open oven-damper; turn
grate, and ashes will fall into the ash receiver. If these rules are not
followed, ashes will fly over the room. Turn grate back into place,
remove the covers over fire-box, and cover grate with pieces of paper
(twisted in centre and left loose at the ends). Cover paper with small
sticks, or pieces of pine wood, being sure that the wood reaches the
ends of fire-box, and so arranged that it will admit air. Over pine wood
arrange hard wood; then sprinkle with two shovelfuls of coal. Put on
covers, open closed dampers, strike a match,—sufficient friction is
formed to burn the phosphorus, this in turn lights the sulphur, and the
sulphur the wood,—then apply the lighted match under the grate, and you
have a fire.
Now blacken the stove. Begin at front of range, and work towards the
back; as the iron heats, a good polish may be obtained. When the wood is
thoroughly kindled, add more coal. A blue flame will soon appear, which
is the gas (CO) in the coal burning to carbon dioxide (CO_{2}), when the
blue flame changes to a white flame; then the oven-damper should be
closed. In a few moments the front damper may be nearly closed, leaving
space to admit sufficient oxygen to feed the fire. It is sometimes
forgotten that oxygen is necessary to keep a fire burning. As soon as
the coal is well ignited, half close the chimney-damper, unless the
draft be very poor.
Never allow the fire-box to be more than three-fourths filled. When
full, the draft is checked, a larger amount of fuel is consumed, and
much heat is lost. This is a point that should be impressed on the mind
of the cook.
Ashes must be removed and sifted daily; pick over and save good
coals,—which are known as cinders,—throwing out useless pieces, known as
clinkers.
If a fire is used constantly during the day, replenish coal frequently,
but in small quantities. If for any length of time the fire is not
needed, open check, the dampers being closed; when again wanted for use,
close check, open front damper, and with a poker rake out ashes from
under fire, and wait for fire to burn brightly before adding new coal.
Coal when red hot has parted with most of its heat. Some refuse to
believe this, and insist upon keeping dampers open until most of the
heat has escaped into the chimney.
To keep a fire over night, remove the ashes from under the fire, put on
enough coal to fill the box, close the dampers, and lift the back covers
enough to admit air. This is better than lifting the covers over the
fire-box and prevents poisonous gases entering the room.
WAYS OF COOKING
The principal ways of cooking are boiling, broiling, stewing, roasting,
baking, frying, sautéing, braising, and fricasseeing.
=Boiling= is cooking in boiling water. Solid food so cooked is called
boiled food, though literally this expression is incorrect. Examples:
boiled eggs, potatoes, mutton, etc.
Water boils at 212° F. (sea level), and simmers at 185° F. Slowly
boiling water has the same temperature as rapidly boiling water,
consequently is able to do the same work,—a fact often forgotten by the
cook, who is too apt “to wood” the fire that water may boil vigorously.
Watery vapor and steam pass off from boiling water. Steam is invisible;
watery vapor is visible, and is often miscalled steam. Cooking utensils
commonly used admit the escape of watery vapor and steam; thereby much
heat is lost if food is cooked in rapidly boiling water.
Water is boiled for two purposes: first, cooking of itself to destroy
organic impurities; second, for cooking foods. Boiling water toughens
and hardens albumen in eggs; toughens fibrin and dissolves tissues in
meat; bursts starch-grains and softens cellulose in cereals and
vegetables. Milk should never be allowed to boil. At boiling temperature
(214° F.) the casein is slightly hardened, and the fat is rendered more
difficult of digestion. Milk heated over boiling water, as in a double
boiler, is called _scalded milk_, and reaches a temperature of 196° F.
When foods are cooked over hot water the process is called steaming.
=Stewing= is cooking in a small amount of hot water for a long time at
low temperature; it is the most economical way of cooking meats, as all
nutriment is retained, and the ordinary way of cooking cheaper cuts.
Thus fibre and connective tissues are softened, and the whole is made
tender and palatable.
=Broiling= is cooking over or in front of a clear fire. The food to be
cooked is usually placed in a greased broiler or on a gridiron held near
the coals, turned often at first to sear the outside,—thus preventing
escape of inner juices,—afterwards turned occasionally. Tender meats and
fish may be cooked in this way. The flavor obtained by broiling is
particularly fine; there is, however, a greater loss of weight in this
than in any other way of cooking, as the food thus cooked is exposed to
free circulation of air. When coal is not used, or a fire is not in
condition for broiling, a plan for _pan broiling_ has been adopted. This
is done by placing food to be cooked in a hissing hot frying-pan,
turning often as in broiling.
=Roasting= is cooking before a clear fire, with a reflector to
concentrate the heat. Heat is applied in the same way as for broiling,
the difference being that the meat for roasting is placed on a spit and
allowed to revolve, thicker pieces alway being employed. Tin-kitchens
are now but seldom used. Meats cooked in a range oven, though really
baked, are said to be roasted. Meats so cooked are pleasing to the sight
and agreeable to the palate, although, according to Edward Atkinson, not
so easily digested as when cooked at a lower temperature in the Aladdin
oven.
=Baking= is cooking in a range oven.
=Frying= is cooking by means of immersion in deep fat raised to a
temperature of 350° to 400° F. For frying purposes olive oil, lard, beef
drippings, cottolene, coto suet, and cocoanut butter are used. A
combination of two-thirds lard and one-third beef suet (tried out and
clarified) is better than lard alone. Cottolene, coto suet, and cocoanut
butter are economical, inasmuch as they may be heated to a high
temperature without discoloring, therefore may be used for a larger
number of fryings. Cod fat obtained from beef is often used by _chefs_
for frying.
Great care should be taken in frying that fat is of the right
temperature; otherwise food so cooked will absorb fat.
Nearly all foods which do not contain eggs are dipped in flour or
crumbs, egg, and crumbs, before frying. The intense heat of fat hardens
the albumen, thus forming a coating which prevents food from “soaking
fat.”
When meat or fish is to be fried, it should be kept in a warm room for
some time previous to cooking, and wiped as dry as possible. If cold, it
decreases the temperature of the fat to such extent that a coating is
not formed quickly enough to prevent fat from penetrating the food. The
ebullition of fat is due to water found in food to be cooked.
Great care must be taken that too much is not put into the fat at one
time, not only because it lowers the temperature of the fat, but because
it causes it to bubble and go over the sides of the kettle. It is not
fat that boils, but water which fat has received from food.
All fried food on removal from fat should be drained on brown paper.
=Rules for Testing Fat for Frying.= 1. When the fat begins to smoke,
drop in an inch cube of bread from soft part of loaf, and if in forty
seconds it is golden brown, the fat is then of right temperature for
frying any cooked mixture.
2. Use same test for uncooked mixtures, allowing one minute for bread to
brown.
Many kinds of food may be fried in the same fat; new fat should be used
for batter and dough mixtures, potatoes, and fishballs; after these,
fish, meat, and croquettes. Fat should be frequently clarified.
=To Clarify Fat.= Melt fat, add raw potato cut in quarter-inch slices,
and allow fat to heat gradually; when fat ceases to bubble and potatoes
are well browned, strain through double cheese-cloth, placed over wire
strainer, into a pan. The potato absorbs any odors or gases, and
collects to itself some of the sediment, remainder settling to bottom of
kettle.
When small amount of fat is to be clarified, add to cold fat boiling
water, stir vigorously, and set aside to cool; the fat will form a cake
on top, which may be easily removed; on bottom of the cake will be found
sediment, which may be readily scraped off with a knife.
Remnants of fat, either cooked or uncooked, should be saved and tried
out, and when necessary clarified.
Fat from beef, poultry, chicken, and pork, may be used for shortening or
frying purposes; fat from mutton and smoked meats may be used for making
hard and soft soap; fat removed from soup stock, the water in which
corned beef has been cooked, and drippings from roast beef, may be tried
out, clarified, and used for shortening or frying purposes.
=To Try out Fat.= Cut in small pieces and melt in top of a double
boiler; in this way it will require less watching than if placed in
kettle on the back of range. Leaf lard is tried out in the same way; in
cutting the leaf, remove membrane. After straining lard, that which
remains may be salted, pressed, and eaten as a relish, and is called
scraps.
=Sautéing= is frying in a small quantity of fat. Food so cooked is much
more difficult of digestion than when fried in deep fat; it is
impossible to cook in this way without the food absorbing fat. A
frying-pan or griddle is used; the food is cooked on one side, then
turned, and cooked on the other.
=Braising= is stewing and baking (meat). Meat to be braised is
frequently first sautéd to prevent escape of much juice in the gravy.
The meat is placed in a pan with a small quantity of stock or water,
vegetables (carrot, turnip, celery, and onion) cut in pieces, salt,
pepper, and sweet herbs. The pan should have a tight-fitting cover. Meat
so prepared should be cooked in an oven at low uniform temperature for a
long time. This is an economical way of cooking, and the only way
besides stewing or boiling of making a large piece of tough meat
palatable and digestible.
=Fricasseeing= is sautéing and serving with a sauce. Tender meat is
fricasseed without previous cooking; less tender meat requires cooking
in hot water before fricasseeing. Although veal is obtained from a young
creature, it requires long cooking; it is usually sautéd, and then
cooked in a sauce at low temperature for a long time.
VARIOUS WAYS OF PREPARING FOOD FOR COOKING
=Egging and Crumbing.= Use for crumbing dried bread crumbs which have
been rolled and sifted, or soft stale bread broken in pieces and forced
through a colander. An ingenious machine on the market, “The Bread
Crumber,” does this work. Egg used for crumbing should be broken into a
shallow plate and beaten with a silver fork to blend yolk and white;
dilute each egg with two tablespoons water. The crumbs should be taken
on a board; food to be fried should be first rolled in crumbs (care
being taken that all parts are covered with crumbs), then dipped in egg
mixture (equal care being taken to cover all parts), then rolled in
crumbs again; after the last crumbing remove food to a place on the
board where there are no crumbs, and shake off some of the outer ones
which make coating too thick. A broad-bladed knife with short handle—the
Teller knife—is the most convenient utensil for lifting food to be
crumbed from egg mixture. Small scallops, oysters, and crabs are more
easily crumbed by putting crumbs and fish in paper and shaking paper
until the fish is covered with crumbs. The object of first crumbing is
to dry the surface that egg may cling to it; and where a thin coating is
desired flour is often used in place of crumbs.
=Larding= is introducing small pieces of fat salt pork or bacon through
the surface of uncooked meat. The flavor of lean and dry meat is much
improved by larding; tenderloin of beef (fillet), grouse, partridge,
pigeon, and liver are often prepared in this way. Pig pork being firm,
is best for larding. Pork should be kept in a cold place that it may be
well chilled. Remove rind and use the part of pork which lies between
rind and vein. With sharp knife (which is sure to make a clean cut)
remove slices a little less than one-fourth inch thick; cut the slices
into strips a little less than one-fourth inch wide; these strips should
be two and one-fourth inches long, and are called _lardoons_. Lardoons
for small birds—quail, for example—should be cut smaller and not quite
so long. To lard, insert one end of lardoon into larding-needle, hold
needle firmly, and with pointed end take up a stitch one-third inch deep
and three-fourths inch wide; draw needle through, care being taken that
lardoon is left in meat and its ends project to equal lengths. Arrange
lardoons in parallel rows, one inch apart, stitches in the alternate
rows being directly underneath each other. Lard the upper surface of
cuts of meat with the grain, never across it. In birds, insert lardoons
at right angles to breastbone on either side. When large lardoons are
forced through meat from surface to surface, the process is called
daubing. Example: Beef à la mode. Thin slices of fat salt pork placed
over meat may be substituted for larding, but flavor is not the same as
when pork is drawn through flesh, and the dish is far less sightly.
=Boning= is removing bones from meat or fish, leaving the flesh nearly
in its original shape. For boning, a small sharp knife with pointed
blade is essential. Legs of mutton and veal and loins of beef may be
ordered boned at market, no extra charge being made.
Whoever wishes to learn how to bone should first be taught boning of a
small bird; when this is accomplished, larger birds, chickens, and
turkeys may easily be done, the processes varying but little. In large
birds tendons are drawn from legs, and the wings are left on and boned.
How to Bone a Bird
In buying birds for boning, select those which have been fresh killed,
dry picked, and not drawn. Singe, remove pinfeathers, head, and feet,
and cut off wings close to body. Lay bird on a board, breast down.
Begin at neck and with sharp knife cut through the skin the entire
length of body. Scrape the flesh from backbone until end of one
shoulder-blade is found; scrape flesh from shoulder-blade and continue
around wing joint, cutting through tendinous portions which are
encountered; then bone other side. Scrape skin from backbone the entire
length of body, working across the ribs. Free wishbone and collar-bones,
at same time removing crop and windpipe; continue down breastbone,
particular care being taken not to break the skin as it lies very near
bone, or to cut the delicate membranes which enclose entrails. Scrape
flesh from second joints and drumsticks, laying it back and drawing off
as a glove may be drawn from the hand. Withdraw carcass and put flesh
back in its original shape. In large birds where wings are boned, scrape
flesh to middle joint, where bone should be broken, leaving bone at tip
end to assist in preserving shape.
How to Measure
Correct measurements are absolutely necessary to insure the best
results. Good judgment, with experience, has taught some to measure by
sight; but the majority need definite guides.
Tin, granite-ware, and glass measuring cups, divided in quarters or
thirds, holding one half-pint, and tea and table spoons of regulation
sizes,—which may be bought at any store where kitchen furnishings are
sold,—and a case knife, are essentials for correct measurement.
Mixing-spoons, which are little larger than tablespoons, should not be
confounded with the latter.
=Measuring Ingredients.= Flour, meal, powdered and confectioners’ sugar,
and soda should be sifted before measuring. Mustard and baking-powder,
from standing in boxes, settle, therefore should be stirred to lighten;
salt frequently lumps, and these lumps should be broken. A _cupful_ is
measured level. To measure a cupful, put in the ingredient by spoonfuls
or from a scoop, round slightly, and level with a case knife, care being
taken not to shake the cup. _A tablespoonful is measured level. A
teaspoonful is measured level._
To measure tea or table spoonfuls, dip the spoon in the ingredient,
fill, lift, and level with a knife, the sharp edge of knife being toward
tip of spoon. Divide with knife lengthwise of spoon, for a
half-spoonful; divide halves crosswise for quarters, and quarters
crosswise for eighths. Less than one-eighth of a teaspoonful is
considered a few grains.
=Measuring Liquids.= A cupful of liquid is all the cup will hold.
A tea or table spoonful is all the spoon will hold.
=Measuring Butter, Lard, etc.= To measure butter, lard, and other solid
fats, pack solidly into cup or spoon, and level with a knife.
When dry ingredients, liquids, and fats are called for in the same
recipe, measure in the order given, thereby using but one cup.
How to Combine Ingredients
Next to measuring comes care in combining,—a fact not always recognized
by the inexperienced. Three ways are considered,—stirring, beating, and
cutting and folding.
=To stir=, mix by using circular motion, widening the circles until all
is blended. Stirring is the motion ordinarily employed in all cookery,
alone or in combination with beating.
=To beat=, turn ingredient or ingredients over and over, continually
bringing the under part to the surface, thus allowing the utensil used
for beating to be constantly brought in contact with bottom of the dish
and throughout the mixture.
=To cut and fold=, introduce one ingredient into another ingredient or
mixture by two motions: with a spoon, a repeated vertical downward
motion, known as cutting; and a turning over and over of mixture,
allowing bowl of spoon each time to come in contact with bottom of dish,
is called folding. These repeated motions are alternated until thorough
blending is accomplished.
=By stirring=, ingredients are mixed; _by beating_, a large amount of
air is enclosed; _by cutting and folding_, air already introduced is
prevented from escaping.
Ways of Preserving
1. =By Freezing.= Foods which spoil readily are frozen for
transportation, and must be kept packed in ice until used. Examples:
Fish and poultry.
2. =By Refrigeration.= Foods so preserved are kept in cold storage. The
cooling is accomplished by means of ice, or by a machine where
compressed gas is cooled and then permitted to expand. Examples: meat,
milk, butter, eggs, etc.
3. =By Canning.= Which is preserving in air-tight glass jars, or tin
cans hermetically sealed. When fruit is canned, sugar is usually added.
4. =By Sugar.= Examples: fruit juices and condensed milk.
5. =By Exclusion of Air.= Foods are preserved by exclusion of air in
other ways than canning. Examples: grapes in bran, eggs in lime water,
etc.
6. =By Drying.= Drying consists in evaporation of nearly all moisture,
and is generally combined with salting, except in vegetables and fruits.
7. =By Evaporation.= There are examples where considerable moisture
remains, though much is driven off. Example: beef extract.
8. =By Salting.= There are two kinds of salting,—dry, and corning or
salting in brine. Examples: salt codfish, beef, pork, tripe, etc.
9. =By Smoking.= Some foods, after being salted, are hung in a closed
room for several hours, where hickory wood is allowed to smother.
Examples: ham, beef, and fish.
10. =By Pickling.= Vinegar, to which salt is added, and sometimes sugar
and spices, is scalded; and cucumbers, onions, and various kinds of
fruit are allowed to remain in it.
11. =By Oil.= Examples: sardines, anchovies, etc.
12. =By Antiseptics.= The least wholesome way is by the use of
antiseptics. Borax and salicylic acid, when employed, should be used
sparingly.
TABLE OF MEASURES AND WEIGHTS
2 cups butter (packed solidly) = 1 pound
4 cups flour (pastry) = 1 pound
2 cups granulated sugar = 1 pound
2⅔ cups powdered cups = 1 pound
3½ cups confectioners’ sugar = 1 pound
2⅔ cups brown sugar = 1 pound
2⅔ cups oatmeal = 1 pound
4¾ cups rolled oats = 1 pound
2⅔ cups granulated corn meal = 1 pound
4⅓ cups rye meal = 1 pound
1⅞ cups rice = 1 pound
4½ cups Graham flour = 1 pound
3⅞ cups entire wheat flour = 1 pound
4⅓ cups coffee = 1 pound
2 cups finely chopped meat = 1 pound
9 large eggs = 1 pound
1 square Baker’s chocolate = 1 ounce
⅓ cup almonds blanched and chopped = 1 ounce
A few grains is less than one-eighth teaspoon.
3 teaspoons = 1 tablespoon
16 tablespoons = 1 cup
2 tablespoons butter = 1 ounce
4 tablespoons flour = 1 ounce
TIME TABLES FOR COOKING
Boiling
ARTICLES TIME
Hours Minutes
Coffee 1 to 3
Eggs, soft cooked 6 to 8
Eggs, hard cooked 35 to 45
Mutton, leg 2 to 3
Ham, weight 12 to 14 lbs. 4 to 5
Corned Beef or Tongue 3 to 4
Turkey, weight 9 lbs. 2 to 3
Fowl, weight 4 to 5 lbs. 2 to 3
Chicken, weight 3 lbs. 1 to 1¼
Lobster 25 to 30
Cod and Haddock, weight 3 to 5 lbs. 20 to 30
Halibut, thick piece, weight 2 to 3 lbs. 30
Bluefish and Bass, weight 4 to 5 lbs. 40 to 45
Salmon, weight 2 to 3 lbs. 30 to 35
Small Fish 6 to 10
Potatoes, white 20 to 30
Potatoes, sweet 15 to 25
Asparagus 20 to 30
Peas 20 to 60
String Beans 1 to 2½
Lima and other Shell Beans 1 to 1¼
Beets, young 45
Beets, old 3 to 4
Cabbage 35 to 60
Oyster Plant 45 to 60
Turnips 30 to 45
Onions 45 to 60
Parsnips 30 to 45
Spinach 25 to 30
Green Corn 12 to 20
Cauliflower 20 to 25
Brussels Sprouts 15 to 20
Tomatoes, stewed 15 to 20
Rice 20 to 25
Macaroni 20 to 30
Broiling
Steak, one inch thick 4 to 6
Steak, one and one-half inches thick 8 to 10
Lamb or Mutton Chops 6 to 8
Lamb or Mutton Chops in paper cases 10
Quails or Squabs 8
Quails or Squabs in paper cases 10 to 12
Chickens 20
Shad, Bluefish, and Whitefish 15 to 20
Slices of Fish, Halibut, Salmon, and Swordfish 12 to 15
Small, thin Fish 5 to 8
Liver and Tripe 4 to 5
Baking
Bread (white loaf) 45 to 60
Bread (Graham loaf) 35 to 45
Bread (sticks) 10 to 15
Biscuits or Rolls (raised) 12 to 20
Biscuits (baking-powder) 12 to 15
Gems 25 to 30
Muffins (raised) 30
Muffins (baking-powder) 20 to 25
Corn Cake (thin) 15 to 20
Corn Cake (thick) 30 to 35
Gingerbread 20 to 30
Cookies 6 to 10
Sponge Cake 45 to 60
Cake (layer) 20 to 30
Cake (loaf) 40 to 60
Cake (pound) 1¼ to 1½
Cake (fruit) 1¼ to 2
Cake (wedding) 3
or steam 2 hours and bake 1½
Baked batter puddings 35 to 45
Bread puddings 1
Tapioca or Rice Pudding 1
Rice Pudding (poor man’s) 2 to 3
Indian Pudding 2 to 3
Plum Pudding 2 to 3
Custard Pudding 30 to 45
Custard (baked in cups) 20 to 25
Pies 30 to 50
Tarts 15 to 20
Patties 20 to 25
Vol-au-vent 50 to 60
Cheese Straws 8 to 10
Scalloped Oysters 25 to 30
Scalloped dishes of cooked mixtures 12 to 15
Baked Beans 6 to 8
Braised Beef 3½ to 4½
Beef, sirloin or rib, rare, weight 5 lbs. 1 5
Beef, sirloin or rib, rare, weight 10 lbs. 1 30
Beef, sirloin or rib, well done, weight 5 lbs. 1 20
Beef, sirloin or rib, well done, weight 10 lbs. 1 50
Beef, rump, rare, weight 10 lbs. 1 35
Beef, rump, well done, weight 10 lbs. 1 55
Beef, (fillet) 20 to 30
Mutton (saddle) 1¼ to 1½
Lamb (leg) 1¼ to 1¾
Lamb (fore-quarter) 1 to 1¼
Lamb (chops) in paper cases 15 to 20
Veal (leg) 3½ to 4
Veal (loin) 2 to 3
Pork (chine or sparerib) 3 to 3½
Chicken, weight 3 to 4 lbs. 1 to 1½
Turkey, weight 9 lbs. 2½ to 3
Goose, weight 9 lbs. 2
Duck (domestic) 1 to 1¼
Duck (wild) 20 to 30
Grouse 25 to 30
Partridge 45 to 50
Pigeons (potted) 2
Fish (thick), weight 3 to 4 lbs. 45 to 60
Fish (small) 20 to 30
Frying
Muffins, Fritters, and Doughnuts 3 to 5
Croquettes and Fishballs 1
Potatoes, raw 4 to 8
Breaded Chops 5 to 8
Fillets of Fish 4 to 6
Smelts, Trout, and other small Fish 3 to 5
NOTE.—Length of time for cooking fish and meat does not depend so much
on the number of pounds to be cooked as the extent of surface exposed to
the heat.